LIBRARY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


Univ.  of  California 
Withdrawn 


Of  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 

OLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

DAVIS 


HANDBOOK 

OP 


MEAT    INSPECTION 

BY 

DK.  EGBERT  OSTERTAG 

PROFESSOR    IX    THE    VETERINARY    Hi«»  S9SOQL,    AT    BERLIN 


WITH  260  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  ONE  COLORED  PLATE 


AUTHORIZED   TRANSLATION 

BY 

EARLEY  VERNON  WILCOX,  A.M.,  Ph.I>. 

VETERINARY    EDITOR    EXPERIMENT  STATION   RECORD 

WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

JOHN  R.    MOHLER>  A.M.,  V.M.D. 

CHIEF  OF  PATHOLOGICAL   DIVISION-    UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY 

THIRD  EDITION 


NEW  YORK 
WILLIAM  R.  JENKINS  CO. 

PUBLISHERS 
851-853  SIXTH  AVKNUB 

1912 


Of  CALIFORNIA 

LIBRARY 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Copyright  1904,  by  William  R.  Jenkins 
Copyright,  1907,  by  Wiliiam  R.  Jenkins  Co. 


I  All  Rights^  Reserved} 


PRINTED  BY  THE 

OP  WILLIAM  R,  JENKINS  Oo. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


BY  the  passage  on  June  3,  1900,  of  the  Imperial  Law  concern- 
ing the  inspection  of  meat  and  food  animals,  meat  inspection  is  put 
upon  a  different  legal  basis  than  has  existed  heretofore.  The  new 
law,  which  crowns  with  fruition  the  endeavors  which  for  several 
decades  have  been  made  toward  the  introduction  of  general  meat 
inspection  in  the  German  Empire,  contains  stringent  provisions 
concerning  the  organization  of  meat  inspection  and  general  direc- 
tions concerning  methods  of  procedure  with  various  kinds  of 
defective  meat.  Temporarily,  however,  the  meat  inspection  law, 
except  in  two  parts,  has  not  yet  gone  into  effect.  And  in  working 
over  the  new  edition  of  the  book  I  was,  therefore,  able  to  restrict 
myself  in  the  section  on  the  legal  foundation  of  meat  inspection  to 
the  introduction  of  the  new  law,  together  with  the  commentaries 
from  official  sources,  and  in  rendering  judgment  on  meat  anomalies 
I  confined  myself  to  the  addition  of  the  qualifications  of  the  new 
law  to  the  regulations  which  had  previously  been  in  force  and  which 
had  been  based  upon  the  pure  food  law.  Attention  should  be 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  conception  of  damaged  meat  which  .liad 
become  general  before  the  decree  of  the  pure  food  law,  but  which 
was  rendered  void  by  that  law,  has  again  acquired  a  qualified 
recognition  by  the  meat  inspection  law  of  the  German  Empire. 
The  material  of  meat  inspection,  the  investigation  of  meat  and 
rendering  of  judgment  on  meat  will  be  discussed  in  the  regulations 
for  enforcing  the  law  which  at  present  rest  with  the  Federal 
Council.  In  case  an  official  publication  of  these  regulations  does 
not  appear,  I  shall  compile  them  as  a  supplement  to  my  HANDBOOK 
OF  MEAT  INSPECTION  and  publish  it  separately. 

Moreover,  the  contents  of  the  book  have  been  enlarged  and 
elaborated  according  to  the  results  of  the  literature  of  the  subject 


iii 


72107 


IV  AUTHOR  S  PREFACE 

up  to  October  1,  1901.  Especial  attention  has  been  given  to  a, 
review  of  the  subject  of  infectious  diseases  of  fish  and  crustaceans. 
The  number  of  figures  has  been  increased  by  illustrations  on  the 
recognition  of  age  in  sheep  by  the  teeth,  on  the  recognition  of  sex 
in  crustaceans,  on  the  development  of  trichina,  on  myxosporidial 
diseases  of  fish  and  by  an  illustration  of  the  refractometer.  The 
latter  is  used  in  testing  fat  of  different  origin,  and  will,  therefore,  be 
adopted  in  laboratories  of  meat  inspection.  Despite  the  increase 
in  the  contents  of  the  book,  it  has  been  possible  by  shortening  less 
important  parts  to  publish  it  in  its  previous  size. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  state  that  I  am  now  in  a  position  to 
fulfil  my  previous  promise  to  publish  a  bibliography  of  the  litera- 
ture of  meat  inspection.  This  bibliography  will  appear  in  the  near 
future. 

OSTEBTAG. 

BERLIN,  February,  1902. 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE. 


OSTERTAG'S  "Handbuch  der  Fleischbeschau "  is  generally 
recognized  as  the  most  complete  and  authoritative  treatise  on  meat 
inspection.  No  apology,  therefore,  is  necessary  for  the  present 
attempt  to  make  this  work  more  accessible  to  English-speaking 
meat  inspectors  and  veterinarians.  The  translation  was  under- 
taken immediately  after  the  appearance  of  the  fourth  German  edi- 
tion, but  has  been  somewhat  delayed  on  account  of  the  pressure  of 
other  work. 

A  few  footnotes  have  been  added  where  it  was  deemed  desir- 
able, especially  in  connection  with  the  controversial  discussion  of 
the  trichina  question.  Certain  sections  on  the  less  important  Ger- 
man laws  have  been  omitted  and  a  few  discussions  have  been  con- 
densed. 

Dr.  John  E.  Mohler,  Chief  of  the  Pathological  Division  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  in  addition  to  the  labor  involved  in 
reading  the  whole  manuscript  and  making  numerous  suggestions, 
prepared  the  Introduction,  dealing  chiefly  with  the  history  and 
present  status  of  meat  inspection  in  America.  It  was  felt  that 
American  meat  inspection  was  inadequately  treated  in  the  text, 
and  Dr.  Mohler  speaks  with  recognized  authority  on  this  subject. 

Perhaps  the  most  pleasant  duty  of  the  translator  in  connec- 
tion with  this  work  is  the  acknowledgment  of  the  unusually  excel- 
lent condition  in  which  the  publishers  have  furnished  the  proofs, 
and  of  their  uniformly  prompt  and  courteous  attention  to  all  mat- 
ters which  the  translator  has  laid  before  them. 


E.  V.  WILCOX. 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C,, 
April  7,  1904. 


PREFACE  TO  THE   SECOND   EDITION 


IN  preparing  the  "  Handbook  of  Meat  Inspection "  for  a  ne\r 
edition,  the  text  has  been  compared  throughout  with  the  latest 
Oerman  edition  and  numerous  corrections  and  emendations  have 
been  made. 

The  translator  desires  to  express  his  gratitude  to  the  public 
for  the  favorable  manner  in  which  the  Handbook  has  been  received, 
to  Dr.  Ostertag  for  his  approval  of  the  volume  in  its  English  form, 
and  to  the  publishers  for  the  skill  and  efforts  which  they  have 
devoted  to  the  make-up  of  the  book. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  Handbook  in  its  revised  form  may  be 
acceptable  to  its  friends. 

E.  V.  WILCOX. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
January,  1905. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGB 

INTRODUCTION xv 

I.— GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION , 1 

1.  Nature  and  Problems  of  Meat  Inspection 1 

2.  History 9 

3.  The  Present  Status  of  Meat  Inspection  in  Civilized  Countries 29 

4.  Practical  Execution  of  Obligatory  Meat  Inspection 36 

5.  Technical  Supervision  of  the  Meat  Traffic 50 

6.  Official      Ordinances      Concerning     the    Regulations    of   Meat 

Inspection 60 

II. — IMPERIAL  LEGAL  FOUNDATION  FOR  THE  REGULATION  OF  THE  MEAT 

TRAFFIC 63 

1.  The  Imperial  Law  Concerning  the  Inspection  of  Food  Animals 

and  Meat 63 

2.  The  Imperial  Law  Concerning  Traffic  in  Food,  Condiments  and 

Manufactured  Articles 95 

3.  The  Imperial  Law  Concerning  the  Prevention  and  Suppression 

of  Animal  Plagues 117 

4.  The  Imperial  Law  Concerning  Measures  Against  Rinderpest ....  121 

III. — THE  ART  OF  BUTCHERING,  INCLUDING  THE  INSPECTION  OF  ANIMALS 

BEFORE  SLAUGHTER 122 

1.  FoodAnimals , 122 

2.  Inspection  of  Animals  Before  Slaughter 126 

3.  Methods  of  Slaughter 130 

4.  Order  of  Procedure  in  Commercial  Slaughtering 145 

-IV.— INSPECTION  OF  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 153 

General  Discussion 153 

Chief  Points  in  Inspection 155 

Stamping  Inspected  Animals 155 

Condemnation 155 

Inspection  of  Diseased  Organs 156 

Course  of  Inspection 156 

Appendix.  — Inspection  of  Imported  Meat 160 

vii 


Till  CONTENTS 

PAGET 

V. — NORMAL  APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND  ORGANS  OF 

DIFFERENT  ANIMALS  (FLEISCHKUNDE) 166 

1.  Normal  Appearance  of  the  Different  Parts  of  Food  Animals. ...  166 

(a)  The  Skin 166 

(b)  The  blood 167 

(c)  The  Most  Important  Internal  Organs 168 

(d)  The  Bones 176 

(e)  The  Lymphatic  Glands 177 

(/)  The  Adipose  Tissue 184 

(0)  The  Skeletal  Musculature 192 

2.  Differentiation  of  the  Meat  of  Various  P'ood  Animals 198 

(a)  Color,  Consistency  and  Odor  of  the  Meat  of  Different  Food 

Animals 199 

(b)  Color  and  Consistency  of  the  Adipose  Tissue 202 

(c)  Character  of  the  Skeleton 204 

(d)  Differentiation  of  Horse    Meat    and  Beef,  According  to 

Niebel 210 

Modification  of  Niebel's  Method,  According  to  Brautigan 

and  Edelmann 214 

Modification  According  to  Courtoy  and  Coremans 216 

(e)  Demonstration  of  Horse  Meat  According  to  Hasterlik 219 

Appendix. — Differentiation  of  German  and  American  Bacon. .  220 

3.  Recognition  of  the  Age  and  Sex  of  Slaughtered  Animals  and  the 

Classification  of  Food  Animals 221 

(a)  Age 221 

(6)  Sex 228 

(c)  Classification  of  Food  Animals . .  234 

VI.— ABNORMAL   PHYSIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS  WHICH  POSSESS  SANITARY 

INTEREST 237 

1.  Immaturity 237 

2.  Meat  of  Fetuses 241 

3.  Poorness 242 

4.  Emaciation 243 

5.  Abnormal  Coloration  of  the  Adipose  Tissue 245 

6.  Abnormal  Odor  of  Meat 245 

VII. — GENERAL  PATHOLOGY  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS  FROM  THE  STANDPOINT  OF 

SANITARY  POLICE 250 

1.  Malformations 250 

2.  Dissolutions  of  Continuity 251 

3.  Atrophy  and  Hypertrophy 251 

(a)  Atrophy 251 

(b)  Hypertrophy 252 

4.  Deposition  of  Pigment  and  Lime 252 

(a)  Pigment  Deposits 252 

(6)  Calcareous  Deposits 254 

5.  Metaplasise 254 

6.  Degenerations 251 


CONTENTS  IX 

PAGE 

7.  Disturbances  of  the  Circulation 258 

8.  Transudation 258 

9.  Hemorrhages 258 

10.  Necrosis 260 

11.  Inflammations 261 

(a)  Productive  Inflammations 261 

(6)  Serous  Inflammation 262 

(c)  Purulent  Inflammation 263 

(d)  Croupous  and  Diphtheritic  Inflammation 263 

(e)  Hemorrhagic  Inflammation 264 

(/)  Inflammations  with  Putrid  Exudations • 264 

(g)  Parenchymatous  and  Interstitial  Inflammations 264 

12.  Tumors 265 

(a)  Benign  Tumors 265 

(6)  Malignant  Tumors 265 

13.  Infectious  Granulations 267 

14.  Animal  Parasites. .  267 


VIII. — ESPECIALLY  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES. 


1.  General  Integument , 268 

(a)  Cutis 268 

(6)  Subcutis 272 

2.  Digestive  Apparatus 273 

(a)  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Mouth  and  Tongue 273 

(6)  Pharynx 278 

(c)  Esophagus 279 

(d)  Stomach  and  Intestine 279 

(e)  Peritoneum 285 

(/)  Liver 291 

(g)  Pancreas 300 

3.  Urino-genital  Apparatus 301 

(a)  Kidneys 301 

(6)  Bladder  and  Urethra 309 

(c)  Male  Sexual  Organs 310 

(d)  Female  Sexual  Organs 311 

Uterus 311 

Vagina 312 

Udder 313 

4.  Respiratory  Apparatus 318 

(a)  Na?al  Cavity 318 

(6)  Larynx  and  Trachea 319 

(c)  Lungs 320 

(d)  Pleura 332 

5.  Circulatory  Apparatus 336 

(a)  Heart 336 

Pericardium  and  Epicardium 33B 

Endocardium , 337 

Myocardium 340 

(6)  Blood  Vessels 341 

6.  Lymphatic  Glands 342 

7.  Spleen 346 


3C  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

8.  Nervous  System 348 

(a)  Central  Nervous  System 348 

(6)  Peripheral  Nerves 349 

9.  Skeleton 349 

(a)  General  Diseases 350 

(6)  Local  Diseases 351 

10.  Skeletal  Musculature 355 

IX.— ANOMALIES  OF  THE  BLOOD 367 

1.  Oligemia,  Anemia 367 

2.  Hydremia 369 

3.  Leukemia 371 

4.  Hemoglobinemia , 374 

"  Black  Ischuria  "  (Azoturia)  of  the  Horse •: 374 

5.  Cholemia  (Icterus) 375- 

6.  Uremia 377 

X. — POISONING   (INTOXICATIONS),  EFFECT   OF   ODORIFIC   DRUGS  AND   So- 

OALLED  AUTO-INTOXICATIONS 379 

1.  Poisoning  (Intoxications) 379 

2.  The  Effect  of  Odorific  Drugs  on  Meat 384 

3.  So-called  Auto-Intoxications 385- 

Parturient  Paresis 386 

XL— ANIMAL  PARASITES  (INVASION  DISEASES) 389^ 

1.  Parasites  Which  are  not  Transmissible  to  Man 390 

2.  Parasites  Which  may  be  Transmitted  to  Man  by  Eating  Meat  . . .  417 

(a)  Beef  Bladder  Worm  (Cysticercus  bovis) 419 

(b)  Hog  Bladder  Worm  (C.  celluloses) 442 

(c)  Trichina  ( Trichina  spiralis} 454r 

Trichina  Inspection 48£ 

3.  Parasites  Which  are  not   Immediately  Harmful  to  Man,  but 

Which  may  Become  so  after  a  Preliminary  Change  of  Host . .  499 

(a)  Echinococci 501 

(b)  Pentastomes 51$ 

Appendix 520 

1.  Protozoa 520 

(a)  Coccidia :'.  521 

(6)  Myxosporidia 525 

(c)  Sarcosporidia - .  527 

(d)  Hematosporidia 533 

2.  So-called  Calcareous  Concretions  in  the  Musculature  of  the  Hog.  539 

(a)  Calcified  Miescher's  Sacs 540 

(6)  Calcined  Trichinae 541 

(e)  Calcified  Cysticerci 543 

(d)  Calcified  Echinococci 544 

XII.— PLANT  PARASITES  (INFECTIOUS  DISEASES) 547 

General  Account 547 

1.  Putrid  Intoxication  and  Traumatic  Infectious  Diseases 552" 

(a)  Putrid  Intoxication  (Sapremia) 552: 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGK 

(6)  Pyemia  (Generalization  of  Purulent  Processes) 556 

Special  Forms  of  Pyemia  and  their  Anatomical  Characters  563 

(c)  Septicemia 566 

Special  Forms  of  Septicemia  in  Food  Animals 570 

(d)  Malignant  Edema 574 

(e)  Tetanus 576 

2.  Infectious  Diseases  which  Occur  in  Man  as  well  as  in  Domesti- 
cated Animals 577 

(a)  Anthrax 577 

(b)  Aphchous  Fever 586 

(c)  Pox 591 

Cow  Pox 591 

Sheep  Pox 592 

(d)  Rabies 593 

(e)  Glanders 594 

(/)  Tuberculosis 601 

1.  Nature  and  Occurrence 601 

2.  Bacteriology  and  Pathogenesis 607 

3.  Clinical  Symptoms 611 

4.  Pathological  Anatomy 613 

5.  Diagnosis  and  Differential  Diagnosis 618 

6.  Local  and  Generalized  Tuberculosis 620 

7.  Examination  of  Slaughtered  Tuberculous  Animals. . .  623 

8.  Sanitary  Judgment  on  Tuberculosis 629 

(a)  Tuberculous  Organs 629 

(6)  Judgment  of  the  Meat  of  Tuberculous  Animals  634 

9.  Experiments  Concerning  the  Virulence  of  the  Meat 

of  Tuberculous  Animals 635 

10.  Criteria  Furnished  by  Experiments  Concerning  the 

Harmful  or  Harmless  Character  of  the  Meat  of 

Tuberculous  Animals , 643 

11.  Boiling  and  Sterilization  of  Tuberculous  Meat 644 

12.  Obligatory  Declaration  for  the  Meat  of  Tuberculous 

Animals  Admitted  for  Food 645 

13.  Scientific  Method    of  Procedure  with  the  Meat  of 

Tuberculous  Animals 645 

14.  Legislative  Regulations  on  the  Method  of  Procedure 

with  the  Meat  of  Tuberculous  Animals 647 

Tuberculosis  of  Birds 651 

(£)  Pseudo  Tuberculosis 652 

(n)  Actinomycosis 654 

(i)   Botryomycosis 662 

3.  Infectious  Diseases  Which  Occur  Only  in  Animals  and  are  not 

Communicable  to  Man  in  any  Form 665 

(a)  Rinderpest 665 

(6)  Malignant  Catarrhal  Fever  of  Cattle 667 

(c)  Pleuro-Pneumonia  of  Cattle 668 

(d)  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia  of  Wild  Game  and  Cattle 671 

(e)  BlackLeg 674 

(/)Braxy 677 

(g)  Diphtheria  of  Calves , 679 


Xll  CONTENTS 

PAGES 

(h)  Dysentery  of  Calves 681 

(i)   Swine  Erysipelas 683 

(fc)  Urticaria 691 

(1)  Swine  Plague 694 

(m)  Hog  Cholera 696 

Appendix. — The  most  Important  Infectious  Diseases  of  Fowls 703 

(a)  Fowl  Cholera 703 

(6)  Diphtheria  of  Fowls 705 

Concluding  Remarks  on   Diseases   of  Food  Animals    not  Above 

Mentioned 709 

XIII.— EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  SERIOUS  INFECTIOUS  DIS- 
EASES AND  MEAT  POISONING — ACCIDENTS— DEFECTIVE  BLEED- 
ING—NATURAL DEATH 710 

1.  General  Discussion  of  Emergency  Slaughter  on  Account  of  Seri- 

ous Infectious  Diseases 710 

2.  Meat  Poisoning 712 

3.  Accidents 741 

4.  Defective  Bleeding 742 

5.  Natural  Death 743 

XIV.— POST-MORTEM  ALTERATIONS  IN  MEAT 745 

1.  Phosphorescent  Meat 749 

2.  Decomposing  Meat 751 

Appendix 758 

1.  Sausage  Poisoning  (Botulism,  Allantiasis) 758 

2.  Poisoning  from  Mince  Meat : 764 

(a)  Poisoning  from  Decomposing  Fish  and  Crustacea 766 

(6)  Poisoning  from  Clams 767 

(c)   Poisoning  from  Oysters 768 

XV.— THE  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGES— COLORING  AND  INFLATION 

OF  MEAT 770 

1.  Addition  of  Flour  to  Sausages 770 

Note.     Other  Adulterations  with  Inferior  Material 782 

2.  Coloring 786 

3.  Inflation 793 

XVI.— PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 798 

1.  Chemical  Preservatives 800 

(a)  Salting  and  Pickling 800 

(6)  Smoking 807 

(c)    Preservation  with  Boric,  Sulphurous  and  Salicylic  Acids. . .  809 

1 .  Boric  Acid 809 

2.  Sulphurous  Acid 813 

3.  Salicylic  Acid 819 

2.  Preservation  by  Heat .  ^ 821 

3.  Preservation  by  Cold 824 

(a)  Refrigeration  by  Means  of  Ice 828 

(6)  Cold  Storage  Establishments  with  Mechanical  Refrigerat- 
ing Apparatus 832 

Cold  Air  Machines  . .  831 


CONTENTS  xiil 

PAGE 

Cold  Vapor  Machines 834 

Appendix 836 

1.  Location  and  Structure  of  Cold  Storage  Plants 836 

2.  Necessity  of  Cold  Storage  Plants 839 

XVII. —BOILING,  STEAM  STERILIZATION  AND  HARMLESS  DISPOSAL  OF  MEAT  841 

1.  Boiling 841 

2.  Steam  Sterilization  of  Meat 847 

3.  Harmless  Disposal  of  Meat  Absolutely  Excluded  from  Sale 854 

(a)  Simple  Burning £56 

(6)  Chemical  Treatment 856 

(c)  Steam  Sterilization  Under  High  Pressure 857 

Concluding  Remark 865 

Appendix.— Enforcement  of  Section  21  of  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspec- 
tion   Law ;_. 865 

INDEX.  .                   867 


INTRODUCTION 

[IISTOKY    AND    PRESENT    STATUS    OF    MEAT 
INSPECTION   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES 

BY 

JOHN  R.  MOHLEK,  V.M.D. 


The  problem  connected  with  the  procurement  and  maintenance 
of  a  wholesome  and  hygienic  food  supply  for  the  people  is  unques- 
tionably one  of  the  most  important  subjects  with  which  the  sanita- 
rian has  to  deal.  Public  health  demands  the  purity  of  animal  food 
products.  The  vast  quantity  of  meat  consumed  in  the  United 
States,  where  this  food-stuff  is  plentiful  and  comparatively  low  in 
price,  renders  it  of  essential  importance  that  nothing  but  innocuous 
and  nutritious  meat  products  be  placed  upon  the  market.]  The 
amount  of  meat,  per  capita,  used  annually  by  various  countries  was 
computed  by  the  British  Government  in  1890,  when  it  was  found 
that  in  the  United  States  an  average  of  119.7  pounds  was  consumed 
by  every  inhabitant,  a  ratio  surpassed  only  by  Australia,  where  meats 
are  more  abundant  and  cheaper  in  value.  To  satisfy  this  domestic 
demand  and  to  supply  the  foreign  orders  for  meat,  there  has  rapidly 
developed  in  our  midst  a  business  the  value  of  whose  products  in 
1900  was  estimated  at  over  $811,000,000,  and  which,  among  our 
immense  industries,  ranks  third  as  to  the  aggregate  worth  of  yearly 
exports.  /These  facts,  together  with  our  knowledge—  authentically 
established — of  the  communicability  to  man  of  many  animal  dis- 
eases, compel  us  to  recognize  the  urgent  demand  for  a  hygienic 
meat  supply — a  supply  that  is  clean,  wholesome  and  absolutely  free 
from  disease. 

The  foreign  sales  of  the  meat  packing  industry  at  first  included 
numerous  varieties  of  meats  and  meat  products,  and  by  1879  the 
export  trade  in  American  bacon  alone,  without  mentioning  other 
food-stuffs,  had  become  well  established,  when  the  continental  coun- 
tries became  alarmed,  seemingly  on  account  of  the  presence  of 


XV111  INTRODUCTION 

all  doubts  were  shortly  dispelled  by  the  satisfactory  performance  of 
the  work,  and  the  problem  was  efficiently  solved  by  the  persistence 
and  skill  of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the 
growing  perception  and  ripening  knowledge  of  his  assistants.  As  a 
direct  result  of  these  microscopic  examinations  of  pork  products 
which  were  subjected  to  the  keenest  scrutiny  of  the  attaches  of 
European  countries  and  favorably  reported  upon  by  them,  the  decree 
of  September  3,  1891,  was  made  by  the  German  government  after 
the  Saratoga  Convention  which  readmitted  American  pork  that  was 
officially  certified  as  having  been  microscopically  examined  before 
shipment  from  the  United  States.  Subsequently  similar  interdic- 
tions were  removed  by  Italy,  France,  Denmark  and  Austria,  and 
in  consequence  of  this  reestablished  confidence  relative  to  the  health- 
fulness  and  purity  of  the  pork  products  of  this  country  the  export 
trade  began  at  once  to  show  decided  and  gratifying  increase  and 
gradually  to  expand  and  regain  its  former  importance  and  value. 

The  beneficial  and  desirable  results  that  would  necessarily 
accrue  in  consequence  of  having  the  supervision  and  inspection  of 
the  Government  meat  inspectors  to  certify  to  the  purity  and  sound- 
ness of  the  products  of  their  abattoirs,  soon  appealed  to  and  was 
quickly  acted  upon  not  only  by  the  packers  who  sought  to  compete 
in  foreign  markets,  but  those  doing  strictly  a  local  and  interstate 
business.  The  proprietors  of  those  abattoirs  desiring  inspection 
for  their  meat  products  are  required  to  make  written  application  to 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  stating  the  kind  and  number  of  animals 
slaughtered  and  the  destination  of  the  products  thereof,  and  to 
agree  to  such  supervision  of  their  business  as  may  be  demanded  by 
the  regulations  of  the  Bureau.  On  conforming  to  such  require- 
ments the  packing  house  is  given  a  serial  number  by  which  it  and 
the  products  thereof  are  thereafter  known,  and  an  inspector  is 
placed  in  charge  of  the  plant  and  furnished  with  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  assistant  inspectors,  stock  examiners  or  taggers  to  carry  out 
the  required  inspection. 

The  extension  of  the  work  caused  by  the  enforcement  of  the  act 
of  Congress  can  not  be  fully  apreciated  or  comprehended  without 
a  knowledge  relative  to  the  importance  and  magnitude  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  successful  and  speedy  elaboration  of  many  details  which 
necessarily  required  much  labor  and  consideration  and  the  care  and 
efficiency  with  which  they  were  immediately  enforced  exceeded  all 
expectations  when  the  difficulties  and  obstacles — the  inherent  per- 
plexities of  the  question — were  considered.  Moreover,  this 
inspection  was  an  innovation  in  sanitation  in  this  country  and  was 


INTRODUCTION 

of  necessity  carried  out  principally  by  inexperienced  men  who 
^were  chosen  chiefly  on  the  strength  of  their  political  influence 
rather  than  by  the  breadth  of  their  veterinary  knowledge. 

The  next  epoch  in  the  history  of  meat  inspection  is  marked  by 
the  placing  of  all  employees  of  the  Bureau  into  the  classified  service 
by  Presidential  order.  This  took  effect  July  1,  1894,  since  which 
time  all  appointments  to  the  force  have  been  made  only  after  the 
applicant  has  passed  a  rigid  and  highly  satisfactory  examination. 
By  this  means  only  the  intelligent,  competent  and  superior  candi- 
dates are  chosen  from  the  eligible  list  by  certification  from  the  U. 
S.  Civil  Service  Commission.  Now  that  the  merit  system  is  in 
vogue,  not  only  the  personnel  of  the  Bureau  has  been  improved,  as 
would  be  expected,-  but  the  harmony  and  discipline  resulting  there- 
from is  vastly  better  than  is  possible  where  political  intrigue 
forms  a  basis  of  appointment,  promotion  and  retention.  The  first 
requisite  to  be  met  by  those  aspiring  to  the  position  of  meat  inspec- 
tor is  to  be  a  graduate  of  a  recognized  and  reputable  veterinary  col- 
lege and  then  to  pass  a  rigid  examination  that  destroys  the  ambi- 
tion of  a  large  percentage  of  applicants.  After  successfully  meeting 
these  requirements  and  receiving  an  appointment,  his  future  service 
^depends  entirely  upon  the  personal  equation  and  would  include  the 
ability,  integrity  and  discretion  with  which  his  onerous  and  multiple 
duties  are  performed. 

Previous  to  1894  the  inspection  consisted  principally  in  the 
examination  of  beef  for  export  and  the  microscopic  examination  of 
pork  destined  for  continental  Europe,  but  at  this  time,  owing  to  an 
increased  demand  for  official  inspection  of  meats,  a  similar  ante 
and  post  mortem  examination  was  extended  to  hogs  as  had  already 
been  in  operation  from  the  beginning  with  cattle.  In  the  following 
year  calves  and  sheep  were  likewise  subjected  to  inspection  both 
before  and  after  slaughter.  As  the  inspection  gradually  increased 
and  covered  a  larger  number  of  animals,  it  became  more  and  more 
important  to  obtain  sufficient  authority  from  Congress  to  dispose 
of  the  condemned  carcasses,  as  the  original  act  failed  to  grant  power 
for  the  proper  disposal  of  such  products.  The  danger  of  allowing 
condemned  meats  to  remain  undestroyed  is  palpable  when  taken 
into  consideration  with  the  limited  authority  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment regarding  the  use  of  such  carcasses  within  the  State.  That  it 
is  highly  unsatisfactory  to  the  Bureau,  as  well  as  to  the  health  of 
our  people,  to  permit  the  packer  to  have  absolute  control  over  the 
final  disposition  of  unwholesome  meats,  was  readily  appreciated, 
-especially  in  view  of  the  dearth  of  state  and  municipal  sanitary 


XI  INTRODUCTION 

authorities  vested  with  the  power  for  properly  disposing  of  these 
products.  Consequently,  Congress,  by  the  enactment  of  March  2, 
1895,  granted  full  power  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  adopt 
such  rules  and  regulations  as  would  be  necessary  to  prevent  the  use 
of  condemned  carcasses  for  export  or  interstate  traffic,  making  it  a 
misdemeanor  punishable  by  a  fine  nokexceeding  $1,000  or  imprison- 
ment not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  fine  and  imprisonment,  in 
the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  work  was  rapidly  advancing  as  the 
inspectors  became  more  thoroughly  trained  and  experienced.  New 
problems  and  duties  were  taken  up  as  fast  as  the  previous  ones  had 
been  elucidated  and  controlled,  and  the  progress  made  was  highly 
gratifying.  In  keeping  with  this  policy  of  steady  conservative 
progress,  the  service  was  extended  in  1895  by  new  legislation  to 
include  the  interstate  cattle  inspection,  and  by  1897  not  only  all 
the  beef  and  the  greater  part  of  pork  and  other  meat  products 
exported  to  Europe,  but  a  large  amount  of  meat  intended  for  inter- 
state commerce  was  inspected  in  accordance  with  the  law. 

In  the  appropriation  act  of  1898  provision  is  made  for  the  same 
ante  and  post  mortem  inspection  of  horses  and  their  products  as 
liad  been  previously  enacted  in  regard  to  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep.  It 
is  specially  stated  that  only  horses  may  be  slaughtered  in  such 
packing  houses  and  their  various  products  must  be  distinctly 
labeled  as  being  from  these  animals.  Inspection  has  been  granted 
thus  far  to  but  one  abattoir,  the  products  of  which  are  mainly,  if 
not  entirely,  shipped  to  Norway  and  Sweden. 

The  demand  for  microscopically  examined  pork  increased  rap- 
Idly,  and  in  1898, 120,272,590  pounds  of  this  product  were  exported. 
A  large  number  of  skilled  and  competent  microscopists  were  added 
to  the  inspection  force,  but  the  demand  for  microscopic  examination 
was  so  great  among  the  packers  that  the  Bureau  found  difficulty  in 
upplying  the  desired  amount  of  microscopic  inspection  for  hog 
products  intended  for  export.  The  great  increase  in  the  demand 
for  this  inspection  during  1898  and  1899  was  ably  and  successfully 
met  by  the  microscopic  force,  and  they  were  rendering  conscientious 
and  efficient  service  when  the  country  receiving  the  vast  majority  of 
our  pork  products  instituted  semi-prohibitive  regulations  which  have 
diminished  the  exportation  of  this  product  in  the  last  few  years  to 
a  very  large  degree,  until  in  1903  it  figured  only  19,108,341  pounds. 

By  perfecting  the  system  of  inspection  and  increasing  the  num- 
~ber  of  inspectors,  the  work  has  been  greatly  extended  and  rendered 
more  efficient  each  year,  until  to-day  the  scientific,  systematic  and 
.rational  system  of  meat  inspection  inaugurated  throughout  this. 


INTRODUCTION  XXI 

country  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  after  an  existence  of 
only  twelve  years,  compares  favorably  with  the  much  older  service 
of  Germany,  France.,  Denmark  and  Belgium,  and  is  pointed  to  with 
commendation  by  many  disinterested  parties  in  foreign  countries 
and  accepted  as  a  model  by  our  states  and  municipalities  in  pro- 
viding methods  of  local  inspection.  How  this  result  was  accom- 
plished has  been  ably  expressed  by  a  foreign  scientist  in  speaking 
of  the  United  States  meat  inspection  service  : 

"  The  history  of  this  organization  embodied  in  the  labor  of  Dr. 
D.  E.  Salmon  is  one  of  the  highest  examples  of  the  rare  combina- 
tion of  scientific  methods  with  executive  administration  that  has 
ever  been  witnessed."  It  may  be  added  that  among  the  many  signal 
personal  achievements  of  Dr.  Salmon's  administration  as  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  since  its  inauguration,  his  work  in 
connection  with  meat  inspection  stands  among  the  foremost,  as  he, 
and  he  alone,  crystallized  and  consolidated  it  into  a  definite  sani- 
tary force.  The  initiative,  the  determination  and  the  momentum  in 
all  matters  pertaining  to  the  advancement  and  increased  proficiency 
of  this  service  were  his,  and  it  has  now  reached  such  a  stage  of 
development  and  approach  to  uniformity  of  procedure  as  to  meet 
the  demand  of  the  most  critical. 

Thus,  commencing  with  a  small  force  of  inspectors  in  a  few 
abattoirs,  the  service  has  gradually  developed  until  at  present 
there  are  1,405  individuals  engaged  in  the  ante  and  post  mortem 
inspection  of  animals.  Of  this  number  411  are  meat  inspectors  and 
assistant  meat  inspectors,  all  of  whom  are  qualified  and  competent 
veterinarians ;  234  are  stock  examiners  and  251  taggers,  practical 
men  connected  with  some  branch  of  the  live  stock  industry  before 
receiving  their  appointments ;  233  are  microscopists  and  assistant 
microscopists ;  and  the  remainder  are  clerks  directly  associated 
with  the  work  of  inspecting  meats.  These  men  are  located  in  156 
abattoirs  and  stockyards  in  fifty  different  cities  in  the  United 
States. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  how  this  large  organization  of 
men  is  systematically  working  in  the  accomplishment  of  so  much 
good  for  the  country  both  from  an  economic  and  sanitary  stand- 
point. A  brief  survey  will  be  taken  of  the  methods  at  the  various 
abattoirs  and  stockyards  of  making  the  ante  and  post  mortem 
examination  of  the  food  producing  animals  the  products  of  which 
are  intended  for  export  or  interstate  traffic. 

Ante-mortem  examinations  are  made  of  all  animals  intended  for 
slaughter  in  packing  houses  having  federal  inspection  as  well  as  of 


XX11  INTRODUCTION 

those  which  pass  through  the  stockyards  that  are  under  Govern- 
ment supervision.  These  inspections  are  highly  important  and  a 
valuable  safeguard  to  the  health  of  the  meat  consumer,  as  there  are 
certain  diseases  and  conditions  not  attended  by  any  macroscopic 
lesions  in  the  carcass,  albeit  they  are  nocuous  and  repugnant. 
Direct  proof  of  this  is  found  in  the  literature  of  meat  poisoning,  the 
great  majority  of  which  cases  could  be  directly  traced  to  eating  the 
meat  of  cattle  slaughtered  in  emergency  without  any  noticeable 
changes  being  observed  in  the  tissues  on  post-mortem  examination. 
The  interests  of  the  live  stock  industry  also  are  protected  by  this 
examination,  since  none  but  healthy  animals  which  have  not  been, 
exposed  to  any  disease  are  permitted  to  be  shipped  from  stockyards 
to  the  farm  as  breeders  and  feeders  or  to  abattoirs  of  other  cities  not 
having  federal  inspection.  The  rigorous  character  of  this  inspection 
before  slaughter  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  ante-mortem  con- 
demnations average  about  twice  as  many  as  the  post-mortem.  In 
the  larger  packing  centers  this  inspection  is  done  in  the  yards,  on 
the  docks,  though  principally  at  the  scales,  where  all  diseased  and 
suspected  animals  are  tagged,  A  brief  description  of  their  condition 
is  recorded  and  they  are  then  held  for  final  disposition  on  post- 
mortem examination,  with  the  exception  of  those  animals  that  have 
'been  condemned  for  advanced  pregnancy  or  recent  parturition. 
These  animals  may  be  held  until  they  have  fully  recovered  from  the 
parturient  state  (ten  days)  and  then  slaughtered,  or  in  case  they  are 
not  affected  with  or  have  not  been  exposed  to  any  infectious  disease 
they  may  be  sold  for  stock  purposes. 

Animals  not  inspected  in  the  yards  are  subjected  to  an  exami- 
nation in  the  pens  of  the  packing  houses,  and  those  condemned  are 
similarly  disposed  of  as  above  with  the  permission  and  under  the 
supervision  of  the  inspector. 

Those  that  have  been  condemned  on  ante-mortem  examination 
which  fail  on  post-mortem  to  show  sufficient  lesions  to  warrant  con- 
demnation are  passed  for  food,  while  all  carcasses  not  fit  for  con- 
sumption are  tanked.  However,  there  are  a  number  of  diseases  in 
which  the  determination  of  the  healthfulness  of  the  meat  must 
depend  entirely  on  the  post-mortem  examination,  and  many  animals 
are  condemned  at  this  stage  that  have  passed  ante-mortem  inspec- 
tion. Thus  the  importance  of  these  two  associated  methods  of 
inspection  is  exemplified.  The  Bureau  regulations  which  were 
devised  to  control  the  ante  and  post  mortem  inspection  of  animals 
and  which  have  been  subsequently  supplemented  as  the  needs  of 
the  service  demanded,  are  clearly  defined,  thorough  and  most  rigid 


INTRODUCTION  XX111 

and  form  a  support  upon  which  the  inspector  may  unflinchingly 
stand  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  his  office.  To  discrimi- 
nate with  certainty  between  good  and  bad  in  the  matter  of  meat 
.supply  is  to  the  experienced  inspector  not  a  difficult  task,  when  the 
carcass  represented  is  an  extreme,  but  for  those  cases  on  the  border 
line,  the  rendering  of  a  satisfactory  and  accurate  conclusion  is  not 
•so  easy  as  at  first  sight  appears,  for  it  is  extremely  difficult  at  times 
to  say  what  should  be  accepted  and  what  rejected.  To  the  German 
inspector  it  is  not  merely  a  question  of  yes  or  no,  but  with  his  "  frei- 
Imnk"  and  the  permission  to  sell  certain  infected  meat  after  cooking, 
or  raw  meat  of  a  low  nutritious  value,  the  responsibilities  become 
divided  into  several  possible  actions  and  are  thereby  materially 
lessened.  Owing  to  the  impossibility  of  constructing  rules  cover- 
ing every  case,  and  the  difficulty  of  asserting  at  what  stage  in  its 
development  a  process  assumes  loathsome  or  a  disease  noxious 
properties,  the  decision  as  to  the  disposition  of  a  certain  number  of 
carcasses  must  be  left  to  the  discernment  and  individual  judgment 
of  the  inspector.  Moreover,  the  realization  that  all  decisions  based 
upon  the  literal  or  tolerant  interpretation  of  the  inspection  rules 
and  in  sympathy  with  them  will  be  approved  arouses  a  pleasant  and 
appreciative  feeling  and  makes  the  thorough  and  particular  knowl- 
edge of  the  regulations  an  integral  factor  in  the  proper  and  inde- 
pendent performance  of  the  inspection. 

As  there  has  been  more  or  less  discussion  and  adverse  criticism 
regarding  the  large  number  of  carcasses  which  the  Federal  inspec- 
tor examines  each  day  in  some  of  the  larger  packing  houses,  it 
might  not  be  out  of  place  to  explain  the  American  system  of  per- 
petual motion  adopted  in  such  abattoirs  and  the  methods  which 
make  it  possible  for  the  inspector  and  his  assistants  to  carefully  and 
efficiently  inspect  the  entire  killing.  The  method  of  slaughter  most 
Jfrequently  adopted  is  stunning  with  a  pole-axe,  followed  by  bleed- 
ing after  a  short  interval  has  elapsed  to  permit  of  relaxation  of  the 
blood  vessels  and,  consequently,  a  better  outflow  of  blood.  In  the 
case  of  bulls,  shooting  is  sometimes  adopted,  owing  to  their  thick 
skulls.  The  Jewish  method  of  shechtering  is  carried  on  in  certain 
abattoirs  on  specified  days.  In  the  first  instance  the  cattle  are 
driven  up  to  the  killing  pens  at  6.30  A.M.,  and  knocking  begins 
immediately.  The  animal  is  then  shackled,  hauled  through  the 
sliding  door  onto  the  bed,  hoisted  on  the  rails  of  a  suspended  tram- 
way and,  while  hanging,  is  bled  by  the  "  sticker "  making  at  the 
bottom  of  the  jugular  furrow  a  longitudinal  incision  that  severs  the 
principal  cervical  blood  vessels.  After  the  animal  has  bled  suffi- 


XXIV  INTRODUCTION 

ciently  it  is  pushed  along  by  power  or  by  hand  to  the  bed  on  which 
it  is  to  be  further  handled.  While  hanging  here  the  "headers"  skin 
the  head  and  disarticulate  it  at  the  occipto-atloid  articulation.  The 
heads  are  numbered  either  by  a  paper  tag  or  by  marking  on  the 
occipital  condyle  with  a  blue  pencil,  in  order  to  identify  the  various 
parts  of  the  carcass,  should  cause  for  condemnation  be  found.  The 
animal  is  now  lowered  and  pritched  in  position  on  its  back.  A  con- 
stant string  of  attendants  follows,  one  after  another,  in  completing 
the  work  and  turning  out  the  dressed  carcass.  First  the  "leggers" 
take  charge  and  remove  the  hind  legs  at  the  hock  and  the  fore  legs 
at  the  knee.  Immediately  after  this  the  floorsman  or  "sider" 
skins  the  animal  down  as  far  as  he  can  work  towards  the 
floor.  The  "  caul-puller "  now  comes  along  and  makes  an  inci- 
sion from  throat  to  anus  and  removes  the  caul  fat  from  the 
abdomen,  placing  it  in  a  box  corresponding  to  the  number  of 
the  bed  upon  which  the  animal  is  lying.  Another  butcher  follows 
and  "loosens  up"  the  esophagus  and  trachea  and  saws  through 
the  sternum.  The  hooks  of  the  spreader  on  the  hoist  are  then 
placed  in  the  ligaments  back  of  the  hocks  and  the  animal  dragged 
into  a  semi-vertical  position  for  skinning  the  buttocks  and  cutting 
off  the  tail.  The  latter  is  also  retained  and  marked  for  recog- 
nition. After  hoisting  to  a  perpendicular  position,  the  "backer" 
finishes  skinning  the  animal.  The  "gutter,"  working  simultaneously, , 
eviscerates  the  carcass  by  starting  with  the  rectum  and  following 
the  sublumbar  attachments  down  to  the  liver,  pulling  the  paunch 
down  and  cutting  all  attachments  with  one  circular  sweep  of  the 
knife.  The  liver  is  next  loosened  by  the  hand  and  attachments  cut 
by  one  stroke  of  the  knife.  Two  circular  incisions  are  made,  start- 
ing from  the  superior  and  middle  attachments  of  the  diaphragm, 
but  in  opposite  directions,  following  the  tendinous  portion  of  the 
diaphragm  to  its  lowest  or  suprasternal  portion.  This  opens  up  the 
thoracic  cavity.  The  lungs  are  now  seized  by  their  subdorsal  border 
and  one  long  stroke  following  the  aorta  removes  the  lungs  and  heart, 
which,  together  with  the  other  viscera,  are  now  inspected.  The 
rump  sawyer  next  follows  and  divides  the  carcass  from  the  coccyx 
to  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  The  splitter  with  a  large  cleaver  then 
continues  splitting  the  animal  in  halves,  ending  at  the  base  of  the 
neck.  The  carcass  is  now  hoisted  on  two  rails  with  sliding  pulley 
hooks  and  shoved  over  about  twelve  feet,  where  the  neck  man  or 
hide  dropper  finishes  cutting  the  hide  from  the  neck,  after  which, 
another  helper  splits  the  cervical  vertebrae,  thus  completely  sepa- 
rating the  two  halves.  The  latter  are  then  pushed  about  ten  feet 


INTRODUCTION  .     XXV 

further,  where  the  trimmers  cut  off  all  ragged  pieces  of  flesh  or 
bruised  parts,  trim  out  the  spinal  cord  and  pump  the  blood  out  of 
the  four  quarters  by  moving  the  fore  legs  up  and  down  rapidly  and 
scraping  the  blood  clots  from  the  vessels  with  the  hollow  of  the 
hand.  The  carcass  is  now  turned  over  to  the  washers,  who  scrub 
and  wash  it  with  very  hot  water,  and  finish  by  wiping  it  dry  with 
towels.  In  case  the  inspection  has  not  revealed  any  disease,  the 
carcass  is  marked  by  placing  a  gelatinized  label  bearing  the  words 
"  U.  S.  Inspected  "  and  a  serial  number  in  indelible  ink,  which  can 
not  again  make  an  imprint,  in  the  region  of  the  rump,  flank, 
plate  and  shoulder  of  each  half  of  the  carcass.  This  mark  signifies 
that  the  meat  has  been  carefully  inspected  according  to  law  and 
passed.  Exceptions  to  this  method  of  labeling  healthy  meat  are 
made  with  those  carcasses  that  are  intended  for  the  cutting  room 
or  are  used  for  canning  purposes  in  the  same  abattoir.  Those  car- 
casses to  be  shipped  in  sealed  cars  to  another  official  abattoir  for 
canning  or  other  purposes  are  likewise  not  labeled  nor  stamped. 
After  hanging  for  fifteen  minutes  the  meat  is  run  into  the  coolers  to« 
be  ripened  for  local  use,  interstate  trade  or  for  export.  The  head, 
tail  and  caul  are  then  removed  to  other  parts  of  the  building,  the 
livers  are  placed  in  special  boxes  and  the  remaining  viscera  are 
thrown  into  a  carrier  to  be  removed.  To  perform  this  work  requires 
about  50  butchers  and  from  40  to  45  men  who  wash  and  trim  carcasses 
and  60  helpers  to  clean  floors,  move  wagons,  carry  away  offal  and 
perform  other  miscellaneous  work.  In  the  above  described  manner, 
this  force  of  men  in  an  abattoir  in  this  country  may  kill  and  dress 
between  six  and  seven  rounds  of  cattle  in  an  hour,  which  means  an 
average  of  130  carcasses  per  hour  on  18  or  20  beds.  By  the  latter 
term  is  understood  a  portion  of  the  killing  floor  opposite  to  each 
knocking  pen  on  which  the  animal  is  bled,  eviscerated  and  dressed. 
The  20  beds  are  arranged  in  a  continuous  series,  the  workmen 
starting  on  the  first  bed  and  going  down  to  No.  20,  by  which  time 
the  No.  1  carcass  has  been  hung  up  and  out  of  way  for  the  next 
"  run."  In  abattoirs  where  28  beds  are  in  use,  two  gangs  of  butchers 
and  two  sets  of  inspectors  are  used  to  perform  the  work.  The 
inspector  takes  his  stand  with  the  gutter  and  passes  down  the  line 
at  his  elbow,  watching,  feeling  and  examining  all  suspicious  indica- 
tions. Surely  such  an  inspection  made  by  a  man  skilled  in  his  line 
will  enable  him  to  find  any  lesion  or  condition  which  is  sufficiently 
extensive  or  repulsive  to  warrant  condemnation,  and  his  ability  to 
perform  this  task  is  no  more  remarkable  nor  startling  than  the  accu- 
racy, deftness,  familiarity  and  speed  which  we  expect  of  any  other 


XXVI  INTRODUCTION 

skilful  and  experienced  person  in  another  vocation.  When  disease 
is  observed  in  a  carcass,  a  red  tag  bearing  the  words  "Condemned 
meat"  is  immediately  attached  to  it  with  a  lead  and  wire  seal. 
The  head,  tail  and  caul  fat  pertaining  to  it  are  secured  and  similarly 
marked  with  condemnation  tags.  After  the  carcass  has  been 
"halved,"  all  portions  of  the  body  are  placed  in  a  special  room 
of  the  building  reserved  for  condemned  meats  to  await  a  more 
leisurely  and  extensive  examination  by  the  inspector.  The  latter 
always  has  an  assistant  at  hand,  and  while  the  one  is  away  looking 
after  the  saving  of  the  various  parts  of  the  diseased  carcass,  the 
other  continues  along  with  the  gutter. 

Calves  and  sheep  are  inspected  both  ante  and  post  mortem 
under  the  same  conditions  and  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  the 
animals  already  mentioned. 

The  principal  conditions  requiring  condemnation  are  mentioned 
in  the  Bureau  Regulations  and  include:  Hog  cholera,  swine 
plague,  anthrax,  rabies,  malignant  epizootic  catarrh,  septicemia  and 
pyemia,  advanced  form  of  scabies  and  actinomycosis,  inflammation 
of  the  lungs,  pleura,  intestines  or  peritoneum,  Texas  fever,  general- 
ized or  extensive  tuberculosis,  advanced  pregnancy  or  recent 
parturition,  any  disease  or  injury  causing  pyrexia  or  otherwise 
rendering  the  flesh  unwholesome ;  those  organs  or  portions  of 
carcasses  which  are  badly  bruised  or  affected  with  tuberculosis, 
actinomycosis,  cancer,  or  other  malignant  tumors  and  abscesses,, 
suppurating  sores  and  tapeworm  cysts ;  immature  or  unborn 
animals;  those  animals  too  emaciated  and  anemic  to  produce 
healthy  meat ;  distemper,  glanders  and  farcy,  and  other  malignant 
disorders,  acute  inflammatory  lameness  and  extensive  fistula. 

Other  causes  for  condemnation  occasionally  met  with  are  para- 
sitic ictero-hematuria  and  caseous  lymphadenitis  of  sheep,  Hodg- 
kin's  disease  or  pseudo-leukemia,  inflammation  of  the  genito-urinary 
tract  and  hernias.  Hogs  affected  with  urticaria,  tinea  tonsurans, 
demodex  folliculorum  and  erythema  are  usually  passed  after  de- 
taching and  tanking  the  rind. 

If  an  animal  is  found  to  be  affected  with  any  of  the  above  con- 
ditions the  carcass  and  organs  belonging  to  it  are  tagged  and 
removed  as  above  mentioned  to  a  room  provided  for  this  purpose, 
the  key  to  which  is  only  in  possession  of  the  inspector  or  his 
assistant.  When  these  meats  are  to  be  destroyed  they  are  placed, 
together  with  a  certain  amount  of  floor  scrapings,  intestinal  con- 
tents and  other  filthy  substances,  in  the  offal  or  fertilizer  tank,  the 
top  and  bottom  of  which  are  sealed  with  copper  wire  and  lead  seals 


INTRODUCTION  xriVil 

by  a  federal  inspector.  Steam  is  immediately  turned  on  and  the 
meat  is  destroyed  for  food  purposes  under  the  supervision  of  this 
officer. 

If  only  isolated  muscles  or  portions  of  the  carcass  are  to  be 
destroyed  as  a  result  of  unhealthful  properties  or  repulsive  appear- 
ances, the  carcass  is  usually  removed  to  the  cooling  room  with  the 
condemnation  tag  upon  it,  and  when  properly  chilled  the  affected 
parts  are  detached  and  tanked  while  the  condemnation  tag  on  the 
remainder  of  the  carcass  is  removed  and  the  regular  inspection 
label  placed  upon  the  various  parts. 

This  condemnation  of  meat  for  human  food  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  the  animal  producing  the  meat  was  diseased.  Such 
action  may  have  been  due  to  various  causes,  as  fatigue,  asphyxia- 
tion, immaturity,  parasitism  not  transmissible  to  man  and  other 
repugnant  conditions,  which,  although  they  may  not  prevent  the 
consumption  of  the  meat  with  impunity,  still  are  loathsome  to  the 
American  people,  who  desire  to  eat  only  palatable  meat  of  known 
quality.  This  is  attested  by  the  various  laboratories  in  the  country 
occasionally  receiving  specimens  of  tainted  or  discolored  meats  with 
letters  from  parties  requesting  advice  concerning  their  wholesome- 
ness.  Such  meat  is  always  a  source  of  serious  apprehension  to 
the  American  public,  who  do  not  care  to  eat  meat,  even  if  whole- 
some, should  it  present  an  offensive  appearance,  and  this  senti- 
mental feeling  is  respected  by  the  inspectors. 

In  making  a  post-mortem  examination  of  hogs  two  systems  of 
inspection  are  enforced.  One  method  is  for  the  smaller  abattoirs 
where  the  number  of  hogs  killed  per  hour  is  comparatively  small. 
One  inspector  can  readily  examine  all  these  carcasses  from  the 
position  he  assumes  on  the  bench  beside  the  workman  who 
eviscerates  them.  The  second  method  in  vogue  is  where  the  killing 
numbers  300  to  500  per  hour  and  consists  of  the  inspector  stationed 
as  above  together  with  a  colleague  who  is  placed  beside  the  scrap- 
ing bench  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  cervical  lymph  glands 
of  every  carcass  after  the  header  has  cut  behind  the  jaws.  This 
inspection  is  principally  to  determine  the  presence  of  tubercular 
infection  that  might  inadvertently  pass  by  the  second  inspector  on 
account  of  the  lesions  not  being  very  prominent.  Frequently  it 
brings  to  light  incipient  cases  which  show  the  lesions  only  in  the 
glands  of  this  region.  In  case  any  alteration  is  observed  or  felt  by 
the  inspector,  a  previously  devised  mark,  usually  a  cut  on  the  right 
leg,  is  made,  or  a  condemnation  card  attached  by  means  of  a  hog 
ring  and  ringer,  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  the  special  attention  of 


XXV111  INTRODUCTION 

his  colleagues  on  the  bench  to  this  particular  carcass.  By  this 
system  of  examination  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  and  efficient  in- 
spection is  obtained  and  readily  accounts  for  the  large  number  of 
hog  carcasses  per  hour  which  it  is  possible  successfully  to  examine 
in  this  country. 

Some  inexperienced  persons  have  thought  this  must  be  a 
superficial  inspection,  their  misgivings  being  due  merely  to  the  fact  t 
that  one  or  two  inspectors  could  examine  -such  a  large  number  of 
carcasses  per  hour  ;  but  such  doubts  have  been  quickly  dispelled  in 
those  who  have  been  sufficiently  ;nterested  to  make  personal 
observations.  Unlike  the  old  method  of  individual  slaughter  in 
vogue  in  many  foreign  abattoirs,  where  the  inspector  must  go  to 
each  animal  which  is  slaughtered,  bled,  eviscerated  and  dressed  by 
one  or  two  butchers,  the  method  of  handling  the  carcasses  in  this 
country  is  according  to  the  combination  or  division  of  labor  system, 
and  unfamiliarity  with  these  methods  may  probably  account  for  the 
incorrect  views  held  by  some  regarding  this  inspection.  Their 
style  of  slaughter  is  not  conducive  to  the  performance  of  such  a  vast 
amount  of  work  as  in  this  country,  nor  is  their  inspection  force  so  well 
organized  as  in  the  United  States.  Thus  at  Mannheim,  where  one 
of  the  finest  abattoirs  in  Germany  exists,  the  method  of  killing  a 
steer  by  the  percussion  mask  requires  more  time  than  would  be  con- 
sumed in  killing  eight  similar  animals  in  one  of  our  large  abattoirs, 
and  the  number  of  cattle  slaughtered  there  during  the  entire 
year  of  1901  was  16,338,  an  amount  which  one  of  the  larger  abattoirs 
in  this  country  will  have  to  its  credit  within  two  weeks.  In  the 
German  abattoir  the  inspector  usually  has  his  own  laboratory  and 
much  of  his  time  is  occupied  in  preparing  tissues  and  in  the 
microscopical  diagnosis  of  lesions  upon  which  he  may  desire  infor- 
mation. In  the  United  States  the  time  of  the  inspector  is  wholly 
occupied  by  making  gross  examinations  and  thereby  he  is  enabled 
to  inspect  a  much  larger  number  of  carcasses  than  if  it  were  neces- 
sary for  him  to  spend  a  portion  of  his  time  over  microscopical  or 
bacteriological  study  of  suspected  tissues.  In  case  such  an  exami- 
nation is  necessary,  the  carcass  is  at  once  tagged  and  placed  in  the 
retaining  room,  specimens  of  the  organs  and  affected  tissues  are 
expressed  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  for  investigation,  and  if  an 
exceptional  case,  the  disposition  of  the  carcass  may  be  determined 
on  obtaining  the  diagnosis.  Lesions  concerning  which  a  confirma- 
tion of  diagnosis  is  desired,  or  other  information  regarding  their 
nature  is  requested,  are  likewise  sent  to  Washington  for  exami- 
nation. 


INTRODUCTION  XX1X1 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  how  the  slaughtering  of  swine  is 
accomplished,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  pigs  having  been  driven, 
io  the  killing  pens,  a  chain  is  placed  around  the  hind  leg  of  one  of 
the  animals  and  attached  to  one  of  a  series  of  constantly  moving 
arms  on  a  so-called  Ferris  wheel,  which  elevates  the  pig  from  the 
pen  and  places  it  on  an  inclined  rail.  The  struggles  of  the  animal 
carry  it  before  the  "sticker,"  who  makes  a  small  incision  in  the 
median  line  of  the  neck  directed  toward  the  thorax  and  severing 
the  larger  cervical  blood  vessels.  When  the  animal  dies,  the  body 
is  placed  in  scalding  water  and  then  pulled  through  an  automatic 
scraping  machine  where  it  is  relieved  of  most  of  its  hair.  This 
scraping  is  completed  by  men  along  the  scraping  bench,  after  which 
the  head  is  cut  almost  away  from  the  body  and  the  inspector 
examines  the  cervical  lymph  glands.  The  hog  is  then  hung  on 
the  track  of  a  suspended  tramway  by  means  of  a  pulley  which  is 
provided  with  a  double  hook  and  fastened  to  the  gambrel  stick. 
The  carcass  is  here  eviscerated  and  during  this  process  carefully 
examined  by  the  inspector,  who  is  placed  at  such  a  point  on  the 
killing  floor  that  all  the  eviscerating  goes  on  directly  in  front  of 
him  and  so  near  the  body  that  he  can  examine  with  his  hand  any 
lesion  his  eye  might  detect.  His  position  also  commands  a  view 
of  the  run  before  reaching  him  and  of  the  line  after  the  carcasses 
have  passed  onward.  Beside  him  is  a  table,  upon  which  various 
organs  are  placed,  and  in  those  cases  where  lesions  are  apparent, 
these  viscera  are  tagged  and  held,  as  are  also  the  carcasses,  for  a 
more  elaborate  examination  after  the  killing  has  ceased,  when  the 
proper  disposition  of  those  condemned  is  finally  made.  The 
healthy  carcasses  are  then  passed  along  the  rail  through  the 
shower-bath  and  thence  to  the  cooling  room. 

All  packages,  cans,  boxes,  kegs,  tierces  and  other  vessels  con- 
taining meat  products  from  the  inspected  carcasses  are  required  to 
be  labeled  with  the  number  of  the  official  abattoir  whence  they 
originated  and  with  the  declarationlthat  they  were  inspected  accord- 
ing to  law.  When  the  chief  inspector  is  perfectly  satisfied  in  this 
regard  and  also  that  they  are  pure  and  healthful,  he  has  all  pack- 
ages intended  for  shipment  properly  marked  with  the  white  meat 
inspection  stamps  bearing  serial  numbers.  They  are  thereupon 
immediately  cancelled  and  the  product  is  ready  for  commerce. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  ante  and  post  mortem  inspection  of 
hogs  a  microscopic  examination  for  trichina  is  made  of  all  swine 
the  products  of  which  are  exported  to  those  countries  that  demand 
this  inspection  as  a  prerequisite  for  the  admission  of  such  meats. 


XXX  INTRODUCTION 

After  the  hog  has  passed  an  ante  and  post  mortem  examination  the 
carcass  is  moved  to  the  cooling  room,  where  three  samples  of  muscle 
are  taken  by  one  of  the  government  employees  from  the  prescapular 
region,  the  pillar  of  the  diaphragm  and  from  the  psoas  muscle. 
Where  the  liver  or  tongue  is  to  be  exported  a  sample  of  this  organ 
is  likewise  taken  for  special  examination.  The  specimens  are 
placed  in  a  small  tin  box,  which  contains  a  duplicate  tag  to  the  one 
fastened  upon  the  carcass  from  which  the  samples  were  taken.  The 
boxes  are  then  carried  to  the  microscopic  room,  where  they  are  care- 
fully examined  by  the  microscopist  and  his  assistants.  Small  por- 
tions of  each  of  the  three  muscles  are  snipped  off  and  prepared  by 
mincing  into  three  thin,  evenly-distributed  translucent  mounts  held 
together  in  a  compressor.  Each  preparation  is  then  examined 
separately  under  low  magnification  by  placing  it  in  a  frame  on  a 
mechanical  stage  of  a  microscope.  By  means  of  a  specially  con- 
structed stage  this  frame  which  holds  the  compressor  is  made  to- 
run  up  and  down  on  two  parallel  grooves  and  by  means  of  a  saw- 
tooth arrangement  at  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  stage,  the  compres- 
sor is  forced  onward,  with  mechanical  precision,  so  that  each  field 
overlaps  another.  Therefore,  every  portion  of  the  preparation  must 
necessarily  be  in  the  field  at  some  time  during  the  examination.  No 
microscopist  is  permitted  to  examine  more  than  eighty  slides  per 
day  and  the  work  performed  is  always  subject  to  the  re-examination 
of  the  one  in  charge  of  this  work.  In  case  living  trichinae  or  non- 
disintegrated  dead  trichinae  are  found  in  the  mounts,  the  sample  is. 
marked  "0"  and  the  carcass  is  taken  from  the  cooling  room  and 
rendered  into  lard  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  150°  F.  or  turned 
into  prepared  meats  by  boiling  until  the  interior  is  completely 
cooked.  Those  preparations  in  which  degenerated  or  calcified 
trichinae  or  trichinae  cysts  or  any  substance  which  causes  the  least 
suspicion,  owing  to  its  similarity  to  the  above,  are  marked  "B,"  and 
the  meat  of  the  carcass  is  withheld  from  shipment  to  those  countries 
that  require  microscopic  inspection,  although  free  to  be  used  in 
other  trade.  When  the  microscopist  has  found  an  absence  of 
trichina,  trichina-like  cysts  or  any  suspicious  bodies,  the  prepara- 
tions are  marked  "A,"  and  the  carcasses  represented  are  used  for 
filling  the  orders  of  those  governments  demanding  trichina-free 
pork.  Before  this  microscopically  examined  meat  is  taken  out  of 
the  cooler  to  be  cut  up,  all  the  rejected  carcasses  must  be  withdrawn 
and  placed  by  themselves  to  be  treated  as  above  mentioned.  All 
other  meats  in  the  cutting  room  are  put  away  and  the  tables,  chutes,, 
blocks  and  carriers  cleared  of  all  pork  previously  handled.  The 


INTRODUCTION 


XXXl 


cutting  up  of  the  meat  is  then  begun  under  the  supervision  of  a 
government  official,  after  which  it  is  placed  in  a  cellar  to  be  cured 
and  stored  prior  to  shipment  as  trichina-free  products.  No  other 
meats  are  allowed  in  this  cellar,  which  is  securely  locked  and  the 
key  retained  by  one  of  the  government  employees,  who  keeps  an 
exact  list  of  all  meats  coming  into  and  going  from  the  cellar.  When, 
the  microscopically  inspected  pork  has  been  cured,  smoked  or 
otherwise  prepared,  it  is  packed  in  barrels,  boxes  or  other  packages 
upon  which  purple  meat  inspection  stamps  are  placed  in  grooved 
spaces  and  covered  with  tin,  to  prevent  them  from  being  scraped  off. 
A  purple  certificate  of  inspection  is  then  issued  by  the  inspector  in 
charge,  stating  the  name  of  the  consignor,  consignee,  destination 
and  description  of  the  packages  and  the  numbers  of  the  purple 
stamps  thereon.  It  will  thus  be  observed  that  from  the  time  when 
the  samples  of  muscles  are  taken  from  the  hogs  for  microscopic 
examination,  until  the  meat  is  packed  and  stamped  for  export,  the 
entire  proceeding  is  under  the  active  and  vigilant  supervision  of  a 
government  employee. 

The  following  tables  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  for  1903  show  in  a  vivid  and  convenient 
form  the  development  of  federal  meat  inspection  from  its  establish- 
ment to  the  present  time  and  include  the  number  of  abattoirs  and 
cities  having  inspection,  the  number  of  animals  inspected,  the 
amount  of  microscopically  examined  pork  exported  and  the  total 
cost  of  each  ante-mortem  examination. 

NUMBER  OF  ESTABLISHMENTS  AND  CITIES  WHERE  INSPECTION  WAS  CONDUCTED 
FISCAL  YEARS  1891  TO  1903 


FISCAL  YEAR 

NUMBER 
OF  ES- 
TABLISH- 
MENTS 

NUMBER 

OF 

CITIES 

FISCAL  YEAR 

NUMBER 
OF  ES- 
TABLISH- 
MENTS 

NUMBER 

OF 

CITIES 

1891  

9 

6 

1898  

135 

35 

1892  

28 

12 

1899  

139 

42 

1893  

37 

16 

1900.  . 

149 

46 

1894  

46 

17 

1901  

157 

52 

1895  

59 

19 

1902.  . 

155 

50 

1896  

102 

26 

1903  

156 

50 

1897  

128 

33 

The  following  shows  the  exports  of  pork  to  countries  requiring 
certificates  of  microscopic  inspection  from  1892  to  1903  : 


XXX11 


INTRODUCTION 


Pounds 

1892    22,025,698 

1893 8,059,758 

1894 18,845,119 

1895 39,355,230 

1896 21,497,321 

1897 43,570,527 


Pounds 

120,110,356 

1899 108,858,149 

1900 55,809,626 

1901 35,942,402 

1902 33,681,229 

1903 19,108,341 


The  following  shows  the  cost  of  each  ante-mortem  inspection 
from  1893  to  1902,  inclusive  : 


1893  

Cents 
4.75 

1898  

Cents 
.  o  80 

1894  

1.75 

1899  

88 

1895  

1.10 

1900  

95 

1896  

95 

1901  

1  01 

1897  .  . 

.91 

1902  .  . 

1.08 

NUMBER  OF  ANIMALS  INSPECTED  AT  SLAUGHTER  FOR  ABATTOIRS  HAVING  INSPECTION 
FISCAL  YEARS  1891  TO  1903 


FISCAL  YEAR 

CATTLE 

CALVES 

SHEEP 

HOGS 

HORSES 

TOTAL 

1891 

83  889 

83  889 

1892 

3  167,000 

59,089 

583,361 

3  809  459 

1893 

3  922,079 

92,947 

870,512 

4  885  538 

1894 

3  861  594 

96  333 

1,020  764 

7  618  146 

12  626  835 

1895 

3  704  042 

116,093 

1  428  601 

13  616  539 

18  868  275 

1896 

3  985  484 

256  905 

4  629  796 

14  250  191 

v 

23  122  376 

1897 

4  242  216 

273  124 

5  209  161 

16  808  771 

26  533  272 

1898  .  . 

4,418,738 

244,330 

5,496,904 

20,893,199 

31  053  171 

1899  

4,382,020 

246,184 

5,602,096 

23,836  943 

3  332 

34  071  575 

1900  
1901  
1902  
1903 

4,841,166 
5,219,149 
5,559,969 
6  134,410 

315,693 
413,830 
555,836 

668  855 

b,119,886 
6,639,212 

7,434,878 
8  585  960 

23,339,884 
24,642,753 
25,277,107 
21  793  738 

4,559 
1,992 
1,649 
344 

34,619,188 
36,916,936 
38,829,439 
37  183  307 

The  subject  of  meat  inspection  thus  far  considered  has  dealt 
only  with  the  Federal  system,  as  this  is  freely  conceded  to  be  the 
highest  type  of  rational  inspection  existing  in  the  United  States  and 
the  regulations  controlling  it  are  frequently  drawn  upon  in  inagur- 
ating  local  inspections.  The  other  forms  found  in  this  country  are 
the  local  or  municipal  inspection  and  the  state  inspection.  Before 
the  act  creating  a  system  of  meat  inspection  under  Federal  super- 
vision was  adopted,  several  states — as  Indiana,  Minnesota,  Col- 
orado, etc. — had  so-called  meat  inspection  laws,  although  they 
principally  provided  for  an  inspection  of  the  living  animals  in  the 


INTRODUCTION  XXX111 

stockyards.  Certain  cities,  such  as  Boston,  Detroit,  Washington, 
etc.,  likewise  inaugurated  more  or  less  valuable  laws  pertaining  to  a 
pure  meat  supply,  but  it  was  not  until  after  the  enforcement  of  the 
Federal  act  on  this  subject  that  more  comprehensive  and  efficient 
municipal  and  state  inspection  laws  began  to  appear,  and,  what  is 
better,  were  enforced,  encouraged  as  they  were  by  the  intelligent 
and  successful  work  performed  by  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
Among  the  most  estimable  of  these  laws  for  municipalities  will  be 
found  those  governing  the  meat  supply  of  New  Orleans,  La.,  and 
Montgomery,  Ala.,  which  provide  for  public  slaughter  under  the 
supervision  of  meat  inspectors  connected  with  the  Board  of  Health, 
and  every  piece  of  meat  inspected  and  put  on  the  market  must  bear 
the  official  inspection  stamp.  The  recent  law  passed  by  the  Mon- 
tana legislature  must  be  considered  as  an  excellent  type  of  what 
each  state  should  adopt  and  then  honestly  and  efficiently  enforce. 
By  this  broad  and  lucid  law  every  city  in  the  state  having  a  popu- 
lation of  5,000  or  over  is  required  to  have  a  system  of  meat 
inspection  under  the  direction  of  a  competent  sanitary  officer  who 
must  be  a  graduate  of  a  recognized  veterinary  college. 

The  necessity  for  state  and  municipal  inspection  may  be  appre- 
ciated when  it  is  understood  that  the  government  has  no  power  to 
inspect  meats  that  do  not  leave  the  confines  of  the  state.  The  facts 
are,  however,  that  in  localities  where  abattoirs  have  federal  inspec- 
tion, much  of  the  meat  used  for  city  trade  or  for  shipment  within 
the  state  as  well  as  the  large  majority  of  the  products  which  enter 
the  interstate  commerce  is  inspected  by  the  government.  But  meat 
inspected  may  become  contaminated,  be  subjected  to  unsanitary 
conditions,  or  become  putrid  or  repulsive  from  various  causes  after 
it  has  passed  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  federal  inspector.  It  is 
therefore  important  that  municipal  and  state  inspection  laws  be  on 
the  statutes  to  take  cognizance  of  such  unhygienic  conditions  or 
changes  in  the  flesh  and  to  require  market  inspection  in  addition  to 
ante  and  post  mortem  examination.  However,  the  great  danger 
that  menaces  the  public  health  arises  not  so  much  from  meat  con- 
taminated after  inspection  as  from  uninspected  meat  produced 
in  the  numerous  unclean  and  ill-smelling  private  slaughterhouses 
so  frequently  found  on  the  outskirts  of  a  number  of  our  cities.  To 
control  the  latter  and  to  control  them  efficiently  it  is  essential  that 
laws  be  enacted  for  the  proper  supervision  of  these  establishments,, 
which  kill  at  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night  as  inclination  dictates- 
or  necessity  demands.  The  regulations  thereof  should  insist  that 
the  viscera  and  their  lymphatic  glands  must  be  retained  after  their 


INTRODUCTION 

removal  from  the  carcass  until  examined  by  the  inspector  and  their 
connection  with  tne  carcass  appropriately  noted.  Inspection  that 
includes  merely  the  dressed  carcass  is  unworthy  of  the  name  and 
extremely  delusive,  as  it  gives  a  false  impression  of  security  to  the 
consumer.  These  houses  should  also  be  compelled  to  kill  only  on 
certain  days  or  hours  in  order  to  permit  the  inspector  to  be  present. 
All  the  butchers  should  be  licensed  and  likewise  their  abattoirs, 
which  should  come  up  to  a  certain  prescribed  standard.  A  far 
better  law,  and  one  which  would  receive  the  endorsement  of  all 
sanitarians,  would  ordain  the  abolition  of  these  small  buildings  and 
the  establishment  of  a  public  slaughterhouse,  as  in  Montgomery, 
Ala.,  remote  from  the  center  of  the  city  and  its  business  section  and 
where  a  thorough  inspection  by  a  veterinarian  could  be  made  of 
all  animals.  Such  an  abattoir  under  rigid,  though  rational  restric- 
tions, would  be  beneficial  not  only  in  facilitating  the  business  but 
in  promoting  the  sanitary  interests  of  the  city,  as  all  the  offal 
could  be  disposed  of  at  once  and  all  portions  of  the  carcass  not 
edible  could  be  reduced  to  inoffensive  articles  of  commerce. 

In  some  cities  where  the  inspection  is  enforced  by  laymen,  such, 
as  butchers,  cattlemen,  or  men  even  more  disconnected  with  the 
practical  part  of  the  work,  the  result  is  seriously  handicapped  on 
account  of  their  inability  to  recognize  lesions  that  at  once  would 
appeal  to  one  trained  in  the  anatomy,  physiology  and  pathology  of 
the  domesticated  animals  and  in  the  relationship  existing  between 
their  diseases  and  human  health.  If  an  adequate  reason  for  muni- 
cipal inspection  exists,  and  no  one  of  intelligence  will  deny  it,  this 
should  possess  equal  strength  for  having  the  law  intelligently  and 
efficiently  enforced  by  capable  officers  of  the  law,  trained  in  the 
knowledge  of  sanitation  and  comparative  medicine.  The  plea  that 
such  men  are  not  available  is  becoming  more  untenable  every  day, 
as  meat  inspection  has  made  such  rapid  progress  and  has  now 
reached  such  an  important  position  that  all  the  leading  veterinary 
colleges  in  this  country  have  provided  this  chair  and  have  filled  it 
with  experienced  veterinarians  who  in  many  cases  give  practical 
abattoir  demonstrations.  It  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  every 
town  and  city  of  any  size  will  arise  from  their  sanitary  lethargy. 
as  a  direct  result  of  the  education  of  public  opinion  along  this 
line,  and  will  have  an  organized  and  compulsory  system  of  muni- 
cipal inspection  supervised  by  one  skilled  in  veterinary  science. 
And  the  adoption  as  well  as  the  success  of  such  inspection  will 
depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  interest  shown  and  the  support 
given  it  by  the  people  of  the  country,  for  whose  health  and, 


INTRODUCTION  XXXV 

^well-being  the  conscientious  inspector  will  give  his  constant  sur- 
veillance. 

Perhaps  of  all  parts  of  the  field  of  veterinary  publication  in  Eng- 
lish there  is  none  so  poorly  supplied  as  that  which  pertains  to  prac- 
tical meat  inspection.  The  English  literature  on  this  subject  has 
been  very  sparse  and  not  of  a  highly  valuable  character,  making  it 
-all  the  more  difficult  for  an  inspector  without*  the  knowledge  of  a 
foreign  language  to  fully  comprehend  the  nature  of  many  of  the 
uncommon  pathological  specimens  with  which  he  comes  in  contact 
during  his  inspection.  Fortunate,  indeed,  was  the  German-reading 
inspector  who  had  access  to  the  monthly  meat-inspection  journal 
published  by  Ostertag,  as  well  as  the  latter's  Handbook.  In  that 
journal  many  of  the  lesions  which  are  little  understood  are  discussed 
and  it  is  not  infrequent  that  by  such  articles  the  resemblance  of 
such  processes  to  our  own  observed  lesions  may  become  apparent. 

The  issuance  of  the  present  publication  on  meat  inspection,  so 
ably  translated  from  the  masterpiece  on  this  subject,  will  be  of 
tintold  benefit,  not  only  to  the  practical  meat  inspector  and  prac- 
tising veterinarian,  but  to  the  professor,  student  and  layman  as 
well.  The  need  of  such  a  book  has  long  been  felt  by  the  English- 
reading  inspectors  and  will  readily  be  appreciated  by  them.  The 
translation  will  perhaps  be  particularly  welcome  on  account  of  the 
unusual  interest  at  present  manifested  in  meat  inspection  in  this 
country  and  the  consequent  demand  for.  well-trained  meat  inspec- 
tors who  can  take  charge  of  this  work  in  various  municipalities 
where  meat  inspection  is  being  established. 


I. 

GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION. 


1.— Nature  and  Problems  of  Meat  Inspection. 

Nature. -^By  the  term  meat  inspection  is  understood  the 
professional  investigation  and  judgment  on  the  entrails 'and  meat 
of  slaughtered  animals  with  reference  to  their  fitness  as  human 
food. '  In  a  broader  sense,  meat  inspection  also  includes  the 
examination  of  living  animals  before  slaughter,  which  examination 
is  required  for  a  more  accurate  judgment  on  the  fitness  of  the  meat 
for  consumption.  Furthermore,  meat  inspection  embraces  the 
supervision  of  public  and  private  meat  markets,  as  well  as  of  all 
industries  in  which  meat  is  manufactured  into  sausages  and  other 
products.  This  control  of  the  market  and  industrial  occupations, 
which  in  the  older  south  German  ordinances  on  meat  inspection 
was  characterized  as  extraordinary  meat  inspection,  is  a  necessary- 
supplement  to  true,  or  ordinary,  meat  inspection.  For  the  meat 
of  healthy  animals  which,  in  and  of  itself,  is  suitable  for'  con- 
sumption, may,  in  consequence  of  improper  preservation  or  other 
treatment,  become  subsequently  unfit  for  consumption  by  man. 

Problems  of  Meat  Inspection. — 1.  The  chief  purpose  of 
meat  inspection  is  to  protect  man  against  the  dangers  which 
threaten  him  from  eating  meat.  These  dangers  are  of  several 
sorts.  The  most  serious  consist  in  the  possibility  of  the  trans- 
'mission  of  animal  parasites  (trichina  and  tape  worms),  as  well  as" 
of  infectious  and  toxic  diseases  (tuberculosis,  glanders,  anthrax, 
rabies,  septicemia,  pyemia,  meat  poisoning  and  botulism. 

The  sanitary  supervision  of  the  traffic  in  meat  is  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  public  hygiene,  since  meat  forms  the 
almost  daily  food  of  the  greater  portion  of  human  beings,  and 


2  GENERAL   DISCUSSION   ON   MEAT   INSPECTION 

consumers  in  the  majority  of  cases  are  not  in  a  position  to  recog- 
nize the  wholesome  or  dangerous  character  of  the  meat  of  which 
they  partake  as  food. 

Meat  may  possess  the  freshest  appearance,  the  red  color,  the 
firm  consistency  or  fat  content,  and  the  peculiar  odor — in  short, 
all  the  characteristics  of  perfectly  normal  meat — and  yet  be  un- 
wholesome. The  dictum  of  the  English  statesman  Disraeli, 
"sanitary  education  is  better  than  sanitary  legislation,"  does  not 
apply  to  the  consumption  of  meat  by  man.  [Reliable  criteria  for 
the  differentiation  of  wholesome  and  unwholesome  meat  are  fur- 
nished only  by  the  inspection  of  food  animals  before  slaughter 
and  the  investigation  of  all  parts  of  animals  after  slaughter,  by 
meat  inspectors.  Thus  it  happens  that  there  is  no  definite'  method 
of  preparation  by  which  all  the  unwholsomeness  attaching  to  meat 
under  certain  circumstances  may  be  removed.  The  consumer, 
therefore,  can  not  protect  himself  sufficiently  by  private  measures. 
'•Furthermore,  experience  has  shown  that  the  public,  even  in  those 
cases  in  which  it  is  possible,  by  observing  certain  precautions,  to 
avoid  the  harmful  effects  of  eating  meat,  is  inclined  to  neglect 
these  precautions.  This  is  best  illustrated  by  trichinosis.  This 
is  •  preventable  by  private  measures, — thorough  boiling  or  roasting 
of  the  meat.  Nevertheless,  the  numerous  epidemics  of  trichinosis 
'to  which  hundreds  of  persons  have  fallen  victims,  have  not  sufficed 
Jto  change  the  custom  of  eating  raw  and  half-cooked  pork.  Gerlach 
justly  observes  that  there  is  no  more  convincing  proof  of  the 
everlasting  unreasonableness  of  man  in  certain  things  than  that 
'furnished  in  trichinosis. 

'For  these  reasons  it  is  to  be  considered  the  plain  duty  of  every 
community,  through  the  organization  of  meat  inspection,  to  with- 
•hold  from  consumption  all  meat  which  is  likely  to  injure  the  health 
of  the  consumer. 

Meat-  as  Food  Material  for  Man. — Man  is   omnivorous.      No 

human  race   is  found  which  lives  exclusively  upon   a  vegetable 

diet.     While  in  certain  countries  the  meat  of  domesticated  animals 

-is  not  eaten,  yet  animal  food  is,  nevertheless,  consumed  in  the 

form  of  fish,  amphibia,  mollusks,  etc.*     The  amount  of  meat  which 


*  In  Japan,  according  to  Janson,  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  domesticated 
animals  was  forbidden  after  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  in  the  seventh  century  A. D. 
;Tho  slaughter  of  animals  was  resumed  after  the  admission  of  foreigners  to  the 
country.  At  first  the  latter  alone  ate  meat.  Gradually,  however,  the  Japanese 
'accustomed  themselves  to  animal  food,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  80's  it  was 
'introduced  into  the  Japanese  army. 


NATURE  AND  PROBLEMS  3 

3s  eaten  depends  essentially  upon  the  climate  in  which  man  lives. 
"While  the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  live  principally  on  a  vegetable 
xliet  and  those  of  the  polar  regions  almost  exclusively  upon  an 
animal  diet,  the  inhabitants  of  the  temperate  zone  live  upon  a 
mixture  of  both  food  materials,  as  the  most  suitable  nourishment. 
'The  vegetarian  manner  of  life  in  our  latitude  must  be  characterized 
us  founded  on  error.  The  case  is  not  altered  by  the  fact  that 
certain  individuals,  in  spite  of  abstaining  from  meat,  are  capable 
of  exerting  considerable  energy.  Meat  is  indispensable  for  the 
majority  of  human  beings  if  they  are  to  remain  capable  of  a  normal 
amount  of  work.  According  to  Manfredi,  the  physical  degeneration, 
lack  of  energy,  and  effeminate  habits  of  the  southern  Italians  are 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  eat  so  little  meat.  Furthermore,  according 
to  Alanus,  the  so-called  atheromatous  degeneration  of  the  walls  of 
the  blood  vessels  is  frequently  observed  in  vegetarians. 

Consumption  of  Meat. — According  to  the  reports  of  the  German 
abattoirs,  the  consumption  of  meat  in  cities  amounts  to  from  50  to 
90  kg.  per  capita  per  annum,  exclusive  of  game,  fowls  and  fish. 
In  country  districts  the  use  of  meat  is  less  extensive,  so  that  the 
total  consumption  in  cities  and  in  rural  districts  averages  consider- 
ably lower.  In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  which  thus  far  has 
furnished  the  only  reliable  statistics  on  this  point,  the  consumption 
of  meat  in  1890  amounted  to  35.4  kg.,  and  in  1894  to  42.1  kg.  The 
•consumption  of  meat  varies  with  the  market  price. 

The  Bureau  of  Statistics  in  England  published  a  statement  in 
1890  on  the  consumption  of  meat  in  various  civilized  countries. 
According  to  this  statement,  the  following  amounts  were  consumed 
per  capita  per  annum  : 

Australia 111.8  kg. 

United  States 54.4   " 

Great  Britain. .. 47.6   " 

Sweden  and  Norway 39.5   '* 

France 33.6   " 

Germany 31.6 

Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 31.3 

Austria-Hungary 29.0 

Russia 21.8 

Spain 22.2 

Italy 10.4 

Lichtenfelt  compiled  statistics  for  the  year  1894  on  the  con- 
sumption of  meat  in  Germany  and  the  relative  importance  of  the 
different  kinds  of  meat  in  different  parts  of  Germany : 


4  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF  MEAT   INSPECTION 

PER   CAPITA   CONSUMPTION   OF   MEAT  IN   GERMANY. 


REGION 

CATTLE 

CALVES 

SHEEP 

HOGS 

TOTAL 

Kg. 
17  6 

Kg. 

1  2 

Kg. 
2  8 

Kg. 

15  7 

Kg. 
37  3 

Brandenburg  

11.4 

2.2 

2.3 

21.9 

37  8 

Pomerania  

13.4 

2  0 

43 

20.7 

40  4 

Posen  ...         ...         

144 

1  7 

2  4 

21  2 

39  7 

Silesia  

13.0 

2  3 

09 

16.6 

32  8 

11.1 

2.3 

1.4 

25.0 

39:8 

20  5 

2.6 

1  8 

23.4 

48.3 

Hanover  

10.9 

1.7 

1.3 

21.6 

35  5 

Westphalia         

11  5 

2.3 

0.4 

19.2 

33.4 

Hessen-Nassau  

19.5 

1.4 

1.2 

19.7 

41  8 

Rheinland  

18.6 

1.7 

0  5 

16.8 

37  6 

Bavaria  .           .         

20.2 

3  9 

1.0 

24  5 

49.6 

Kingdom  of  Saxony          . 

11  6 

2  6 

0.9 

17  3 

32.4 

"W^rteinburg 

145 

1  l 

0  6 

23.3 

39  5 

Baden 

22  7 

3  0 

0  5 

30  8 

57  0 

Alsace-Lorraine  

13.6 

2.6 

1.3 

15.9 

33.4 

Average                         . 

15  3 

2.2 

1  5 

209 

39  9  ' 

More  than  the  average  amount  of  meat,  therefore,  is  eaten  in 
Pomerania,  Schleswig-Holstein,  Hessen-Nassau,  Bavaria  and  Baden. 
Baden  and  Bavaria  are  especially  conspicuous  in  this  respect.  The 
smallest  quantity  of  meat  is  eaten  in  Silesia  and  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony.  Beef  is  consumed  to  the  greatest  extent  in  Baden,  and 
least  in  Hanover ;  veal,  to  the  greatest  extent  in  Bavaria  and  least 
in  "Wurtemburg.  The  inhabitants  of  Pornerania  eat  the  most 
mutton,  while  those  of  Westphalia,  Bhineland  and  Baden  consume 
the  least.  The  contrast  with  reference  to  the  consumption  of  pork 
is  quite  striking,  for,  while  the  greatest  quantity  is  eaten  in  Baden, 
the  neighboring  inhabitants  of  Alsace-Lorraine  consume  almost  the 
smallest  quantity  of  pork. 

Meat  Rations  in  the  German  Army. — The  small  peace  ration  of 
the  German  soldier  includes,  in  addition  to  bread,  rice,  legumes  or 
potatoes,  and   hulled   barley,  150   gm.   of  meat;    the   large  peace 
ration  during  the  maneuvers,  250  gm.;  small  war  ration,  375  gm.;. 
and  the  large  war  ration,  500  gm. 

2.  Another  problem  of  meat  inspection  consists  in  protecting;^ 
consumers  from  financial  loss  by  fraud.  The  inspection  of  meat 
must  secure  the  proper  conduct  of  the  meat  traffic.  It  protect* 


NATURE  AND   PROBLEMS  5 

buyers  against  the  likelihood  of  paying  full  price  for  inferior 
food  stuffs.  As  Schmidt-Miilheim  rightly  observes,  no  food  material 
lends  itself  so  readily  to  adulteration  and  fraudulent  treatment  as 
meat.  Where  meat  inspection  is  not  regulated,  it  is  a  well  known 
daily  occurrence  that  meat  of  the  lowest  market  value  is  offered  for 
sale  at  full  prices.  It  not  only  happens  that  unscrupulous  dealers 
substitute  horse  meat  for  beef,  but  an  extensive  fraudulent  traffic  is 
carried  on  with  the  meat  of  diseased  animals.  Butchers  obtain  the 
meat  of  such  animals  at  minimum  prices  and  sell  it  to  unsuspecting 
buyers  at  full  market  price.  In  so  far  as  the  meat  of  diseased 
animals  is  not  dangerous  to  human  health,  its  sale  may  be  per- 
mitted, but  it  is  no  more  than  right  that  the  consumer  should  be 
made  acquainted  with  the  facts,  and  that  he  should  be  able  to  take 

-advantage  of  the  lower  market  value  due  to  the  diseased  condition 
of  the  animal.* 

The  Value  of  Meat  Inspection  for  Agriculture. — The  profit  which 
butchers  make  through  the  unrestricted  sale  of  the  meat  of  diseased 
animals  is  very  considerable,  since  diseased  animals  are  sold  by 
farmers  at  ridiculous  prices.  Forty  to  fifty  marks  is  a  high  price 
for  a  diseased  beef  animal,  as  appears  from  numerous  legal  pro- 
ceedings in  cases  of  violation  of  the  pure  food  law.  For  example, 

-one  butcher  bought  a  diseased  beef  animal  for  11  marks  and 
testified  that  he  had  bought  cattle  at  cheaper  prices. 

Such  methods  of  taking  advantage  of  the  rural  population  are 

-checked  by  active  meat  inspection.  A  certain  proportion  of 
diseased  animals  is  indeed  prohibited  from  sale,  but  the  owners 

.are  protected  against  punishment,  the  degree  of  severity  of  which 
is  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  small  profit  which  may  be  made 
from  the  unrestricted  sale  of  questionable  material.  The  other, 

.and,  as  experience  shows,  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  diseased 

-animals,  the  farmer  is  permitted  to  retain  and  utilize  to  advantage 
in  a  legitimate  manner.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden  in  1891-1892,  only  1,588  out  of  12,200  cases  of  emergency 

-slaughter  were  prohibited  from  sale,  while  the  remainder  were 
•utilized  at  reasonable  prices. 

For  this  reason  meat  inspection  is  of  advantage  to  agriculture, 

-and  it  is  an  evidence  of  failure  to  recognize  the  facts  in  the  case, 


*  The  substitution  of  inferior  in  the  place  of  prime  meat  is  an  old  practice  of 
meat  dealers,  as  appears  from  the  old  records  concerning  meat  inspection.  In  this 
^connection  the  procedure  of  the  magistrate  in  Passau  in  the  fourteenth  century  is 
noteworthy.  The  butchers  were  compelled  to  take  oath  annually  that  they  would 

only  healthy  marketable  meat. 


6  GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OP  MEAT  INSPECTION 

that,  formerly,  farmers  in  various  countries  opposed  the  intro- 
duction  of  meat  inspection.  Thus  it  also  comes  about  that  in. 
countries  without  meat  inspection  the  farmer  is  in  other  respects  at 
the  mercy  of  the  butchers.  It  is  sufficiently  apparent  from  legal 
proceedings  that  butchers  have  sought  to  secure  a  great  reduction 
in  price  on  account  of  slight  defects  which  were  discovered  after 
slaughter,  while  at  the  same  time  they  offered  the  whole  animals 
for  sale  to  the  original  owners  who  lived  some  distance  away. 
Thus,  certain  cattle  dealers  were  convicted  of  fraud  in  twelve  cases 
in  which  they  had  pretended  to  the  farmers  that  the  cattle  which 
they  had  bought  of  them  had  been  found  to  be  diseased  when 
slaughtered.  Such  business  methods  are  rendered  impossible  bv 
the  regulation  of  meat  inspection.  To  the  credit  of  the  butcher's 
profession,  however,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  corporation 
representatives  of  butchers  in  Germany  repeatedly  appeared  before 
the  Reichregieruug  in  the  interests  of  the  introduction  of  meat 
inspection. 

3.  It  is  the  function  of  meat  inspection  to  furnish  valuable 
assistance  to  the  veterinary  police  and  to  .veterinary  hygiene. 
Through  the  regular  investigation  of  numerous  animals,  especially 
through  the  opportunity  to  determine  the  condition  of  the  internal 
organs  of  such  animals,  meat  inspection  is  in  a  position  to  detect 
cases  of  animal  plagues  which  escape  the  notice  of  veterinary 
police.  The  detection  of  glanders  offers,  perhaps,  the  best  proof  of 
this  statement.  Moreover,  the  reduction  in  the  number  of  cases 
of  pleuro-pneumonia  and  the  systematic  warfare  waged  by  veter- 
inary police  against  tuberculosis  is  made  possible  only  on  the  basis 
of  a  regulated  meat  inspection.  The  value  of  meat  inspection  for 
veterinary  police  appears  in  recent  times  to  be  underestimated. 
The  words  of  Gerlach  should,  therefore,  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the 
successful  labor  of  veterinary  police  is  absolutely  irnpossible.in  the 
present  business  operations  without  the  control  of  the  slaughter  oF 
animals. 

The  Detection  of  Epizootic  Outbreaks  ~by  Meat  Inspection. — In  the 
years  1892  to  1895,  aside  from  foot-and-mouth  disease  and  swine 
plague,  there  were  detected  by  meat  inspection  in  Germany  168 
cases  of  anthrax,  54  cases  of  glanders,  28  cases  of  pleuro- 
pneumonia,  10  cases  of  horse  mange,  and  55  cases  of  sheep  scab. 
From  1896  to  1899,  212  cases  of  anthrax  (including  black-leg  and 
hemorrhagic  septicemia^  96  of  glanders,  26  of  pleuro-pneumonia, 
11  of  horse  mange,  and  54  of  sheep  scab  were  detected.  In 


NATUftE   AND   PROBLEMS  7- 

connection  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  official  statistics 
do  not  enumerate  all  cases  of  the  detection  of  infectious  diseases  fay 
meat  inspection. 

In  the  abattoir  at  Magdeburg,  during  the  first  year  for  which 
reports  were  made  (1892-1893),  11  cases  of  pleuro-pneumonia  were 
found  in  apparently  healthy  cattle,  and  thus  many  affected  localities 
were  discovered  and  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  veterinary 
police.  In  the  Province  of  Posen,  during  the  last  outbreak  of 
pleuro-pneumonia,  the  rapid  reduction  in  the  number  of  cases  of 
this  disease  was  due  to  the  fact  that  the  first  case,  which  was 
brought  to  slaughter,  was  detected  in  an  abattoir,  thanks  to  meat 
inspection,  which  had  been  introduced  in  that  locality. 

The  purpose  of  veterinary  hygiene  is  furthered  by  meat 
inspection,  since  all  virulent  material  capable  of  multiplication 
found  in  slaughtered  animals,  especially  animal  parasites  and  their 
larval  stages,  is  rendered  harmless.  Meat  inspection  is  one  of  the 
most  efficient  means  of  combating  the  ever-increasing  infection 
of  domesticated  animals  by  worms  and  bacterial  diseases,  and  it 
thereby  increases  the  profits  from  agriculture.* 

In  localities  without  meat  inspection,  animal  parasites,  which 
annually  cause  an  incalculable  loss  to  agriculture,  are  furnished 
favorable  conditions  for  propagation.  The  organs  which  contain 
parasites  are  not  destroyed,  as  happens  where  meat  inspection 
is  regularly  performed,  but  are  usually  fed  to  such  animals  as  are 
capable  of  spreading  the  disease.  In  this  regard  meat  inspection 
has  already  achieved  visible  results.  In  consequence  of  the 
systematic  inspection  of  hogs  for  cysticerci,  the  tape-worm  of  man 
(Taenia  solium),  which  develops  from  the  hog  bladder-worm,  has 
become  one  of  the  greatest  rarities  in  Germany.  The  number 
of  measly  hogs  among  native  animals  has  been  correspondingly 
reduced.  In  contrast  to  this  state  of  affairs,  it  has  been  shown 
in  the  case  of  hogs  which  came  from  countries  without  meat 
inspection  (Galicia,  Boumania,  Servia  and  Russia),  that  the  per- 
centage of  infected  animals  is  incomparably  higher.  As  in  the  case 
of  measles  in  hogs,  so  also  in  measles  of  cattle,  echinococcus 
diseases  and  other  parasitic  affections;  in  fact,  even  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  infectious  diseases  of  domesticated  animals,  the  same 
result  will  be  brought  about.  "With  regard  to  infectious  diseases, 
the  favorable  effect  of  meat  inspection  is  to  be  expected,  especially 
in  the  case  of  tuberculosis  of  domesticated  animals — our  greatest 


By  this  means  also  meat  inspection  is  of  considerable  benefit  to  agriculture. 


8  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

plague.  By  the  careful  destruction  of  tuberculous  organs,  the 
dissemination  of  the  pathogenic  organism  and  the  possibility  of 
its  transmission  to  other  animals  are  prevented.  The  disastrous 
consequences  of  carelessness  in  handling  tuberculous  organs  and 
parts  are  shown  by  an  occurrence  in  the  abattoir  at  Copenhagen. 
For  a  long  time  the  butchers  were  allowed  to  feed  hogs  with 
the  refuse  from  the  abattoir.  On  slaughtering  these  animals  it 
was  found  that  80  per  cent,  were  tuberculous. 

Statistics  on  Entozoa  and  Meat  Inspection. — Statistics  on  the 
occurrence  of  various  entozoa  which  are  communicable  from  man 
to  animals  furnish  abundant  proof  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  meat 
inspection.  Wherever  meat  inspection  has  been  introduced, 
Taenia  solium  of  man,  which  develops  from  the  hog  cysticercus, 
has  become  of  rare  occurrence.  Thus,  in  Southern  Germany, 
Taenia  solium  of  man  and  Cysticercus  cellulosae  of  the  hog  have 
become  rare  in  consequence  of  the  existence  there  for  a  long  time 
of  regular  meat  inspection.  In  Munich,  Taenia  solium  is  almost 
never  observed.  Bollinger,  therefore,  made  use  of  the  frequency 
of  the  occurrence  of  T.  solium  of  man  as  a  test  of  the  quality  of 
meat  inspection.  In  striking  contrast  to  T.  solium,  T.  saginata  has 
constantly  increased  in  the  last  twenty  years,  because  the  early 
stage  of  this  tape-worm  in  cattle,  partly  on  account  of  the  non- 
existence  of  meat  inspection  and  partly  on  account  of  an  insufficient 
examination  of  cattle  for  this  cysticercus,  was,  up  to  within  a  few 
years,  only  occasionally  discovered. 

The  cysticercus  disease  of  man  has  decreased  to  a  degree 
which  corresponds  with  the  rare  occurrence  of  T.  solium.  Next  to 
Saxony  and  Thiiringen,  Berlin  has  furnished  the  largest  number  of 
cases  of  the  cysticercus  disease  of  the  eye  for  a  number  of  years. 
The  oculist  Hirschberg,  for  example,  observed  70  cases  of  cysti- 
cercus of  the  eye  among  60,000  cases  of  eye  disease  in  the  sixteen 
years  between  'i860  and  1885.  From  1886  to  1892,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  46,000  cases  of  eye  disease,  Hirschberg  found  only  two 
cases  of  cysticercus,  one  of  which  came  from  Saxony.  This  can  not 
be  accidental,  but  must  be  considered  as  a  consequence  of  the 
introduction  of  meat  inspection,  which  took  place  in  Berlin  in  1883. 
From  1892  to  1893,  Hirschberg  observed  no  case  of  cysticercus  of 
the  eye  in  Berlin,  but  observed  one  from  Westphalia  and  one  from 
Saxony. 

Virchow  also  observed  a  less  striking,  but  still  noticeable, 
decrease  in  cysticerci  in  comparing  post  mortem  findings  from  1875 
to  1891.  Of  the  126  larvae  of  T.  solium  which  were  found  in 


HISTORY  9 

cadavers  during  this  time,  101  were  located  in  the  brain.  When  we 
compare  the  number  of  cysticerci  found  in  the  brain  with  the  total 
number  of  brain  examinations,  it  appears  that  since  the  introduc- 
tion of  meat  inspection  the  ratio  has  diminished  from  1:31  to  1:280. 

Of  14,000  cadavers  in  Munich  which  were  examined  in  the 
Pathological  Institute  of  that  city  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  80's, 
only  two  cysticerci  were  found  in  the  brain,  while  in  Berlin  this 
parasite  was  found  in  87  of  the  5,300  post  mortem  examinations  up 
to  the  year  1877. 

The  decrease  in  the  echinococcus  disease  of  man  is  also 
striking.  Up  to  the  year  1888  Virchow  was  able  to  demonstrate 
from  5  to  9  cases  of  echinococcus  disease  per  year  in  the  cadavers 
which  were  examined  in  the  Pathological  Institute  at  Berlin.  After 
1888,  however,  the  number  of  cases  decreased  to  from  3  to  1. 

Deffke  has  called  attention  to  the  inter-relation  between  meat 
inspection  and  helminthiasis  of  dogs.  According  to  his  investiga- 
tions, the  number  of  dogs  infested  with  entozoa  in  Berlin  has 
diminished  considerably  since  compulsory  meat  inspection  was 
introduced  into  that  city.  While  entozoa  were  found  in  nearly 
-all  dogs  in  Island,  in  Berlin  at  the  end  of  the  80's  only  62  per  cent, 
were  infested.  Deffke  attributes  this  difference  chiefly  to  the  rare 
occurrence  of  the  three  large  taenise  of  dogs,  especially  T.  marginata 
(from  the  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  which  occurs  so  frequently  in  food 
animals).  Krabbe  found  T.  marginata  in  Island  in  75  per  cent,  of 
the  dogs  ;  Scheme,  in  Saxony,  in  27  per  cent.;  Deffke,  in  Berlin,  in 
only  7  per  cent.  Before  the  introduction  of  meat  inspection,  the 
large  taenise  of  the  dog  in  Berlin,  as  was  shown  by  special  reports 
and  statistics  of  disease,  were  a  very  frequent  subject  of  treatment. 
According  to  Deffke,  it  may  be  asserted  with  tolerable  certainty 
that  in  Berlin  the  tape-worms  of  the  dog  have  become  less 
frequent,  entirely  on  account  of  the  well  regulated  meat  inspection 
of  that  city. 

2.— History.* 

Antiquity. — Traditions  of  the  oldest  civilized  nations  show 
they  possessed  certain  regulations  concerning  the  consumption 

*  Compare  the  works  of  Graber,  "Historical  Account  of  the  Development  of 
Public  Sanitation  in  the  Field  of  Animal  Foods";  Goltz,  " The  History  of  Animal 
Foods  and  Meat  Inspection,"  also  "Historical  Studies  in  the  Field  of  Meat  Foods 
and  Meat  Inspection";  Adler,  "Public  Valuation  of  Meat  in  German  Cities  at  the 
Close  of  the  Middle  Ages";  and  the  related  articles  of  Morot,  Piitz,  Stumpf  and 
Gehrke. 


10  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

of  meat.  Thus  we  learn  through  Herodotus  and  Plutarch  that 
the  Egyptians  were  forbidden  to  eat  pork  for  the  reason  that  it 
produced  an  excess  of  humors  and  eruptions.  The  animals  which, 
served  as  offerings  to  the  gods  and  as  food  for  the  priests  had 
to  be  carefully  inspected.  Only  the  meat  of  "clean"  animals  could 
be  used  in  offerings  and  eaten.  The  use  of  "unclean"  meat,  ou 
the  other  hand,  was  forbidden.  Moreover,  sacrificial  animals  wer& 
required  to  be  perfectly  healthy  and  free  from  defect.  Such 
animals  were  certified  by  a  mark  on  the  horns  (a  strip  of  puper 
sealed  with  clay).  Death  punishment  was  prescribed  for  priests. 
who  slaughtered  an  animal  which  was  not  certified  in  this  manner. 
The  meat  of  cows  was  not  eaten  by  the  Egyptians,  since  the  cow 
was  the  sacred  animal  of  Isis.  Likewise,  the  meat  of  other  animals, 
which  were  considered  sacred  was  forbidden  food.  Among  tha 
Egyptians  the  hog  was  the  most  unclean  of  all  animals.  Even 
accidental  contact  with  it  made  one  unclean,  and  led  to  exclusion 
from  the  temple  until  purification. 

Moses  commanded  the  Israelites  to  eat  no  fat  and  no  blood 
and  to  avoid  the  meat  of  hogs.  Concerning  sacrificial  animals,  it  is 
stated  in  Leviticus,  Ch.  xxii,  v.  22:  "Blind,  or  broken,  or  maimed, 
or  having  a  wen,  or  scurvy,  or  scabbed,  ye  shall  not  offer  these 
unto  the  Lord."  Furthermore,  "  unwholsome  meat,  carrion,  and 
anything  which  has  defects  shall  not  be  slaughtered,  and  that 
which  remains  of  sacrificed  animals  after  the  third  day  shall  be 
burned  with  fire."  Animals  which  were  torn  by  other  animals 
were  regarded  the  same  as  carrion.  The  meat  of  animals  which 
were  affected  with  wasting  diseases  could  not  be  eaten.  The 
eating  of  blood  was  forbidden  because  Moses  considered  the  blood 
as  the  seat  of  life  which  belonged  to  the  Creator  from  whom 
all  life  originated.  By  offering  the  blood  of  animals,  believers- 
reconciled  their  souls  with  God.  The  High  Priest  purified  himself 
in  order  to  enter  the  holy  of  holies  once  a  year.  The  eating  of  fat 
was  forbidden  because,  like  blood,  it  was  intended  for  sacrifice. 
According  to  Tacitus,  the  consumption  of  pork  was  forbidden  to- 
the  Israelites,  not  only  from  religious  grounds,  but  also  .because 
the  origin  of  "  lepra  Araburn  "  was  ascribed  to  it.  The  animals 
which  were  permitted  to  be  used  as  food  included  all  of  the 
ruminant  ungulates,  all  fish  which  bear  fins  and  scales,  and  birds 
which  do  not  feed  on  carrion.  Eating  the  me;it  of  young  animals 
was  forbidden.  A  legal  regulation  was  directed  against  the 
slaughter  of  such  animals:  "When  an  ox,  or  a  lamb,  or  a  goat  is- 
born,  it  shall  be  with  its  dam  for  seven  days  and  thereafter  it 


HISTORY  1 1 

may  be  offered  to  the  Lord."  The  Mosaic,  like  the  Egyptian,  laws 
distinguished  between  "clean"  and  "unclean"  food  animals. 

The  Jewish  method  of  slaughtering  food  animals  was  not 
prescribed  first  by  the  Mosaic  laws,  bat  by  the  Talmud,  which 
was  edited  by  learned  Jews  during  the  first  five  years  of  the 
Christian  era. 

The  Phoenicians,  like  the  Egyptians,  abstained  from  eating  the 
meat  of  cows  and  hogs,  but  held  the  meat  of  dogs  in  high  esteem. 
Berosus  relates  from  the  books  of  Cannes  that  the  Babylonians 
established  detailed  regulations  concerning  diet. 

In  Athens  in  the  earliest  times  there  was  established  a  system 
of  market  police,  whose  officers  (agoranomoi)  were  intrusted  with 
the  proper  conduct  of  the  meat  traffic.  The  Athenians  were*  for- 
bidden to  eat  the  meat  of  a  lamb  which  had  not  been  shorn  once. 
According  to  Hippocrates,  the  Greeks  were  fond  of  the  meat  of 
dogs  which  had  been  castrated  while  young.  Alexander  the  Great 
forbade  the  Lipanese  the  eating  of  fish  for  the  reason  that  the 
flesh  decomposed  so  rapidly. 

In  ancient  Rome,  from  the  year  388  of  the  founding  of  the  city, 
two  curule  sediles  (cereales)  exercised  control  of  the  meat  market, 
public  shops,  and  the  cooking  of  meat.  Meat  condemned  by  the 
sediles  was  frequently  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  In  one  number  of 
Ada  Popull  Romani  diurna,  in  the  year  164  A.D.,  the  following 
notice  is  found :  "  The  sedile  Tetini  punished  the  small  butchers 
because  they  sold  to  the  people  meat  which  had  not  been  pre- 
viously inspected  by  the  authorities.  The  fines  were  devoted  to 
the  establishment  of  a  temple  to  the  goddesses." 

The  meat  of  goats  was  considered  by  the  Romans  as  unwhole- 
some. On  the  other  hand,  the  Romans  possessed  an  almost  morbid 
predilection  for  pork.  Fifty  different  articles  of  food  were  made 
from  pork.  The  sexual  organs  of  female  swine  were  especially 
sought  for  by  the  Romans  during  the  existence  of  the  Empire. 
Plutarch  (De  usu  carnis)  says:  "Yulva  porci  nihil  dulcius  ampla." 
The  dugs  (sumen)  of  a  sow  which  had  just  farrowed  were  not  less- 
esteemed  and  also  the  liver  of  an  animal  which  had  been  fattened 
on  figs.  The  longing  of  the  Romans  for  the  genital  organs  of 
female  swine  and  the  extensive  consumption  of  young  pigs  brought 
about  such  a  great  decrease  in  the  number  of  hogs  that  the 
Emperor  Severus  forbade  the  slaughter  of  brood  sows  and  sucking 
pigs, — an  edict  which  was  reissued  by  the  Emperor  Julianus. 
Hares  were  considered  unclean  and  harmful  to  the  digestion,  and 
were,  therefore,  eaten  on'y  by  poor  people.  The  meat  of  rabbits,. 


12  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT  INSPECTION 

on  the  contrary,  was  much  liked.  The  young,  when  cut  out  of  the 
body  or  taken  away  from  the  teats,  constituted  a  delicacy  for  the 
decadent  Eomans.  The  meat  of  oxen  was  not  eaten  by  the  ancient 
Eomans,  out  of  consideration  for  their  mates  at  work  or  in  the 
field.  They  likewise  ate  no  raw  meat,  for  the  reason  that  it  had 
a  repulsive,  unclean  appearance.  The  opinion  prevailed  that  meat 
did  not  become  food  until  it  was  completely  altered  by  cooking  and 
roasting.  Salting  meat  was  practiced  by  the  Eomans,  and  this 
custom  was  already  common  at  the  time  of  Homer.  Moreover, 
they  already  understood  the  art  of  preparing  sausages  ;  for  example, 
bratwurst  (botuli),  schnittwurst  (incisia),  ringelwurst  (circelli),  and 
hackwurst  (tomacina).  Moreover,  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
fact  tliat,  among  the  ancient  Eomans,  slaughter  houses  (laniense) 
-and  meat  booths  (macelli)  existed,  which  in  extent  and  elaborate 
organization  were  not  second  to  other  public  buildings.  With  the 
fall  of  the  Western  Eoman  Empire,  these  sanitary  establishments 
•of  Eome  were  also  lost. 

Mohammedans. — Mohammed  decreed  a  series  of  regulations 
•concerning  food  materials  for  the  communicants  of  the  religious 
society  which  was  named  after  him.  He  forbade  in  the  Koran  the 
use  of  animals  which  died  a  natural  death,  carrion,  blood,  pork,  the 
meat  of  animals  at  the  slaughter  of  which  the  name  of  any  other 
god  was  called  upon,  animals  which  died  of  asphyxia  or  of  a  blow 
or  a  fall  or  by  injury  from  the  horns  of  another  animal  or  which 
were  torn  by  wild  animals  ("  it  is  necessary  that  the  animal  shall 
have  been  killed  only  by  slaughter"),  and  animals  which  were 
killed  in  honor  of  other  gods. 

GERMANY. 

V 

(a)  From  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  Thirty  Tears'  War. 

In  Germany  the  first  regulations  with  regard  to  meat  con- 
sumption are  met  with  at  the  time  of  the  appearance  of  the 
apostle  Wienfried  Bonifacius,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
•century.  Under  the  direction  of  Pope  Gregory  III,  he  forbade 
the  eating  of  horse  meat  on  the  ground  that  it  caused  impure  blood 
and  eruptions.  Pope  Gregory  III  wrote  to  the  apostle  Bonifacius 
as  follows :  "I  have  learned  from  you  that  there  are  certain  people 
among  you  who  eat  the  meat  of  wild  and  tame  horses.  I  therefore 
-warn  you  that  this  ought  to  be  permitted  to  no  one,  but  that  it 
should  be  prevented  by  all  possible  means  in  the  name  of  Christ, 
and  that  atonement  shall  be  made  for  it,  for  it  is  unclean  and 
an  abomination." 


.   HISTOBY  13. 

That  not  merely  sanitary  or  aesthetic  considerations  determined 
the  issuance  of  this  bull  is  apparent  from  the  conclusions  reached 
at  the  Council  of  Celeyth  in  787,  in  which  the  consumption  of 
horse  meat  was  forbidden  by  the  Church  for  the  reason  that  horse 
meat  was  sacrificed  and  eaten  by  Germanic  peoples  in  honor  of 
Odin.  An  attempt  was  thus  made  by  forbidding  the  consumption . 
of  horse  meat  to  combat  a  heathen  Germanic  custom  and  to 
promote  the  progress  of  Christianity.  Moreover,  the  fear  of 
leprosy  was  so  great  that  the  order  in  question  was  most  puncti- 
liously observed  (Ptitz).  Later,  Bonifacius  made  known  the  desire 
of  Pope  Zacharius  "  that  bacon  and  pork  should  not  be  eaten  in 
any  other  form  than  cooked  or  smoked."  Pope  Zacharius  forbade 
the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  since  it  was 
generally  considered  as  dangerous  to  health.  In  the  moral  courts 
of  justice  which  the  German  bishops  held  in  their  diocese  at  the 
time  of  Charles  the  Great,  the  following  among  other  questions 
was  asked :  "  Whether  any  one  ate  the  blood  or  meat  of  dead 
animals  or  of  one  which  had  been  torn  by  another." 

From  this  it  is.  to  be  seen,  as  stated  by  Schmidt  ("  History 
of  the  Germans"),  that  in  those  days  many  customs  were  still 
retained  which  had  been  ordained  in  the  Old  Testament  with 
reference  to  food  materials,  although  the  New  Testament  had  set 
aside  the  food  laws  of  the  Oid  Testament. 

With  the  increase  in  industrial  development,  the  traffic  in  food 
materials,  on  account  of  its  great  importance  to  the  health  of 
individuals,  claimed  the  greatest  attention  for  itself.  It  is  apparent 
that  in  early  times  the  police  power  of  the  fronvogt  and  burggraf 
was  exercised  strenuously  with  regard  to  the  business  of  the 
butcher. 

The  earliest  German  records  in  which  the  traffic  in  meat  is 
mentioned  are  the  articles  of  incorporation  of  the  city  of  Freiburg 
in  Breisgau,  in  1120 ;  the  records  of  Archbishop  .Arnold  I,  con- 
cerning the  city  of  Medebach,  in  1144;  and  the  Justitia  civitatis 
Augsburg iensis  ordained  for  the  city  of  Augsburg  by  Emperor 
Frederick  I,  in  1156 ;  the  municipal  law  of  Hagenau,  1164 ;  and  the 
records  of  Duke  Henry  I,  as  well  as  of  Boleslaus,  in  1224  and  1242,. 
with  regard  to  the  cloister  of  Trebnitz.  In  the  Justitia  civitatis 
Augsburg  iensis  the  butchers  are  mentioned  as  "carnifices." 

la  an  old  record  which  Bishop  Liitold  made  concerning  the 
butchers'  guild  in  Basel,  in  1248,  the  following  regulations  are 
contained :  "  Thus  they  shall  sell  the  cleanest  and  best  meat  in 
the  highest  and  best  located  parts  of  the  market,  and  in  the 


14  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

common  meat  booths  they  shall  sell  the  kind  of  meat  which  has 
previously  been  sold  in  such  places ;  while  unclean  meat — that  is, 
entrails,  tripe,  etc. — shall  be  sold  outside  of  the  market." 

The  municipal  law  of  the  city  of  Freiburg  iu  Uechtlande,  in 
1249,  provides  heavy  punishment  for  dishonesty  in  butchers. 

The  following  mention  is  made  of  a  certain  slaughter  house  in 
the  record  of  the  city  of  Trachenberg,  which  was  established  by 
Duke  Henry  III  in  1253  :  "  Dotavimus  ecclesiae  .  .  .  officinas 
carnium  pro  sua  utilitate  et  .  .  .  curiam  in  qua  pecora 
mactantur." 

In  the  year  1261,  in  a  charter  which  he  granted  to  Mayor  von 
Cerlier,  Count  Raoul  IV  of  Neuchatel  stipulated  that  "meat 
showing  eruptions  should  not  be  sold  for  good  meat,"  and  also 
that  under  the  roof  of  a  meat  market  "pork  containing  eruptions  or 
meat  killed  by  wolves  or  dogs,  or  the  meat  of  any  animal  otherwise 
injured,  should  not  be  sold." 

The  regulations  concerning  butchers  in  the  Augsburg  charter 
in  1276  are  very  interesting.  They  prescribe  slaughter  in  a  public 
slaughter  house  for  cattle,  sheep  and  calves,  and  also  compulsory 
inspection  and  declaration  for  diseased  animals,  thus  giving  evi- 
dence of  a  hygienic  view-point  which  is  not  observed  at  the  present 
time  in  a  number  of  civilized  countries.  The  charter  contains  the 
following  statement : 

"No  butcher  shall  slaughter  a  beef  animal,  or  sheep  or  calf,  except  in  a  slaughter 
house.  If,  however,  animals  die  in  country  districts,  two  citizens  and  two  honest 
butchers  shall  be  appointed  to  issue  a  warning  so  that  the  people  may  suffer  no  harm 
from  buying  bad  meat.  If  a  butcher  kills  a  measly  hog,  he  shall  sell  it  to  no  one 
without  a  statement  of  this  fact.  All  the  parts  of  any  such  animal  shall  be  sold  in 
the  same  booth,  and  if  it  is  sold  whole  it  shall  be  only  under  declaration." 

Furthermore,  it  was  forbidden  to  put  straw  into  the  abdomen 
of  slaughtered  animals  or  to  inflate  the  meat.  In  addition  to  a  fine, 
there  was  also  a  severe  punishment  for  a  transgression  of  these 
laws.  Moreover,  the  guilty  person  was  banished  from  the  city  for 
a  month,  and  "  when  he  comes  back  into  the  city,  he  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  slaughter  any  meat  for  the  period  of  a  month." 

The  municipal  laws  of  Niirnberg,  1290,  forbade  keeping  fresh 
meat  for  sale  longer  than  two  d;iys.  Furthermore,  it  was  prescribed 
that  no  calf  should  be  slaughtered  before  it  was  four  weeks  old. 

Duke  Henry  III  imposed  upon  the  public  advocates  in  Wohlau, 
in  1293,  inspection  duties  over  "  duodecim  macella  carnis  et  unum 
factorium." 

The  city  laws  of  Bamberg  in  1306  forbade  the  sale  of  measly 


HISTORY  15 

meat.  In  another  regulation  of  the  same  period,  prescribed  for 
Bamberg,  "  it  is  also  ordered  and  prescribed  for  butchers  that  six 
men  appointed  by  the  city  and  under  oath  shall  first  inspect 
animals  intended  for  slaughter,  and  that  any  meat  which  these 
•experts  consider  of  doubtful  or  inferior  character  shall  be  so 
characterized.  Any  person  who  shall  thereafter  sell  the  same, 
•either  in  a  house  or  in  a  market  booth,  shall  be  convicted  by  the 
testimony  of  two  or  more  persons  under  oath,  shall  be  fined  five 
pounds  of  pennies,  or  must  remain  away  from  the  city  until  he  has 
paid  this  fine." 

In  the  early  records  of  Duke  Boleslaus,  in  1307,  the  following 
mention  is  made  of  a  certain  slaughter  house :  "  Curia  mactatoria 
quae  in  vulgari  Machehof  dicitur." 

From  the  tax-roll  of  the  year  1310  it  appears  that  in  Nord- 
liausen  there  already  existed  a  general  slaughter  house  in  which 
animals  were  slaughtered  and  sausages  made. 

The  meat  statute  of  Stettin  in  1312  prescribes  that  "  the  bone 
cutters  "  shall  leave  the  tails  on  the  rumps  of  slaughtered  animals, 
so  that  they  cannot  sell  cow  meat  for  steer  meat,  goat  meat  for 
mutton,  or  the  meat  of  bucks  for  that  of  wethers. 

The  municipal  law  of  Burgdorf,  1316,  contains  almost  exactly 
the  same  regulations  as  those  of  the  charter  of  Freiburg. 

The  cities  of  Brieg  and  Grottkau  received  the  laws  of  the  city 
of  Breslau  from  Duke  Boleslaus  III  in  1324.  According  to  these 
laws,  the  councilmen  were  required  to  choose  two  men  from  each 
line  of  industrial  occupation  who  were  ordered  to  exercise  a  super- 
vision over  the  others,  with  the  right  "  to  use  force  in  preventing 
the  sale  of  any  material  which  could  be  harmful  to  the  city." 

The  statute  concerning  the  slaughter  of  animals  in  Koln  and 
the  city  ordinances  of  Berlin  in  1343  forbade  the  sale  of  "  milch 
cows,  animals  torn  by  dogs,"  as  well  as  "  diseased,  malodorous  and 
unclean  animals." 

Li  Wiirzburg  in  1343  punishment  is  provided  for  "all  persons 
who  offer  for  sale  measly  or  mangy  meat." 

During  the  progress  of  litigation  between  the  cloister  Frowen- 
rode  and  the  village  of  Wolfmannshusen  in  1346,  the  following 
decision,  among  others,  was  handed  down :  "  The  inhabitants  of  the 
village  shall,  at  an  appointed  time,  bring  all  their  hogs  to  the 
monastery,  where  they  shall  be  appraised  and  inspected  by  viewing 
their  tongues.  Those  which  from  the  appearance  of  the  tongues 
shall  be  considered  clean  and  worth  the  estimated  price  shall  be 
retained  by  the  monastery." 


16  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

In  Dissenhofen,  during  the  fourteenth  century,  the  butchers, 
were  allowed  to  slaughter  only  so  many  animals  between  Easter 
and  Saint  Yerana's  Day  as  they  were  able  to  dispose  of  on  the 
same  day. 

The  charter  of  Zwickau  in  the  year  1348  prescribes  "  that  no 
butcher  shall  offer  for  sale  in  the  meat  booths  measly  meat,  the 
meat  of  sows,  immature  meat,  or  any  meat  which  has  been  cut  by 
Jews.  All  such  meat  shall  be  sold  outside  of  the  booths." 

B:shop  Gerhard  of  "Wiirzburg  ordained  the  following  regula- 
tions for  the  control  of  butchers  in  1372  :  "  They  shall  not  mix  bad 
meat  with  good  and  no  one  shall  cut  up  warm  meat  or  offer  it 
for  sale." 

According  to  an  abattoir  statute  of  Hamburg  in  1375,  measly 
meat  was  required  to  be  sold  in  a  special  booth  on  a  white  cloth 
("up  deme  lakene"),  and  the  same  requirement  was  enforced  in 
Liiibeck  and  Stade. 

In  1376  the  butchers  in  Regensburg  were  punished  because 
they  "pfiitnige  Far  die,  ewe  Sau  mit  Tutten  und  einen  trefanten  Ochsen 
zu  schlagen  willens  gewesen" 

In  Aachen,  the  "planks"  (the  old  meat  market  which  was 
mentioned  in  the  municipal  record  of  1385-1386)  were  under  the 
supervision  of  the  master  of  the  meat  and  fish  market  and  his 
assistants.  These  individuals  took  account  of  the  organization 
of  the  market  and  were  furthermore  required  to  cut  off  the  ears 
of  calves  "  which  had  not  reached  a  suitable  age,"  a  method  of 
marking  ihem  according  to  an  old  custom.  "  Special  pig  inspectors  " 
were  appointed,  for  investigating  hogs,  and  it  was  their  duty  to 
brand  unclean  hogs  with  a  cut.  They  were  required  to  take  the 
"oath  of  pig  inspectors,"  which  was  as  follows  :  "You  shall  be  pig 
inspectors,  for  foreigners  as  well  as  for  the  native  inhabitants,  and 
neither  for  love  nor  money  nor  goods  nor  threats,  nor  from  friend- 
ship nor  enmity,  shall  you  declare  otherwise  than  as  you  find  the 
pigs  to  be." 

In  the  year  1391,  in  order  to  carry  out  more  strictly  the 
sanitary  police  regulations  of  Augsburg,  "  a  meat  market  was 
established,  and  where  the  old  market  stood  it  was  torn  down 
and  a  market  was  erected  there  and  was  surrounded  by  a  wall." 

In  Passau,  in  1394,  a  system  of  inspection  of  animals  and  meat 
was  introduced  under  two  responsible  councilmen  with  the  assist- 
ance of  meat  inspectors.  Moreover,  the  three  butchers  of  that 
town  were  required  to  take  oath  annually  that  they  would  sell  only 
healthy  marketable  meat.  Measly  pork  was  removed  and  tha- 


HISTORY  17 

vendor  was  obliged  to  return  the  price  of  the  hog.      Likewise, 
immature  meat  was  condemned  and  thrown  into  the  Danube. 

In  Landshut,  in  1401,  an  ordinance  was  passed  prescribing 
that  butchers  should  sell  "Jew  meat  and  measly  meat"  nowhere 
except  between  the  meat  tables,  and  that  neither  measly  nor  Jew 
meat  should  be  offered  as  good  meat. 

The  charter  of  "Wimpfen  in  1404  prescribed  that  measly  meat 
should  be  sold  in  a  "  measly  booth,"  three  steps  removed  from  the 
ordinary  meat  booths. 

In  1414  the  butchers  in  Ulm  drew  up  a  resolution  which  they 
offered  to  the  council  for  adoption.  In  this  document  the  traffic 
with  measly  pork,  bull  meat  and  Jew  meat  was  regulated.  Who*- 
ever  offered  such  meat  for  sale  was  not  allowed  to  sell  any  other 
meat  at  the  same  time.  If  a  butcher  pickled  measly  pork  imme- 
diately after  slaughter,  and  the  twelve  sworn  masters  of  the  market 
were  satisfied  of  this  fact,  the  butcher  was  allowed  to  sell  other 
meat.  In  the  year  1423  it  was  ordered  that  hogs  which  were  sold 
by  bakers  to  the  butchers  must  be  put  upon  the  steps  of  the  court 
of  inspection  before  they  were  allowed  to  be  killed. 

On  May  30,  1428,  Haiutz  der  O taker  and  his  comrades  took  the 
oath  to  keep  the  peace.  They  had  been  imprisoned  in  the  tower  by 
the  mayor  and  council  at  Kempten  because  they  bought  a  calf  in 
Wytenow  which  was  only  eleven  days  old  and  killed  it  in  the 
slaughter  house  at  Kempten  and  sold  it. 

Steffen  Smawczet  von  Begerndorf  was  made  to  take  the  oath  to 
keep  the  peace  on  May  12,  1434,  after  having  been  imprisoned 
in  the  city  of  Eegensburg  because  he  attempted  to  sell  hogs  in 
.which  the  bladder  worms  had  been  secretly  punctured  so  that 
the  inspectors  could  not  recognize  them. 

The  ordinance  of  the  Council  of  Strasburg,  1435,  forbade  the 
watering  of  mutton  before  sale  and  ordered  that  sausages  must 
be  manufactured  in  the  public  meat  booths  and  not  in  houses. 

In  the  Marbach  region  in  Alsace  there  were  sworn  meat 
inspectors  on  duty  in  the  year  1437.  Their  chief  duty  was  to  see 
that  the  quality  of  the  meat  offered  for  sale  corresponded  with  the 
price  fixed  upon  it.  Only  fat  meat  was  admitted  to  common  sale. 
"In  the  busy  season/'  butchers  were  allowed,  "for  the  better 
accommodation  of  the  people,"  to  exhibit  meat  of  inferior  value. 
This  had  to  be  sold,  however,  in  another  booth.  Furthermore,  the 
meat  inspectors  were  required  to  determine  whether  there  waa 
anything  objectionable  in  the  meat,  and  whether  measly  meat  had 
been  worked  over  into  sausage. 


18  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF  MEAT   INSPECTION 

The  Mayor  of  Munich  in  1460  was  granted  a  compensation 
as  meat  inspector  of  two  pfennige  and  three  heller. 

In  Speyer,  after  the  year  1487,  "four  masters  of  the  meat 
market "  had  charge  of  the  organization  of  the  market,  inspected 
the  meat  and  collected  fines. 

The  ordinance  of  the  Council  of  Niirnberg,  1497,  forbade 
the  inflation  or  swelling  of  calves'  lungs  or  the  lungs  of  other 
animals  with  water  or  by  other  means,  "for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  lungs  and  their  covering  appear  more  marketable,  appetizing 
and  larger." 

The  City  Council  of  Chemnitz,  in  the  year  1506,  granted  a 
remarkable  concession  to  the  butchers'  guild.  They  were  allowed, 
iu  the  summer  time,  to  slaughter  at  home,  in  return  for  the  annual 
payment  of  ten  gulden,  as  a  result  of  their  "repeated  requests 
and  numerous  protestations  that  if  animals  were  killed  in  the 
slaughter  houses  the  meat  would  decompose,  become  malodorous, 
and  suffer  other  harm."  The  butchers,  however,  were  required 
to  promise  "not  to  become  a  nuisance  to  anyone"  with  their 
slaughtering,  not  to  thvow  any  offal  upon  the  street,  but  to  deposit 
all  off.il,  "especially  of  pregnant  animals,  immediately  after 
slaughter  outside  of  the  city  in  places  where  no  one  would  be 
annoyed  by  it,"  and  to  offer  no  "resistance"  when  they  were  again 
ordered  into,  the  slaughterhouses  "  on  account  of  public  exigen- 
cies." 

All  of  the  regulations  thus  far  mentioned  are  purely  local  in 
character,  corresponding  to  the  organization  of  the  feudal  condi- 
tion* of  the  Middle  Ages.  When  the  feudal  states  became 
independent,  we  begin  to  meet  with  regulations  emanating  from 
central  authorities. 

Thus,  the  Mecklenburg  state  law  of  1572  prescribes  that  the 
butchers  in  cities  shall  be  under  the  control  of  the  stadtvogt  with 
the  assistance  of  two  qualified  persons.  The  vogt  and  his  assist- 
ants were  required  to  see  that  no  defective  or  objectionable  meat 
was  offered  for  sale. 

In  the  year  1582  the  Palatinate  state  law  prescribed  regula- 
tions for  butchers  requiring  them  to  state  upon  cards  the  kind 
of  animal  which  is  offered  for  sale,  and  to  hang  the  cards  in  a 
conspicuous  place,  "so  that  the  ordinary  individual  would  be  able 
to  see  and  understand  it."  It  was  required  that  the  meat  of  measly 
bog -s,  if  not  badly  infested,  should  be  offered  for  sale  outside  of  the 
.shambles  or  butcher  shop  at  a  place  to  be  determined  upon  by  the 
authorities. 


HISTORY  19 

"  In  case,  however,  the  measly  meat  in  question  is  found  to  be 
<quite  unclean,  it  shall  be  absolutely  rejected  and  shall  not  be  sold 
or  used.  For  regulating  this  matter,  two  or  three  honorable  men 
shall  be  chosen  annually  in  each  city,  one  of  whom  shall  be  from 
the  council  or  court,  the  second  from  among  the  citizens,  and  the 
third  shall  be  a  butcher  or  person  acquainted  with  that  business. 
These  men  shall  be  meat  inspectors  and  appraisers,  and  it  shall  be 
their  special  duty  carefully  and  honestly  to  inspect  all  meat  while 
alive  and  also  after  it  has  been  slaughtered  and  cut  up.  They  shall 
also  determine  according  to  general  market  values  in  each  year  the 
high  or  low  value  of  the  meat  and  set  a  corresponding  price,  and 
they  shall  have  control  of  the  organization  of  the  meat  traffic 
-according  to  the  various  legal  regulations." 

Moreover,  the  butchers  were  not  allowed  to  kill  any  calf 
"which  was  under  four  weeks  of  age  or  under  twenty-four  pounds 
iu  weight,  under  penalty  of  a  gulden.  No  butcher  shall  be  allowed 
to  sell  knowingly  any  unclean  animals  or  other  animals  which  are 
emaciated  or  otherwise  unmarketable,  whether  they  be  cows, 
-wethers,  sheep,  or  other  animals,  and  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
slaughter  the  same  under'a  penalty  of  50  gulden.  Moreover,  they 
shall  not  sell  any  animal  in  localities  where  an  infectious  plague 
exists." 

With  reference  to  the  objective  fulfilment  of  duty  on  the  part 
of  meat  inspectors,  the  public  ordinance  above  cited  contains  the 
following:  "Regularly  appointed  meat  inspectors  shall  inspect 
living  animals  and  shall  pay  strict  attention  to  determining  whether 
the  animal  is  clean,  healthy,  and  entirely  wholesome  ;  and  it  shall 
l>e  their  duty  not  to  allow  friendship  or  enmity,  gifts  or  presents, 
or  any  other  condition  to  interfere  with  their  business." 

With  regard  to  the  inflation  of  food  animals,  in  a  letter  of 
incorporation  of  the  circuit  of  Lichtenberg,  von  Kusel  and 
Novelden,  which  elector  Johannes  addressed  to  the  butcher,  baker 
and  miller  guilds  in  1587,  we  find  the  following  regulations  :  "  Cer- 
tain butchers  and  their  assistants  occasionally  use  their  unhealthy 
breath  to  inflate  the  meat  of  calves,  wethers  and  buck*,  especially 
in  the  breast,  in  order  to  make  it  larger  and  weigh  more  (?).  To 
stop  this  repulsive  and  abominable  deception  and  prevent  all  harm, 
all  masters  of  the  guilds  and  accredited  meat  inspectors  shall  give 
diligent  attention  to  these  points." 

The  meat  and  butcher  regulations  of  the  principality  of 
Wiirtemberg  in  1588  prescribed  that  "  the  higher  and  lower  order 
of  officials  and  sheriffs  "  shall  exercise  careful  control  of  the  slaugh- 


20  GESEBAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

tering  industry.  A  general  Wiirtemberg  rescript,  in  the  year  1605,. 
forbids  the  slaughter  of  "  tainted  "  animals.  The  butcher  ordinance 
of  the  same  year  directs,  furthermore,  that  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  police  "  to  observe  that  no  other  than  healthy,  nutritious, 
and  clean  meat  shall  come  into  the  market.  To  this  end,  slaughter 
houses,  abattoirs  and  wagons  shall  constantly  be  kept  clean  and  no 
other  than  healthy  meat  shall  be  slaughtered."  Every  individual 
who  had  bought  meat  from  other  localities  was  required  to  file  with 
the  official  inspectors  an  official  certificate  concerning  the  health 
of  animals  in  that  region.  The  inspectors  passed  upon  the  cer- 
tificate, inspected  the  animals  while  living,  and,  after  slaughter, 
determined  the  marketability  of  the  meat,  and  "  in  general  attended 
to  all  matters  pertaining  to  a  faithful  service  of  the  public  in  this 
regard." 

In  the  "Statut  des  ehrsamen  Fleischhauerhandwerks "  of 
Schwiebus  of  the  year  1590,  the  following  paragraphs  are  found  : 

"(8)  We  shall  have  care  that  each  master  of  meat  inspection 
shall  slaughter  clean,  good,  vigorous  and  marketable  animals.  If, 
however,  one  or  the  other  of  these  officers  shall  violate  this  rule, 
then  the  other  masters  shall  take  counsel  and  he  shall  be  punished 
according  to  the  verdict  of  his  associates." 

"  (24)  The  Jewish  method  of  slaughter  shall  be  entirely  for- 
bidden, and  any  master  of  inspection  who  shall  permit  a  Jew 
to  slaughter  according  to  their  custom,  whether  a  large  or  a  small 
animal,  shall  forfeit  his  office." 

The  communities  in  "Rappenmiinzbesirk  der  vorderoster- 
reichischen  Lander,"  to  which  Mar  bach,  Eufach,  Basel,  Colmar, 
Miinster,  Tiirkheim,  Kaysersberg,  Amerschweier  and  Mulhausen 
belonged,  concluded  in  1519  at  Ensisheim  to  grant  to  the  farmers 
an  inspection  of  their  animals  "at  the  public  market,"  if  the 
butchers  "did  not  give  a  reasonable  price  for  their  animals  and 
would  otherwise  retain  them  at  this  price.'* 

In  Bavaria  in  1615  detailed  regulations  were  enacted  con- 
cerning the  practice  of  meat  inspection.  In  addition  to  other 
points,  it  was  declared  that  no  calf  under  three  weeks  of  age 
should  be  slaughtered;  that  food  animals  "should  be  inspected 
alive  as  well  as  after  slaughter  in  the  manner  required  by  law,  and 
should  be  found  healthy"  by  ordained  sworn  meat  inspectors, 
"who  were  to  be  chosen  from  the  most  suitable  persons  by  our 
State  and  market  authorities  and  ordained,  or  similarly  appointed, 
one  for  each  village,  by  the  rural  courts  upon  the  authority  of. 
the  Four." 


HISTORY  21 


(b)  From  the  Thirty  Years    War  to  the  Present. 

As  a  result  of  tbe  Thirty  Years'  War,  the  regulations  which 
had  been  adopted  for  the  control  of  traffic  in  food  stuffs  as  well  as 
,so  many  other  of  the  conquests  of  civilization  were  lost.  In  this 
connection  it  is  instructive  to  read  a  letter  of  Johann  Georg, 
published  at  Annaburg,  February  13,  1654: 

"  To  the  Rentkammerverwalter  at  Naumburgk.  Faithful  Friend, — Since  I  have 
been  dutifully  informed  that  in  the  majority  of  the  cities  of  our  principality  there  is 
,a  lack  of  slaughter  houses  and  abattoirs,  that  part  of  them  have  been  ruined  and 
destroyed  by  war,  but  that  in  the  majority  of  places  they  have  not  been  rebuilt, 
therefore,  it  is  said  that  there  is  much  improper  and  corrupt  practice  with  regard  to 
food  animals,  much  injustice  and  self-seeking.  It  is  suspected  also  that  that  there  is 
extensive  fraud  in  the  estimation  of  the  price  of  meat.  We  can  not  overlook  this  any 
longer,  since  abattoirs  and  slaughter  houses  should  pay  a  certain  annual  tax  to  the 
cities,  and  this  has  not  occurred  in  the  cities  of  Naumburgk  and  Zeits  up  to  the 
present  time. 

"  Therefore,  we  command  you  by  the  authority  of  this  letter  to  lay  this  matter 
before  the  councils  of  the  cities  and  to  ascertain  from  them  whether  they  intend  to 
institute  and  erect  slaughter  houses  and  how  soon." 

In  a  second  rescript  of  July  15,  1654,  it  is  ordered  "  to  buy  or 
rent  at  least  one  slaughter  house,  since  many  less  prosperous  and 
small  cities  and  localities  have  made  a  beginning  in  the  erection  of 

;such  structures." 

There  were  but  few  other  ordinances  which  had  reference 
to  traffic  in  meat.  An  edict  of  the  council  at  Aachen  of  April  8, 
1664,  fixed  the  price  for  different  kinds  of  meat,  forbade  the  sale  of 

I  cow  meat  as  steer  meat,  and  prescribed  that  "since  horned  and 

'other  food  animals   (as,  unfortunately,  is  well  known)   sometimes 

jdie,  no  such  diseased  or  infected  animals  shall  be  slaughtered,  sold, 
or  held  for  sale,  and  all  unclean  and  foul-smelling  meat"  shall 
be  excluded  from  the  market. 

Moreover,  the  slaughter  ordinances  in  Rostock,  1699,  should  be 
mentioned,  in  which  the  slaughter  and  sale  of  animals  which  had 
been  bitten  by  dogs  was  forbidden.  Furthermore,  it  was  forbidden 
that  mangy,  dropsical  sheep,  or  those  affected  with  pox,  or  which 
had  defects  in  the  internal  organs,  should  be  brought  to  slaughter 

•  or  offered  for   sale.     Likewise  the  sale  of  measly  hogs  was  for- 

j  bidden. 

A  second  general  ordinance  was  passed  in  Mecklenburg  con- 
cerning meat  inspection  in  1710.  According  to  this  ordinance, 
regularly  appointed  inspectors  in  cities  were  required  to  see  that 

:.no  butchers  slaughtered  or  sold  any  unsound  animals.    In  case 


22  GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

of  doubt  concerning  the  health  of  an  animal,  the  magistrate  or 
city  authorities  were  required  to  institute  an  inspection  by  the 
kreisphysicus  or  some  other  physician,  whose  decision  was  to  be 
awaited.  In  1783  the  inflation  of  the  fresh  meat  ot?  calves  and 
wethers  by  means  of  the  mouth  was  forbidden,  and  later  alsa 
inflation  with  bellows,  in  spite  of  the  vigorous  protests  of  certain 
butchers. 

Likewise,  a  decree  of  the  principality  of  Hanover  in  the  year 
1712  provided  severe  penalties  against  the  practice  of  inflating 
meat  in  order  to  give  it  a  shining,  voluminous  appearance,  and 
finally  directs  that  "all  officers  or  persons  who  have  charge  of 
the  veterinary  police  shall  be  ordered  to  have  meat  markets  and 
slaughter  houses  visited  frequently  by  their  assistants  without 
previous  announcement." 

Moreover,  a  Hanover  rescript  of  the  year  1716  prescribes  that 
food  animals  shall  be  inspected  before  slaughter,  and  that  when, 
found  to  be  healthy  they  shall  be  branded  upon  the  horns  and  after 
branding  shall  be  held  for  three  days,  after  which  they  may  be 
slaughtered  after  another  inspection.  In  the  same  year,  the  intro- 
duction of  smoked  and  salted  meat  was  forbidden  "because  it  is 
rumored  that  certain  unscrupulous  cattle  dealers  slaughter  animals. 
in  infected  localities  and  sell  the  meat  after  it  is  smoked  or 
salted." 

Likewise,  the  market  ordinance  of  Leipsic  in  1726  forbids 
the  sale  of  salted  or  smoked  meat,  a  provision  which  later  was 
enforced  throughout  Saxony. 

Meat  inspection  was  very  carefully  regulated  by  the  patent  of 
the  principality  of  Brunswig-Liiueburg,  March  31,  1732.  This. 
instrument  contained  the  following  statement:  "No  animal  shall  be 
slaughtered  either  for  the  market  or  for  private  consumption  before 
it  has  been  inspected.  Two  deputies,  assisted  by  two  sworn 
slaughterhouse  foremen  chosen  for  this  purpose,  shall  inspect 
under  oath  the  animals  which  are  designated  to  them  as  food 
animals.  If  they  find  them  to  be  healthy  and  without  defects, 
the  animals  shall  be  branded  with  a  G  on  the  right  horn  and  with 
the  same  character  upon  the  right  loin.  After  this  has  taken  place,, 
they  shall  sign  a  printed  certificate  containing  the  result  of  their 
inspection.  After  slaughter  the  skin  must  be  left  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  animal  until  the  above  mentioned  officers  have  in- 
spected the  brands  anew  and  have  declared  that  it  is  the  same 
animal  and  that  the  internal  organs  have  a  healthy  appearance. 
Por  these  duties  a  compensation  of  six  groschen  per  head  in  that 


HISTORY  23 

city  and  three  groschen  in  rural  districts  shall  be  paid.  If,  after 
the  slaughter  of  an  animal,  it  is  observed  that  it  is  diseased,  ifc 
must  be  removed  immediately  with  the  skin  and  the  entrails  and 
the  whole  carcass  must  be  buried  four  ells  deep  in  the  earth." 

An  imperial  Austrian  decree  of  1753  prescribes  that  "since 
so-called  cow-herds  and  skinners  have  the  effrontery  to  salt  and 
sell  to  unsuspecting  people  the  meat  and  tongues  of  cattle  which 
have  died,  and  since  these  must  be  highly  dangerous  to  the  human., 
body,  all  courts  are  ordered  to  exercise  strict  care  that  such 
enemies  of  mankind  and  self-seekers  shall  be  exemplarily 
punished." 

A  mandate  of  the  principality  of  Saxony  of  November  6,  1753,; 
directs  that  "  in  case  of  the  prevalence  of  animal  plagues,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  transmission  of  these  diseases  to  man,  th"e  meafr 
of  these  diseased  animals  shall  not  be  sold." 

A  general  decree  in  Baden  on  January  31,  1756,  forbade  the 
slaughter  of  calves  and  goat  kids  under  three  and  one-half  week* 
of  age. 

According  to  a  ducal  ordinance  in  Zweibrlick  on  October  15, 
1767,  meat  inspectors  were  required  to  give  heed  that  no  calf 
should  be  slaughtered  which  did  not  weigh  at  least  thirty-two 
pounds.  By  a  general  ordinance,  dated  April  3,  1756,  in  Vienna,  it 
was  prescribed  that  all  animals  of  whatever  species  should  be- 
brought  for  inspection  either  to  the  appointed  local  judges  or  to 
the  ordained  meat  inspectors. 

According  to  a  Royal  Prussian  general  decree  of  February  1, 
1769,  animals  which  were  bloated  from  excessive  feeding  with 
clover  or  turnips  were  excluded  from  inspection  daring  life  a£ 
well  as  from  compulsory  slaughter  by  a  butcher.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  patent  and  instructions  of  April  13  of  the  same  year 
prescribed  that  as  soon  as  a  plague  appeared  in  any  locality 
all  arbitrary  slaughter  of  cattle  without  the  knowledge  of  the 
authorities  and  the  pickling  of  meat  should  cease. 

On  the  occasion  of  an  outbreak  of  rinderpest,  an  electoral 
Bavarian  ordinance  of  the  year  1796  forbade  the  consumption  of 
animals  which  had  been  killed  or  which  had  died  of  the  disease, 
and  added  the  remark  that  any  person  who  secretly  sold  the  meafc 
or  internal  organs  of  such  an  animal  should  be  punished  as  a 
poisoner. 

A  general  decree  in  Baden,  in  the  year  1756,  was  directed 
against  the  slaughter  of  immature  calves  and  kids.  In  the  yea* 
1772,  in  the  same  city,  an  ordinance  was  passed  with  reference 


24  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

to  the  determination  of  the  adaptability  of  the  meat  of  diseased 
animals  for  food  as  follows :  "  That  in  the  case  of  a  diseased  animal 
which  died  of  an  epidemic  plague,  the  opinion  of  a  physician 
with  regard  to  whether  the  meat  can  be  eaten  or  not  must  be 
obtained.  If,  however,  it  died,  not  of  an  epidemic,  but  of  some 
other  disease,  and  the  official  is  disposed  to  allow  the  slaughter 
of  the  animal,  an  examination  must  be  made  in  every  case  by 
the  meat  inspectors  or,  in  their  absence,  by  local  officials,  and  a 
judgment  must  be  rendered  whether  the  meat  is  fit  to  be  eaten 
or  not." 

This  ordinance  was  passed,  as  Johann  Peter  Frank  asserts 
in  his  "  System  einer  Vollstandigen  Medizinichen  Polizei "  (1784- 
1788),  "in  order  not  to  increase,  except  from  absolute  necessity, 
the  great  loss  of  important  food  material  in  such  unhappy 
times." 

Highly  interesting  are  the  detailed  directions  for  meat  inspec- 
tors in  Bruchsal  which  were  published  at  the  same  time  and  which 
contained  a  sample  of  veterinary  science  from  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  directions  read  : 

ult  shall  be  the  duty  of  meat  inspectors  to  prevent  the  public 
sale  or  consumption  of  diseased  animals ;  for  example,  animals 
suffering  from  lung  disease  (liarilungenfalige),  jaundice,  anthrax, 
pearl  disease,  cysticercus  disease,  cancer,  glanders,  mange  or  any 
other  existing  disease  whereby  disgust,  disease  or  plagues  may 
be  communicated  to  and  disseminated  in  man  and  animals." 
Moreover,  detailed  directions  were  given  for  the  inspection  of 
animals  before  slaughter  (whether  the  animal  intended  for  slaughter 
looked  lively  and  fresh  in  the  eyes  and  whether  it  would  walk 
readily),  as  well  as  after  slaughter  (inspection  of  the  meat  and 
entrails  to  determine  whether  the  gall  bladder  was  too  large,  as 
was  known  to  be  true  in  the  prevailing  animal  plagues  ;  whether 
the  spleen  was  too  black  or  too  large  and  whether  the  intestines 
were  red  or  blue  and  tympanitic,  etc.). 

Furthermore,  it  was  declared  "that  it  should  be  the  chief 
Junction  of  meat  inspectors  to  be  on  duty  from  time  to  time  with 
police  assistants,  not  only  in  the  slaughterhouses,  but  also  in 
the  public  market,  and  that  at  least  one  of  them  should  appear 
daily  and  give  special  heed  that  the  meat  was  always  cut  up 
in  a  proper  manner  by  the  butchers,  was  not  sold  for  more  than 
the  quoted  price,  and  that  the  whole  procedure  was  according 
to  the  Articles  of  the  Butchers'  Guild  and  the  quotations  of  the 
prices  of  meat." 


HISTORY  25 

The  first  mention  which  we  find  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  is 
in  the  general  rescript  of  Wiirtemberg  in  the  year  1761,  which 
prescribed  in  case  of  an  outbreak  of  an  animal  plague  that*' if  a 
trained  scientific  veterinarian  is  established  in  the  bezirk,  the  high 
bailiff  shall  have  the  necessary  careful  inspection  made  immediately 
on  the  spot  by  him,  or  otherwise  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
the  chief  physician  by  some  legitimate  practicing  veterinarian  who 
has  passed  an  examination." 

The  electoral  government  of  Bavaria,  in  a  general  mandate  of 
August  16,  1761,  revived  the  regulations  concerning  meat  inspection 
from  the  year  1615  as  follows :  "  Persons  who  wish  to  have  animals 
slaughtered  shall  give  notice  of  such  purpose  to  duly  installed  meat 
inspectors  and  brand  butchers  in  order  that  both  large  and  small 
animals  may  be  slaughtered  in  the  presence  of  meat  inspectors  and 
that  thus  any  punishment  may  be  avoided,  and  this  shall  be 
enforced  whether  the  animal  is  healthy  or  infected  with  a  disease, 
in  order  that  the  meat  may  be  buried,  or  utilized  in  case  it  is 
healthy." 

The  appointment  of  "  two  reliable  and  trained  men  for  the 
slaughtering,  inspection  and  description  of  anima's"  was  prescribed 
also  for  those  places  where  there  were  no  butchers. 

Of  the  newer  regulations,  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
Wiirtemburg  ministerial  decree  of  the  year  1802  concerning  the 
prevention  of  the  then  so  frequent  cases  of  sausage  poisoning,  and 
another  decree  from  the  year  1822,  which,  in  consequence  of  an 
outbreak  of  rinderpest,  prohibited  all  traffic  in  horned  animals  and 
meat,  as  well  as  the  utilization  of  the  skins,  meat,  dung  and  tallow 
of  diseased  or  affected  animals  in  infected  localities.  In  1822  the 
use  of  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  anthrax  was  also  for- 
bidden. 

A  scientific  influence  manifested  itself  first  in  those  ordinances 
which  were  passed  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  This  influence, 
however,  aside  from  the  Bruchsal  ordinance,  was  merely  of  local 
application,  and  consequently  the  action  of  official  decrees  was 
defective. 

The  previously  mentioned  J.  P.  Frank  specifically  called  atten- 
tion to  this  unfortunate  condition  toward  the  end  of  the  18tli 
century  and  simultaneously  indicated  the  importance  of  the  official 
regulation  of  the  traffic  in  food  materials  for  the  public  welfare,  in 
connection  with  numerous  examples.  The  lack  of  scientifically- 
trained  veterinary  surgeons  was  felt  most  keenly.  This  deficiency* 

obviated  by  the  establishment  of  veterinary  schools  at  the  end 


26  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON  MEAT   INSPECTION 

of  tlie  18th  century  and  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  As  veter- 
inary science  flourished  and  becMine  disseminated,  a  remarkable* 
change  took  place  with  reference  to  judging  the  meat  of  diseased 
animals.  While  in  earlier  times  up  to  the  18th  century  in  all 
civilized  countries  the  meat  of  diseased  animals,  with  the  qualified 
exception  of  measly  meat,  in  which  tuberculous  meat  was  also 
included,  was  considered  as  dangerous  to  human  health,  veterinary 
science  began  to  demonstrate  that  much  meat  which  had  so  long 
been  held  to  be  dangerous  was  in  reality  harmless.  Graber  right- 
fully says:  "It  is,  however,  an  old  experience  in  the  realm  of 
science  that  new  and  surprising  truths  drag  everything  with  them 
in  unreasoning,  blind  devotion  until  geniuses  sober  down  again  to 
a  cool,  reasonable  way  of  thinking."  Thus  the  veterinary  teaching 
of  the  harmlessness  of  meat  in  cases  of  certain  animal  diseases 
very  rapidly  matured  into  a  general  belief  that  all  meat  of  diseased 
animals  is  harmless. 

This  erroneous  view  led  to  a  sudden  change  of  opinion  on 
the  question  of  the  regulation  of  meat  inspection.  While  some 
governmental  authorities  sought  to  overcome  the  increasing  pro- 
tests against  official  prohibitions  by  means  of  constantly  renewed 
ordinances,  an  unfortunate  indifference  manifested  itself  in  the 
other  direction.  Thus,  a  ministerial  rescript  in  Prussia  in  1826 
declared  that  it  was  not  permissible  to  compel  non-union  butchers 
to  slaughter  in  an  abattoir.  It  was  allowed  them  to  slaughter  in 
their  own  establishments  without  restriction,  as  actually  happened 
in  the  royal  palace.  As  a  result,  slaughterhouses  gradually  fell 
into  disuse  in  certain  cities,  and  in  1842  none  of  the  three  pre- 
viously established  slaughterhouses  in  Berlin  were  in  existence. 
It  was  not  until  the  year  1852  that  Kiichenmeister  established 
the  fact  that  hog  cysticerci  were  the  embryonic  stages  of  Taenia 
solium  of  man,  and  that  the  trichina  epidemics  which,  during  the 
60's  of  the  previous  century,  appeared  iu  northern  Germany  to 
an  alarming  extent,  again  attracted  public  attention  to  the  necessity 
of  regulating  meat  inspection.  When  in  the  year  1864  a  commis- 
sion of  the  Berlin  Medical  Society  met  for  consultation  concerning 
preventive  measures  against  the  danger  from  trichina,  they  con- 
sidered it  their  first  duty  to  recommend  the  establishment  of 
public  slaughterhouses  for  the  preservation  of  the  public  health. 

la  southern  Germany  meat  inspection  suffered  less  from  the 
above  described  retrogression,  as  is  to  be  seen  from  the  decrees 
concerning  meat  inspection  for  lower  Bavaria,  October  21,  1836, 
and  for  Sw;ibia  and  Neuburg,  January  10,  1857.  In  the  first  named 


HISTORY  27 

ordinance,  a  system  of  instruction  for  meat  inspectors,  three  grades 
of  meat  were  distinguished:  (1)  marketable;  (2)  non-marketable ; 
(3)  non-edible.  Other  ordinances  concerning  meat  inspection  were 
passed  in  Wiirtemberg  in  1860,  in  Bavaria  in  1862,  and  in  Baden  in 
1865,  despite  the  f.ict  that  in  southern  Germany  the  danger  from 
trichinosis  did  not  exist.  In  the  south  German  regulations  con- 
cerning meat  inspection,  the  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of 
trichina  in  pork  was  not  considered.  It  is  therefore  probable  that 
the  connection  which  had  been  demonstrated  by  Kiichenmeister 
between  the  cysticercus  of  food  animals  and  the  tape  worms  of 
man  furnished  the  chief  impetus  to  a  reorganization  of  meat 
inspection  in  addition  to  the  general  feeling  of  its  necessity. 

The  Kingdom  of  Prussia  in  the  year  1868  passed  a  law  with 
regard  to  the  establishment  of  public  slaughterhouses  to  be  used 
exclusively  for  this  purpose,  and  laid  down  the  foundation  for  the 
practice  of  a  scientific  meat  control. 

The  biological  investigations  concerning  muscle  cysticerci  and 
trichinae  were  the  first  building  stones  for  the  structure  of  scientific 
meat  inspection.  During  the  70's,  Gerlach  carried  out  investiga- 
tions concerning  the  transmissibility  of  tuberculosis  by  the  con- 
sumption of  the  meat.  It  was  Gerlach  also  who  published  the 
first  scientific  work  on  meat  inspection  ("Die  Fleishkost  des. 
Menschen").  Simultaneously,  Lydtin,  the  head  of  the  veterinary 
service  in  Baden,  organized  in  a  model  manner  a  system  of 
practical  meat  inspection  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden.  The 
most  important  advances  of  our  science  in  the  last  twenty  years  are 
due,  however,  to  Bellinger,  who  indefatigably  and  with  convincing 
arguments  insisted  upon  the  great  public  importance  of  meat 
inspection,  and  who,  by  means  of  his  treatises  on  meat  poisoning, 
as  well  as  l»y  means  of  his  numerous  experimental  investigations 
concerning  the  virulence  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  laid  a 
solid  foundation  for  practical  meat  inspection.  These  investiga- 
tions possess  a  quite  peculiar  value  because  they  were  carried  out 
in  an  accurate  manner  with  the  utilization  of  the  results  of  bac- 
teriological science  which  had  developed  rapidly  in  the  meantime. 
Schmidt-Mulheim  also  attacked  the  problems  of  our  science  witk 
effective  results  in  its  development.  Being  a  trained  physiologist, 
lie  treated  the  science  of  meat  inspection  and  the  methods  of 
slaughtering  in  a  scientific  manner  in  his  "  Lehrbuch  der  Fleisch- 
kunde."  Later  he  was  able  to  arouse  interest  in  meat  inspection 
by  founding  a  journal  which  was  devoted  entirely  to  meat  inspec- 
tion and  the  knowledge  of  animal  food  materials.  Schmidt- 


.28  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON   MEAT  INSPECTION 

IMiilheim,  by  the  trenchant,  if  not  always  considerate,  articles  in 
his  periodical,  produced  striking  results  with  regard  to  a  more 
uniform  treatment  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  the  practical 
^application  of  meat  inspection  to  the  pure  food  law  which  appeared 
in  1879,  and  the  introduction  of  "freibanks"  in  northern  Germany. 

From  this  period  a  large  number  of  veterinarians  in  the  service 
of  public  sanitation  took  the  most  active  interest  in  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  meat  inspection  and  in  clearing  up  the  numerous 
problems  in  this  field  which  still  awaited  definite  solution.  The 
publications  of  individual  abattoir  veterinarians  and  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  incorporated  societies  of  these  workers  furnish 
evidence  that  the  abattoirs  served  also  the  purpose  of  scientific 
institutions.  Mascher,  in  his  brochure  entitled  "Wesen  und 
Wirkungen  des  Schlachthauszwanges,"  rightfully  says:  "The 
requirement  of  slaughter  in  abattoirs  changes  every  slaughterhouse 
into  a  temple  of  natural  science,  in  so  far  as  meat  inspection  is 
•entrusted,  not  to  apprentices  in  the  public  sanitary  service,  but  to 
the  masters  of  veterinary  science."  Of  the  strides  in  advance 
which  have  been  made  in  slaughterhouses,  I  mention  merely  the 
-construction  of  an  apparatus  for  the  disinfection  of  condemned 
-animals  by  de  la  Croix  in  Antwerp,  the  discovery  of  the  most 
frequent  location  of  beef  cysticerci,  and  the  method  for  sterilizing 
the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  due  to  the  discovery  of  Hertwig, 
formerly  the  head  of  municipal  meat  inspection  in  Berlin. 

The  rapid  development  of  meat  inspection,  however,  was  made 
possible  only  by  the  fact  that  the  teaching  of  meat  inspection  was 
introduced  into  the  veterinary  schools  and  was  incorporated  into 
veterinary  curricula,  in  consequence  of  governmental  regulations 
concerning  the  examination  of  veterinarians ;  for  in  this  manner 
trained  men  are  produced  who  are  competent  to  make  a  practical 
application  of  the  theories  of  meat  inspection. 

Concerning  the  history  of  meat  inspection  in  countries  other 
"than  Germany,  the  following  notes  may  suffice :  According  to 
Morot,  ordinances  concerning  meat  inspection  were  passed  in 
.Scotland  in  the  years  1153  and  1284 ;  in  Italy,  in  1221  (Naples  and 
..Sicily) ;  and  in  Belgium  in  1333  (Tournay).  The  regulations  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  were  characterized  by  the  draconie 
punishments  which  were  provided.  Butchers  were  not  allowed  to 
slaughter  either  boar  or  sow  meat  as  pork,  or  to  deal  with  animals 
which  died  a  natural  death,  or  with  meat  which  had  been  kept  over 
from  one  day  to  another,  without  acquainting  the  purchasers  with 
4hese  facts.  The  punishments  provided  for  such  cases  were  the> 


PRESENT   STATUS   IN   CIVILIZED   COUNTRIES  29' 

following :  For  the  first  offence,  a  fine  of  a  lire  of  gold  or  corporal 
punishment;  for  the  second  offence,  cutting  off  the  hand;  and  for 
the  third  offence,  hanging. 

In  France  an  edict  was  issued  on  January  30,  1350,  to  the 
effect  that  only  good,  healthy  meat  should  be  sold,  and  also  that 
meat  should  not  be  kept  after  slaughter  for  more  than  two  days  in 
winter,  or  more  than  one  and  one-half  days  in  summer.  According 
to  Morot,  meat  inspection  was  practiced  in  certain  communities  at 
an  earlier  date  (1162).  The  execution  of  meat  inspection  regula- 
tions was  entrusted  to  magistrates  and  experts  (prudhommes). 
The  first  public  abattoirs  in  France  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
thirteenth  century;  for  example,  the  ecorcherie  in  Amiens.  Morot 
collected  numerous  ordinances  in  France  which  contained  interest- 
ing prohibitions  of  the  sale  of  fetuses,  still-born  animals,  and  of' 
inflated  meat,  etc.  The  sale  of  measly  meat  was  usually  forbidden. 
Only  in  case  of  slight  infestation  by  cysticerci  was  meat  permitted 
to  be  sold  under  declaration  of  its  condition.  According  to  an  edict 
of  Robert  von  Anjou,  in  which  the  intolerance  of  that  period  is 
reflected,  Jewish  slaughterhouses  were  separated  from  the  Christian. 
Moreover,  it  was  forbidden  to  Jews,  lepers,  and  prostitutes  to  touch 
with  the  fingers  the  meat  which  was  exposed  for  sale.  Another  law 
concerning  the  inspection  of  animals  and  meat  was  passed  on 
July  22,1791.  Napoleon  I  established  in  Paris  in  1807  public 
slaughterhouses  at  the  expense  of  the  city  and  at  the  same  time 
closed  all  private  slaughterhouses  within  the  city  limits.  By  a. 
decree  dated  February  10,  1810,  this  order  was  extended  to  include 
all  the  larger  and  middle-sized  cities  of  France.  The  establish- 
ment of  public  slaughterhouses  in  France,  however,  received  a. 
material  impetus  by  the  decree  of  Napoleon  III,  August  1,  1864, 
according  to  which  the  taxes  on  the  construction  capital  and  the 
amortizement  were  to  be  returned  to  the  city  government,  while  the 
slaughter  fees  were  not  to  exceed  the  expenses  of  maintaining  and 
managing  the  institutions. 

3.— Present  Status  of  Meat  Inspection  in  Civilized  Countries. 

In  view  of  the  great  public  value  of  meat  inspection,  it  is 
exceedingly  strange  that  not  all  civilized  countries  have  granted 
their  citizens  the  benefit  of  a  regulated  meat  control.  A  general 
regulation  of  meat  inspection  is  found  at  the  present  time,  outside 
of  Germany,  only  in  Belgium,  France,  Holland,  Spain,  Italy,. 
Austria-Hungary,  Roumania,  and  Switzerland.  Meat  inspection^. 


30  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON  MEAT   INSPECTION 

however,  is  practiced  in  these  countries  at  the  present  time  in  very 
different  ways. 

COUNTRIES   OTHER  THAN  GERMANY. 

With  the  general  organization  of  meat  inspection  in  Belgium, 
for  the  basis  of  which  the  meat  inspection  ordinance  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Baden  was  taken,  the  more  or  less  imperfect  system  of 
other  countries  stands  in  marked  contrast.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
Trance  there  is  no  law  concerning  the  general  practice  of  meat 
inspection.  It  is  only  in  Section  90  of  the  Regulations  for  the 
Practice  of  Meat  Inspection  in  the  law  of  July  21,  1891,  and  in 
Article  63  of  "Code  Rural"  that  it  is  prescribed  that  abattoirs  and 
private  slaughtering  establishments  shall  be  subject  to  the  per- 
manent control  of  specially  appointed  veterinarians.  According  to 
Moule,  however,  this  regulation  is  not  carried  out  everywhere  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  According  to  my  information,  governmental 
meat  control  in  France  is,  generally  speaking,  restricted  to  a  certain 
number  of  cities.  In  Holland,  the  conditions  are  similar,  and  the 
only  point  which  is  regulated  in  a  uniform  manner  is  that  of  the 
introduction  of  meat  from  foreign  countries,  according  to  an 
ordinance  of  January  1,  1899.  The  introduction  and  transportation 
of  the  meat  of  solipeds  is  forbidden,  except  whole  animal  bodies 
which  are  provided  with  skin  and  respiratory  apparatus  in  their 
natural  connection  and  which  have  been  declared  suitable  for  food 
by  an  official  veterinarian.  In  Spain  the  meat  inspection  ordinance 
of  February  24,  1859,  is  enforced  in  all  provinces ;  but  only  twenty- 
six  Spanish  cities  are  provided  with  public  abattoirs.  In  Italy,  a 
well  arranged  meat  inspection  law  was  passed  August  4,  1890 ;  the 
regulation  of  meat  inspection  is,  however,  left  with  provincial 
authorities,  whereby  a  thorough  reform  is  made  impossible.  In 
Austria-Hungary,  section  12  of  the  law  concerning  animal  plagues 
prescribes  that  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meats  is  to  be 
practiced  generally.  This  inspection,  however,  is  not  uniform  in 
Austria-Hungary,  since  its  organization  was  left  with  both  States 
and  individual  crown  lands,  and  was  put  into  practice  by  these 
upon  very  different  bases.  Perhaps  the  new  Austrian  law  of 
January  16,  1897,  concerning  the  traffic  with  food  stuffs,  will  bring 
about  a  uniformity  in  the  practice  of  meat  inspection.  There  are  in 
Austria  at  the  present  time  253  public  abattoirs  and  in  Hungary 
2,127.  Hungary  has  more  public  abattoirs  than  any  other  civilized 
country.  In  Boumania,  Article  23  of  the  General  Ordinance 
concerning  veterinary  sanitary  police,  of  April  6,  1891,  prescribes 


PRESENT   STATUS   IN   CIVILIZED    COUNTRIES  31 

that  animals  intended  for  general  use  shall  be  slaughtered  in 
special  slaughterhouses  and  shall  be  inspected  by  official  veter- 
inarians. This  ordinance  has  been  supplemented  by  the  sanitary 
law  of  July  14,  1893,  and  the  regulation  of  September  11,  1895, 
concerning  the  sanitary  supervision  of  the  preparation  of,  and 
traffic  in,  food  materials  and  drinks.  Finally,  in  Switzerland,  the 
sanitary  investigation  of  meat  intended  for  public  consumption  is 
entrusted  to  the  individual  governments  of  the  different  cantons. 
Merely  the  traffic  in  imported  meat  is  uniformly  regulated  by  a 
decree  of  the  Swiss  Federal  Council  of  December  1,  1901. 

Other  countries — as,  for  instance,  England,  which  is  otherwise 
so  well  organized  with  regard  to  public  sanitation  and  which  is 
called  the  cradle  of  hygiene — are  entirely  without  a  regulated  meat 
inspection.  The  only  event  in  this  line  which  has  occurred  in 
England  is  an  inspection  of  the  meat  offered  for  sale  in  private 
slaughterhouses  and  on  the  markets  by  "  inspectors  of  nuisances," 
practical  men  who  render  their  services  under  the  direction  of  the 
medical  sanitary  authorities.  A  law  passed  in  Scotland  in  1892 
gives  the  municipal  authorities  the  right  to  erect  a  public 
slaughterhouse  and  compel  slaughtering  to  take  place  in  it  and 
accordingly  to  forbid  the  further  use  of  private  slaughterhouses. 
Lately  the  local  Scottish  authorities  and  the  Scottish  Agricultural 
Department  have  declared  in  favor  of  introducing  a  general 
obligatory  meat  inspection  and  of  appointing  veterinarians  as 
inspectors.  A  beginning  has  been  made  in  Russia  in  the  establish- 
ment of  public  slaughterhouses  in  the  large  cities.  In  the  year 
1894  the  number  of  such  institutions  was  20.  Moreover,  a  regula- 
tion on  meat  inspection  was  issued  in  the  form  of  a  circular  letter 
of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  July  29,  1895,  concerning  the 
execution  of  Article  633  of  the  Medical  Laws.  According  to  this 
letter,  "with  reference  to  the  introduction  of  a  uniform  inspection 
of  food  animals  and  meats  in  the  whole  Empire,"  the  control 
of  emergency  slaughter  and  of  traffic  in  the  meat  of  diseased 
animals  was  required  to  be  enforced.  In  Denmark  there  are  seven 
public  slaughterhouses  with  meat  inspection.  Furthermore,  in 
that  country  the  exportation  of  slaughtered  animals  is  subject  to 
veterinary  control  by  a  decree  of  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture. 
Plans  are  being  made  in  Denmark  for  a  general  law,  according  to 
whicb  universal  meat  inspection  shall  be  introduced  in  all  cities  of 
more  than  2,000  inhabitants,  and  also  a  meat  inspection  in  rural 
districts  in  cases  of  emergency  slaughter.  In  Norway  and  Sweden 
at  the  present  time  meat  inspection  is  practiced  in  but  one 


32  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON   MEAT  INSPECTION 

slaughterhouse,  in  spite  of  the  law  concerning  communal  slaughter 
houses  of  June  27,  1892.  On  the  other  hand,  meat  inspection 
in  the  cities  of  these  countries  has  been  organized  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  law  of  July  27,  1895  ;  and  in  Norway  this  has 
taken  place  in  all  cities  of  more  than  4,000  inhabitants  (Norwegian 
regulation  of  November  5,  1895,  and  August  3  and  6,  1897).  Every 
Norwegian  city  of  more  than  4,000  inhabitants  is  compelled  to 
establish  a  station  for  the  investigation  of  meat.  Strange  to  say, 
fees  can  not  be  charged  for  the  inspection  of  meat,  even  for  that 
which  is  introduced  from  foreign  countries.  For  this  reason  it  is 
very  difficult  for  Norwegian  cities  to  establish  slaughterhouses  with 
any  prospect  of  an  income.  A  new  Swedish  law  concerning  meat 
inspection  and  slaughterhouses  of  December  22,  1897,  is  designed 
to  encourage  the  establishment  of  public  slaughterhouses  in  Sweden 
with  compulsory  slaughter  and  examination,  in  order  that  the 
required  sanitary  guaranty  may  be  given  for  meat  intended  for 
export  to  foreign  countries.  In  the  United  States  only  such  meat 
as  is  intended  for  export  was  first  subject  to  inspection  and  this  was 
on  the  basis  of  the  meat  inspection  bill  of  August  30,  1890.  In  the 
year  1895  another  law  was  passed  according  to  which  meat 
intended  for  internal  traffic  from  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  slaughtered 
in  abattoirs,  meat  conserve  factories,  pickling  houses  and  factories 
for  working  over  meat  products  must  be  inspected  by  official 
inspectors.  The  reliability  of  American  inspection,  however,  is 
rightfully  questioned,  since  in  American  hams  and  bacon  sides 
alleged  to  have  been  inspected,  numerous  trichinae  were  demon- 
strated in  the  subsequent  inspection  carried  out  in  Germany.  In 
the  year  1896,  23,275,739  animals  were  inspected  before  and  after 
slaughter  by  a  total  of  579  inspectors  in  123  slaughterhouses  which 
are  located  in  26  cities!*  The  American  meat  inspection  law  is 
distinguished  from  all  other  similar  laws  by  the  fact  that  it 
(Section  7,  c)  permits  the  return  of  condemned  animals  to  the 
owner  in  case  of  a  controversy  concerning  condemnation.  The 
owner  is  then  merely  required  to  make  a  monthly  report  under 
oath  as  to  what  has  been  done  with  the  condemned  animals,  and  in 
case  they  have  been  sold  he  is  required  to  state  to  whom,  whether 
for  use  as  food  material,  and  whether  under  declaration,  and  also 


*  Compare  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Bui  30,  "Trichinosis  in  Germany."  The 
author  weakens  his  argument  for  the  value  of  meat  inspection  by  attacking  the 
American  system.  The  German  method  is  poorly  systematized  as  compared  with 
ours,  and  it  is  hard  for  a  German  to  understand  how  we  can  inspect  animals  so- 
rapidly. — TRANSLATOR. 


PEESENT  STATUS   IN   CIVILIZED   COUNTRIES  33 

whether  all  this  has  transpired  after  a  previous  sterilization  or  not. 
Finally,  Japan  has  begun  to  introduce  meat  inspection  in  the  large 
cities,  since  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  domestic  animals  has 
become  a  more  or  less  prevalent  custom  among  the  Japanese. 

Meat  inspection  in  Belgium  is  regulated  according  to  the  royal 
edict  of  March  23,  1901,  in  connection  with  the  pure  food  law 
of  1890.  According  to  the  requirements  of  this  law,  all  meat  in 
Belgium  which  is  intended  for  human  consumption  is  subject  to 
official  inspection.  The  only  exception  is  the  meat  of  hogs 
slaughtered  for  home  consumption.  Moreover,  according  to  law, 
meat  inspection  is  restricted  to  an  investigation  of  slaughtered 
animals.  It  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  local  authorities  to  have 
an  organized  and  official  inspection  of  animals  before  slaughter. 
"  The  office  of  inspector  can  be  conferred  upon  veterinary  surgeons 
only."  In  communities  in  which  the  service  may  thereby  be 
benefited,  another  person  who  has  shown  the  required  knowledge 
may  be  assigned  as  an  assistant  to  the  veterinary  expert  (assistant 
meat  inspector).  For  the  veterinary  surgeon  is  reserved  the 
inspection  of  horses ;  all  animals  slaughtered  on  account  of  disease, 
or  fiom  necessity;  furthermore,  all  animals  which  have  reacted  fa 
tuberculin  or  are  otherwise  suspected  of  being  tuberculous,  or  in 
the  inspection  of  which  by  practical  meat  inspectors,  tuberculosis, 
actinomycosis,  foot  and  mouth  disease,  measles,  anthrax,  black  leg, 
pyemia,  septicemia,  swine  erysipelas,  sheep  pox,  sheep  scab, 
paralysis,  and  other  diseases  were  demonstrated  or  suspected* 
Fresh  meat,  with  the  exception  of  mutton,  may  be  introduced  from 
foreign  countries  only  as  whole  animals,  half  animals,  or  quarters, 
together  with  the  lungs.  The  introduction  of  the  prepared  meat  of 
solipeds  from  foreign  countries  is  forbidden.  Likewise,  meat  which 
comes  from  foreign  countries  is  to  be  officially  inspected  and 
stamped  as  foreign  meat,  "  Etranger,  vreemd." 

The  Belgian  law,  in  spite  of  sanitary  objections  which  might 
be  raised  to  the  contrary,  allows  the  introduction  of  canned  meat 
and  sausages  from  foreign  countries.  The  inspection  fees  for 
foreign  meat  amount  to  20  centimes  per  100  kg.  An  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  the  meat  inspector  is  permitted  within  twenty-four 
hours.  If  the  opinion  obtained  by  the  owner  of  the  meat  from 
a  veterinarian  of  his  choice  is  at  variance  with  the  previous 
opinion,  the  official  veterinary  inspector  must  decide  the  matter. 

The  Italian  regulation  of  1890  prescribes :  (1)  obligatory  in- 
spection of  all  food  animals  intended  for  human  consumptioa; 
(2)  establishment  of  public  slaughterhouses  in  communities  of  more 


S4  GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

than  6,000  inhabitants ;  (3)  entrusting  of  the  direction  and  manage- 
ment of  public  slaughterhouses  to  veterinarians;  (4)  destruction  of 
dangerous  meat ;  (5)  the  utilization  of  non-dangerous  meat  from 
diseased  animals  upon  freibanks.  (This  meat  shall  be  stamped 
<3.  B.  M.  \carni  basso,  macellaria,  freibank  meat]) ;  (6)  the  strict 
^regulation  of  the  inspection  of  meat  introduced  from  foreign 
•countries. 

GERMANY. 

In   Germany  the   following   conditions   prevailed  up    to    the 

^present  time  :*  the  Kingdoms  of  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Saxony, 

•the   Grand  Duchies   of  Baden  and  Hessen,   the    Duchies    Saxe- 

doburg-Gotha,  and  Saxe-Meiningen,  the  principalities  Schwarzburg- 

jKudolstadt,  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  as  well  as  crownland 

Alsace-Lorraine,  and  the  free  cities  Bremen,  Lubeck  and  Hamburg, 

shave  possessed  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time  a  regular  system  of 

meat  inspection. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  police  regulations  were  passed  for 

«ach  kreis  on  the  following  dates :  for  Mittelfranken,  February  18, 

J1885;    for  Bheinpfalz,  April  4,  1884;    for  Swabia  and  Neuburg, 

April  11,  1872 ;  for  upper  Bavaria,  June  2,  1862 ;  for  Oberfranken, 

.iJune  24,  1881 ;  for  lower  Bavaria,  July  21,  1876 ;  for  Unterfranken 

-and  Aschaffenburg,  September  10,  1874;    and  for  Oberpfalz  and 

jHegensburg,  October  8,  1872.     In   the   Kingdom  of  Wiirtemberg 

•-uniform  inspection  of  slaughter  and  traffic  in  meat  was  introduced 

tfoy  the  ministerial  decree  of  August  21,  1879.     The  Kingdom  of 

^Saxony  has  had  a  meat  inspection  law  since  July  1,  1898.     In  the 

Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  a  new  regulation  came  into  force  through 

the  meat  inspection  law  of  November  26,  1878 ;  and  in  the  Grand 

sDuchy  of  Hessen  by  the  meat  inspection  order  of  April  10,  1880. 

In  the  Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiuingen  the  decree  of  March  11,  1865, 

-concerning  meat  inspection  is  still  in  force,  while  in  the  Duchy 

of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  the  general  inspection  of  food  animals  and 

i:meat  is  regulated  by  an  ordinance  of  December  22,  1891.     In  the 

nprincipality  of  Schwarzburg-Kudolstadt  obligatory  meat  inspection 

was  introduced  by  an  ordinance  of  September  3,  1892,  and  in  the 

principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  by  the  decree  of  April 

16, 1895.     In  Alsace-Lorraine  meat  inspection  is  regulated  by  police 

ordinances  of  December  13,  1897,  and  January  1,  1895.     Finally, 

^*  The  wording  of  the  older  ordinances  concerning  meat  inspection  may  be  found 
*rin'  Schhimpp  Die  Fleischbeschau-gesetzgebung  in  den  Samtlichen  Bundesstaaten  des 
fiDeutchen  Reichs ;  that  of  the  newer  in  Zeit.  f.  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg. 


PRESENT   STATUS   IN   CIVILIZED    COUNTRIES  35 

"the  free  cities  Bremen,  Liibeck  and  Hamburg  introduced  obligatory 
meat  control  by  decrees  of  the  Senate,  February  21,  1889 ;  Septem- 
ber 10,  1884;  and  March  19,  1894. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  the  Grand  Duchies  Mecklenbnrg- 
Strelitz,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach  ;  in  the 
duchies  Anhalt,  Brunswick,  Oldenburg,  as  well  as  in  the  princi- 
palities Lippe  and  Beuss,  general  ordinances  concerning  obligatory 
inspection  of  all  food  animals  were  still  wanting.  Trichina  inspec- 
tion existed  as  an  obligatory  or  facultative  measure.  Furthermore, 
there  were  restrictions  on  the  traffic  in  meat  of  diseased  animals  and  a 
veterinary  inspection  of  horses  intended  for  slaughter  was  required. 
A  control  of  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  was  also  practiced  to 
\some  extent,  and,  on  the  basis  of  special  slaughterhouse  laws,  a 
model  meat  inspection  existed  in  a  large  number  of  cities. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  ten  years,  public  slaughterhouses  in 
Northern  Germany  have  rapidly  sprung  up.  For  example,  the 
number  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  has  increased  during  the  last 
decade  by  200.  Meat  inspection  in  the  rural  districts  of  Northern 
Germany  was,  however,  still  undeveloped.  Furthermore,  the  in- 
spection of  imported  meat  was  defective  and  lacked  uniformity 
throughout  the  whole  German  Empire,  in  so  far  as  it  was  mainly 
restricted  to  the  inspection  of  pork  for  trichina.  The  provisions  of 
the  imperial  law  of  May  14,  1879,  concerning  the  traffic  in  food 
materials,  condiments  and  manufactured  articles  gave  authority 
everywhere  for  supervision  of  the  traffic  in  meat.  These  provisions, 
however,  had  no  Listing  effect,  since  it  was  not  stated  how  the  law 
should  be  enforced  regarding  the  compulsory  inspection.  The 
Imperial  law  was  designed  merely  to  prevent,  under  threat  of 
punishment,  the  traffic  in  defective  meat.  This  kind  of  protection, 
however,  is  insufficient,  since  violations  of  the  law  are  demonstrated 
only  in  isolated  cases  or  accidentally  and  often  after  the  bad  results 
from  the  sale  and  consumption  of  injurious  meat  have  been 
produced. 

For  these  reasons  the  passage  of  an  imperial  law  concerning 
the  obligatory  inspection  of  all  food  animals  before  and  after 
slaughter  was  demanded  as  a  necessity.  The  significance  which 
was  ascribed  to  the  passage  of  such  a  law  appears  in  the  words 
of  Thronrede,  in  which  the  law  was  announced :  "-In  order  to  avoid 
the  dangers  which  are  connected  with  traffic  in  uninspected  meat 
intended  for  human  consumption,  whether  of  domestic  or  foreign 
origin,  the  general  introduction  of  the  inspection  of  food  animals 
and  meat  has  been  considered  by  the  allied  Begierungen.  I  hope 


36  GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF  MEAT  INSPECTION 

that  during  this  session  you  will  prepare   a  bill  regulating  this 
matter." 

Now  the  German  Empire  possesses,  in  the  law  of  June  3,  1900, 
concerning  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat,  the  foundation 
of  a  general  uniform  execution  of  meat  inspection  in  all  of  the 
allied  States.  The  passage  of  this  law  constitutes  a  mile  post  for 
public  sanitation  and  veterinary  science  in  Germany.  After  this 
law  became  effective,  Germany  became  the  tirst  civilized  country 
in  which  animal  food  was  subjected  to  a  regular  official  control, 
and  veterinary  science  may  point  with  pride  to  the  fact  that  this 
significant  hygienic  result  is  partly  due  to  the  indefatigable  efforts 
which  the  representatives  of  veterinary  science  have  put  forth  for 
several  decades  toward  introducing  a  general  compulsory  inspection 
of  food  animals  and  meat. 

4.— Practical  Execution  of  Obligatory  Meat  Inspection. 

The  practical  execution  of  obligatory  meat  inspection  will 
assume  a  different  form  in  large  cities  and  in  rural  districts. 

Meat  Inspection  in  Cities. — In  cities,  as  well  as  in  other 
communities  with  a  considerable  number  of  inhabitants,  the  erec- 
tion of  public  slaughterhouses  and  the  necessity  that  all  animals 
intended  for  human  food  should  be  officially  inspected  and 
slaughtered  in  such  institutions,  constitute  the  foundation  of  a 
proper  system  for  regulating  meat  inspection.  Stiles  rightly  says: 
"A  well  regulated  system  of  slaughterhouses  is  as  necessary  to 
public  health  as  is  a  well  regulated  system  of  schools  to  public 
education."*  Without  public  slaughterhouses,  obligatory  meat 
inspection  in"  large  cities  remains  a  half-way  measure,  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  impossible,  without  an  extensive  system  of 
officials,  to  supervise  the  traffic  and  slaughterhouses  of  individual 
butchers  scattered  here  and  there.  The  minimum  number  of 
inhabitants  which  requires  the  establishment  of  public  slaughter- 
houses is  in  part  determined  by  local  conditions.  It  is  desirable, 
however,  that  as  many  communities  as  possible  be  provided  with 
general  slaughterhouses.  In  the  Prussian  Regierungsbezhk  of 
Oppeln,  the  construction  of  public  slaughterhouses,  stimulated  by 
the  Imperial  Government,  has  progressed  to  such  an  extent  that  all 
cities  of  more  than  5,000  inhabitants  are  provided  with  one.  In 


*  "  The  Country  Slaughterhouse  as  a  Factor  in  the  Spread  of  Disease."    (Year-, 
took  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1896,  pp.  155-166.) 


PRACTICAL  EXECUTION  OF  OBLIGATORY  MEAT  INSPECTION  37 

Wiirtemburg  and  Baden  even  the  majority  of  small  cities  with 
3,000  or  less  inhabitants  are  provided  with  them.  Similar  con- 
ditions are  observed  in  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  this  region  18  of  the 
69  public  slaughterhouses  are  located  in  communities  with  less 
than  2,000  inhabitants. 

Public  Slaughterhouses  in  the  German  Empire. — The 

number  of  public  slaughterhouses  in  the  German  Empire  is  at 
the  present  time  (1901)  about  740,  distributed  as  follows  :  Prussia, 
381;  Bavaria,  77;  Wiirternberg,  62;  Saxony,  33;  Baden,  48; 
Hessen,  14;  Mecklenburg  Schwerin,  10;  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  2; 
S.ixe-Weimar,  3;  Brunswick,!;  Saxe-Meiniugen,  4;  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  3  ;  Anhalt,  4  ;  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  1 ;  Schwarzbnrg- 
Riulolstadt,  1;  Lippe-DetmoJd,  1;  Alsace-Lorraine,  69;  the  Free 
Cities,  3. 

There  are  no  slaughterhouses  in  Oldenburg  or  Saxe-Altenburg. 
According  to  Schwarz,  there  are  about  675  communities  in  the 
'^German  Empire  with  more  than  3,000  inhabitants  and  about  400 
with  more  than  5,000  inhabitants  which  are  still  without  a  public 
slaughterhouse. 

Public  Slaughterhouses  in  Prussia. — In  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia  there  are  at  present  381  public  slaughterhouses  which  are 
distributed  in  the  different  provinces  as  follows  :* 

East  Prussia,  42  ;  West  Prussia,  33  ;  Pomerania,  21 ;  Branden- 
l>urg,  28  ;  Posen,  44  ;  Silicia.t  55  ;  Saxony,  21 ;  Schleswig-Holstein, 
2;  Hanover,  21;  Westphalia,  44;  Hessen-Nassau,  17;  Rhine- 
province,  51 ;  Hohenzollern,  2. 

Meat  Inspection  in  the  Rural  Districts.— In  rural  dis- 
tricts and  in  very  small  communities,  the  erection  of  public 
slaughterhouses  is  out  of  proportion  to  their  utilization.  Moreover, 
in  smaller  communities  the  conditions  are  so  simple  that  slaughter- 
ing might  be  supervised  without  such  institutions.  We  may, 
therefore,  do  without  public  slaughterhouses  in  rural  districts. 
On  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  example  of  the  Regierenbezirk 
of  Oppeln,  the  erection  of  communal  or  partnership  slaughter- 
houses for  neighboring  small  communities  is  to  be  recommended. 

*  In  the  year  1890  the  number  of  public  slaughterhouses  in  the  Kingdom  of 
^Prussia  was  180. 

f  Up  to  the  year  1886  there  were  but  six  public  slaughterhouses  in  Oppeln. 


38  GENERAL  DISCUSSION  OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

Furthermore,  as  Lohoff  has  stated,  it  is  at  least  desirable  in  rural 
districts  that  quarters  be  established  for  a  meat  inspector,  an--: 
inspection. station  for  imported  meat,  and  a  local  freibank. 

The  following  may  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  construction, 
equipment  and  management  of  public  slaughterhouses  in  large 
communities,  and  slaughtering  establishments  in  rural  districts,  the 
enforcement  of  compulsory  inspection,  mid  the  accessory  institu- 
tions which  are  inseparable  Ironi  meat  inspection  (freibanks  and 
the  insurance  of  food  animals). 

(A)  PUBLIC  SLAUGHTERHOUSES  IN  THE  LARGER  COMMUNITIES. 

Structure  and  Equipment.— It  should  be  distinctly  remem- 
bered that  the  interests  of  the  movement  will  be  best  served  if  the 
construction  of  public  slaughterhouses  is  not  entrusted  to  butcher 
unions,  as  frequently  happens,  but  is  kept  within  the  control  of 
the  community  itself.  The  fear  of  an  insufficient  income,  which  is 
entertained  by  certain  communities,  is  quite  unfounded,  as  is  shown 
l>y  the  yearly  reports  on  the  management  of  corporation  slaughter- 
houses. Communities  have  full  power,  by  fixing  the  fees  at  the 
proper  rate,  to  make  the  income  and  expenses  balance  each  other. 
At  any  rate,  when  in  exceptional  cases  a  slaughterhouse  is  managed. 
"by  a  corporation  under  directions  given  by  the  local  government,. 
all  cooperation  in  the  choice  of  technical  officials  for  meat  control 
must  be  prohibited  to  the  corporation.  It  requires  no  argument  to- 
show  that  institutions  designed  for  the  public  welfare  serve  their- 
purpose  only  when  directed  by  officials  who  labor  in  an  objective 
manner  and  not  when  directed  by  interested  industrial  guilds. 

It  is  often  asserted  by  the  opponents  of  public  slaughter- 
Louses  and  of  compulsory  slaughtering  in  these  places  that  the 
price  of  meat  is  increased  by  these  institutions.  This  assertion  is. 
disproved  by  experience,  as  was  first  clearly  demonstrated  by 
H.  Falk  and  recently  by  Kjerrulf,  by  means  of  the  most  painstaking 
statistical  compilations.  The  fees  for  slaughter  and  inspection, 
which  are  devoted  to  the  payment  of  the  expenses  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  slaughterhouses,  do  not  cause  an  increase  in  the 
price  of  meat,  since,  by  the  utilization  of  public  slaughterhouses, 
butchers  save  expenses  in  other  directions.  The  butchers  are  no 
longer  compelled  to  manage  their  own  slaughterhouses;  they  save 
the  fuel  required  for  heating  the  scalding  water;  they  realize  the 
possibility  of  an  economical  utilization  of  cold  storage  and  many- 
other  advantages.  Ifc  appears,  therefore,  in  this  as  in  all  other- 


PRACTICAL   EXECUTION   OP   OBLIGATORY  MEAT  INSPECTION  39 

industrial  lines,  that  business  can  be  conducted  on  a  large  scale 
cheaper  than  on  a  small  one. 

Concerning  the  expenses  and  income  of  municipal  public 
slaughterhouses,  the  opinion  of  the  Imperial  Saxon  Commission  for 
Veterinary  Service  of  April  23,  1893,  contains  the  statement  that 
the  establishment  of  a  municipal  public  slaughterhouse  in  no  sense 
financially  embarasses  the  city  and  does  not  burden  the  citizens 
with  new  taxes,  but  that  the  capital  devoted  to  the  construction 
and  uiMimgement  of  a  slaughterhouse  is  a  good  investment  under 
all  circumstances.  The  building  fund  may  be  obtained  for  3.J  per 
cent,  interest,  but  by  the  surplus  of  the  business  may  be  made 
to  yit-ld  5  to  6  per  cent.,  and  in  the  course  of  from  35  to  40  years 
the  debt  is  extinguished.  The  community  thus,  in  a  certain  sense 
without  expense,  becomes  the  owner  of  a  valuable  property  free 
from  all  encumbrance. 

In  the  construction  of  slaughterhouses  which  must  be  used 
exclusively,  consideration  must  be  had  for  all  requirements  with 
regard  to  the  supervision  of  the  industry,  the  convenient  occupation 
of  the  laborers,  and  Ihe  preservation  of  the  meat.  The  chief' 
requirements  are  sufficient  stalls  for  the  animals,  roomy  halls  for 
slaughtering  (German  system),  special  arrangements  for  cooling  the 
meat,  and  well-kept  cold-storage  plants  for  the  preservation  of  the 
refrigerated  meat.* 

The  French  room  system,  in  comparison  with  the  German  hall 
system,  has  several  disadvantages,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
possibility  of  supervising  slaughtering  and  the  cleaning  of  the 
slaughter  pens.  The  material  for  the  construction  of  floors,  ceilings, 
and  walls  is  to  be  selected  with  a  view  to  keeping  the  whole 
institution  clean,  and,  in  case  of  an  emergency,  to  making  possible 
a  thorough  disinfection.  For  convenience  in  cleaning  the  stalls 
and  slaughtering  stands,  every  abattoir  must  be  provided  with' 
flowing  water.  For  the  isolation  and  slaughter  of  infectious  animals 
a  separate  slaughter  hall  with  stalls  (plague  house,  together  with* 
sanitary  police  slaughterhouses)  is  to  be  constructed ;  and  for 
carrying  out  careful  investigations — aside  from  the  service  rooms 
of  the  meat  inspectors — a  post-mortem  room  and  laboratory  roonv- 
for  simple  microscopical,  bacteriological  and  chemical  investiga- 
tions, together  with  accessories  (stall  for  experimental  animals),. are 
required.  Furthermore,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  special  house  for  horses  and  a  freibank  with  sterilizing 

*  Compare  Schwarz,  "Bau,  Einrichtung  und  Betrieb  von  offentlichen  Schlachfc- 
hofen."  Second  edition.  Berlin:  1900. 


40  GENERAL   DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

apparatus.  For  the  artificial  illumination  of  abattoirs  with  a  view 
to  the  careful  practice  of  meat  inspection  in  the  evening,  only  the 
electric  light  and  the  so-called  millenium  li<jht  (combustion  of 
illuminating  gas  under  high  pressure  and  with  strongly  woveii  or 
double  mantels)  are  suitable.  Finally,  attention  should  be  given 
to  another  matter,  which,  unfortunately,  heretofore  has  not  been 
sufficiently  considered,  namely,  apparatus  in  abattoirs  which  makes 
possible  the  disinfection  or  technical  utilization  of  organs  and 
whole  animals  which  have  been  absolutely  excluded  from  use  as 
food.  In  small  abattoirs  in  which  the  number  of  condemned  parts 
and  animals  is  inconsiderable,  the  burning  of  such  parts  is  satis- 
factory. In  other  abattoirs,  however,  in  which  this  procedure  does 
not  pay,  arrangements  should  be  made  by  means  of  which  this 
refuse  matter  may  be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage.  Attention 
should  be  called  in  this  connection  to  the  fact  that,  according  to 
recent  methods,  it  is  possible  to  save  as  much  as  20  per  cent,  of  the 
original  value  of  animals  by  a  suitable  utilization  of  the  carcass, 
and  that  we  are  thus  in  a  position  to  preserve  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  national  wealth  for  productive  agriculture  and  thus  to 
reduce  the  loss  which  agriculture  would  sustain  through  the  con- 
demnation of  individual  organs  and  whole  animals  in  consequence 
of  meat  inspection.  Furthermore,  the  customary  procedure,  which 
has  been  quite  general  up  to  the  present  time,  of  turning  over  to 
knackers  the  animals  and  individual  parts  which  have  been  ex- 
cluded from  use  as  human  food,  can  not  be  considered  as  a 
satisfactory  solution  of  this  problem.  For  experience  has  shown 
that  the  journey  from  the  slaughterhouse  to  the  knacker's  estab- 
lishment and  the  disposition  of  the  meat  in  such  places  offers 
abundant  opportunity  for  underhand  traffic!  with  dangerous  meat 
Therefore,  it  is  desirable  that  knackers'  privileges,  which  are  still 
to  some  extent  in  force  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Prussia,  should 
be  withdrawn  by  the  municipal  mUhcrifcies  in  accordance  with  the 
powers  which  they  possess  (law  of  May  31,  1858,  and  of  December 
17,  1872).  The  knacker's  legal  right  of  coercion  is  touched  upon  iii 
the  imperial  Prussian  edict  of  April  29,  1872.  According  to  this 
document,  everyone  in  the  judicial  district  id  required  to  deliver 
to  the  knacker  animals  dead  of  infectious  diseases,,  meat  which  has 
stood  too  long,  and  also  animals  which  were  found  "unclean"*  at 
slaughter  (sheep  excepted).  Tha.t  this  edict  is  still  in  force  is 
apparent  from  a  decree  of  the  Prussian  Oberverwaltungsgerickfe 


*  For  the  significance  of  the  term  "unclean,"  see  page  116 


PRACTICAL   EXECUTION   OF   OBLIGATORY   MEAT   INSPECTION  41 

of  October  8,  1891,  which  stated  this  point  explicitly  and  which 
declared  a  police  regulation  illegal  in  which  a  butcher  was  for- 
bidden to  deliver  a  trichinous  hog  to  the  knficker  who  was  permitted 
the  coercion  right  upon  animals  in  his  district  which  were  found 
upon  slaughter  to  be  unclean.  It  was  also  asserted  that  the  claim 
of  the  knacker  to  the  delivery  of  unclean  animals  was  not  merely 
of  the  nature  of  a  private  right ;  for,  in  creating  knackers'  estab- 
lishments and  granting  them  privileges  with  right  of  coercion,  one 
of  the  objects  aimed  at  was,  by  means  of  getting  rid  of  dead  and 
diseased  animals,  under  regulations  established  by  the  municipal 
authorities,  to  reduce  the  danger  to  health  and  to  protect  the 
inhabitants  against  epidemics. 

The  legal  right  of  coercion  on  the  part  of  knackers  must  now 
oe  characterized  as  a  hygienic  anachronism  ;  for  knackers'  estab- 
lishments have  in  many  instances  failed  to  serve  the  purpose 
for  which  they  were  created.  From  the  many  examples,  mention 
may  be  made  only  of  the  cases  of  criminal  prosecution  which  have 
been  brought  within  the  past  few  years  on  account  of  the  sale 
of  knackers'  meat  by  the  knackers,  their  apprentices,  butchers, 
and  food  dealers  in  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Hagen,  Magdeburg,  Barmen, 
Stassfurt,  Glonn,  Uffenheim,  Meiderich,  Grossgerau,  Vilbel,  Diis- 
seldorf,  Dalheim  and  Breslau.  In  the  case  of  the  last  named  city, 
it  was  shown  in  the  testimony  that  the  knacker  had  for  years 
carried  on  an  extensive  business  with  the  meat  of  measly  and 
trichinous  hogs,  and  that  these  facts  had  first  been  brought  to 
the  attention  of  the  community  when,  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
sumption of  the  knacker's  meat,  three  persons  had  been  affected 
with  trichinosis  and  two  had  died. 

In  establishing  public  abattoirs,  attention  should  also  be 
directed  to  devices  for  the  rapid  and  odorless  destruction  of  the 
dung  and  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestinal  tract  of 
slaughtered  animals  and  to  the  establishment  of  a  direct  connection 
with  a  railroad ;  to  the  construction  of  a  special  platform  upon 
which  animals  imported  from  foreign  countries  are  unloaded  with- 
out corning  in  contact  with  native  animals,  and,  finally,  to  the 
establishment  of  separate  stalls  for  food  animals  imported  from 
foreign  countries.* 

Accessory  Industries  in  Connection  with  Abattoirs. — 
Among  the  lines  of  industry  (pickling  cellars,  smoking  rooms,  meat 

*  With  reference  to  the  establishment  of  an  abattoir  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
modern  times,  consult  the  description  of  the  new  slaughterhouse  and  stockyard  in 
Barmen  by  Koch,  "Zeit.  f.  Fleisch-  u.  Milchhyg.,"  Vol.  4,  No.  6. 


42  GENERAL   DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

mincing  establishments,  sausage  factories,  stripperies,  skin  salting 
rooms,  albnrneu  and  blood  fertilizer  factories,  tallow  factories,  oleo- 
margarine factories,  «'ind  inoculation  establishments  for  securing 
vaccine)  which  are  found  occupying  a  part  of  abattoirs,  only  such 
are  to  be  considered  permissible  as  may  be  conducted  without  odor 
and  without  interfering  with  the  real  business  of  the  abattoir.  The 
skin  salting  industry,  and  especially  the  manufacture  of  oleomar- 
garine, are  not  suitable  for  inclusion  in  abattoirs,  for  the  reason 
that  they  can  not  be  conducted  without  an  odor.  On  the  other 
Land,  institutions  for  obtaining  animal  sera  may  be  very  properly 
connected  with  abattoirs.  In  order  that  in  the  construction  of 
public  abattoirs  all  the  requirements  demanded  by  the  interests- 
of  the  various  industries  and  by  the  sanitary  police  regulations 
may  be  literally  fulfilled,  it  is  desirable  to  follow  the  example  .of 
several  cities  which  have  appointed  the  future  director  at  the  very 
beginning  of  the  work  of  construction  of  the  abattoir  in  order  that 
lie  might  be  present  to  assist  the  architect  in  planning  the  insti- 
tution. Abattoirs  are  sanitary  institutions  in  which  veterinarians- 
perform  their  duties.  The  latter  should,  therefore,  be  called  upon 
to  cooperate  in  projecting  the  plan  of  the  abattoir  in  so  far  as  they 
may  furnish  suggestions  for  necessary  details  of  structure  and  the 
most  convenient  equipment  of  the  abattoirs.  If  this  point  were 
always  observed,  the  number  of  public  abattoirs  with  conspicuous, 
defects  in  structure  or  arrangements  would  be  much  smaller. 

Connection  of  Slaughterhouses  with  Stockyards.— The 

connection  of  slaughterhouses  with  stockyards  gives  rise  to  the 
danger  that  plagues,  especially  foot-and-mouth  disease,  may  be 
transmitted  from  slaughterhouses  to  the  stockyards.  As  a  means. 
of  preventing  this,  the  Prussian  Technical  Deputation  for  the 
Veterinary  Service  (decree  of  the  Minister  for  Agi  iculture,  Public 
Domains  and  Forests  for  February  19,  1891,  to  all  of  the  Regierung 
Presidents)  recommended  the  following  measures :  If  the  trans- 
mission of  plagues  from  slaughterhouses  to  stockyards  is  to  be 
prevented  with  certainty,  both  establishments  must  be  separated 
from  each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  no  animals,  feeding  stuffs, 
dung,  or  other  materials  which  are  suspected  of  being  contaminated 
with  the  contagium  are  transported  from  the  slaughterhouse  to- 
the  stockyard.  Butchers  and  other  persons  who  come  in  contact 
with  animals  in  the  slaughterhouses  shall  be  allowed  access  to  the 
animals  in  the  stockyards  only  after  their  clothing  and  footwear 
have  been  subjected  to  a  satisfactory  cleaning  process.  It  is> 


PRACTICAL   EXECUTION   OF   OBLIGATORY   MEAT   INSPECTION  43 

necessary  to  have  an  arrangement  which  does  not  permit  animals 
which  have  been  brought  to  the  slaughterhouse  to  be  driven  away 
from  it  again  without  police  permission.  This  permission  is  to  be 
granted  only  in  case  the  animals  are  to  be  transported  by  rail 
to  another  slaughterhouse  under  regulated  veterinary  police 
supervision. 

If  there  is  connection  between  the  stockyard  and  the  slaughter- 
house, the  latter  must  be  connected  with  the  railroad  so  that 
animals  may  be  brought  to  the  slaughterhouse  directly  or  without 
contact  with  the  stockyards. 

The  introduction  of  animals  with  or  suspected  of  having  an 
infectious  disease  (pneumonia,  mange,  foot-and-mouth  disease) 
requires  the  erection  of  special  platforms  for  unloading  the  animals 
and  a  large  space  (plague  stall)  for  temporarily  holding  them. 

Moreover,  suitable  spaces  (stalls  and  recesses)  of  sufficient 
number  and  size  should  be  provided  in  connection  with  the 
slaughterhouse  for  the  temporary  reception  of  the  animals. 

It  is  also  a  requirement  of  veterinary  sanitation  that  the  stalls 
and  recesses  be  built  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  possible  the 
rapid  escape  of  urine,  and  that  the  floor  in  them,  including  the 
passage  ways  beneath  them,  should  be  made  of  cement. 

A  careful  veterinary  investigation  of  all  animals  brought  to 
the  stockyards  is  necessary  at  the  time  of  their  arrival  and  when 
they  are  taken  away.  For  this  purpose,  long  and  broad  platforms 
should  be  constructed,  upon  which  inspection  of  the  animals  may 
take  place  immediately  after  or  immediately  before  they  are  loaded 
on  the  cars.  For  receiving  and  shipping  small  animals  (sheep  and 
bogs)  it  is  desirable  to  have  constructed  two  adjacent  platforms 
with  impervious  floors,  one  of  which  may  serve  for  loading  and 
unloading  the  animals  which  are  transported  in  the  upp^r  deck 
of  the  cars.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  drive  or  transport  animals 
from  the  stockyards  to  the  slaughterhouse,  the  utilization  of  a 
special  passage  way  for  this  transportation  is  to  be  recommended, 
so  as  not  to  cross  the  passages  of  the  stockyards  through  which 
export  animals  have  passed. 

The  stockyards  should  contain  sufficient  space  for  the  con- 
struction of  large  halls,  recesses  and  stalls.  The  spaces  which. 
serve  for  the  reception  of  hogs  must  be  arranged  so  as  to  be 
reached  directly  by  special  unloading  platforms,  so  that  the 
passages  used  for  driving  hogs  in  and  out  shall  not  be  traversed  by- 
cattle  and  sheep. 

It  is  desirable  also  that  the  unloading  or  loading  of  sheep  shall 


44  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

be  contacted  separately  from  that  of  cattle  in  the  stockyards. 
A  large  observation  stall  should  be  constructed  in  a  suitable  part  of 
the  stockyard  and  as  near  as  possible  to  the  slaughterhouse,  and 
diseased  or  suspected  animals  which  ought  not  to  be  brought 
directly  into  the  slaughterhouse  are  to  be  received  in  this  stall. 
The  m MII nre  must  be  removed  daily  from  the  various  enclosures  in 
the  stocky ards  in  which  the  animals  stand  and  must  be  taken  to 
the  dung  heap.  The  latter  must  be  located  outside  of  passages 
and  places  over  which  animals  are  driven. 

(B)  SLAUGHTERHOUSES  IN  EURAL  DISTRICTS. 

In  rural  districts  attention  ought  to  be  given  to  securing 
perfect  cleanliness  and  satisfactory  ventilation  of  the  individual 
slaughtering  places  and  of  the  spaces  designed  for  the  reception  of 
slaughtered  meat.  The  possibility  of  a  technical  inspection  of  the 
meat  should  also  be  provided  for.  The  sterilization  of  confiscated 
meat  should  receive  more  serious  attention  in  the  future  in  rural 
districts,  and  it  is  especially  desirable  to  check  the  practice  of 
simply  throwing  condemned  organs  upon  the  dung  heaps.  On  this 
point  stringent  orders  are  issued  in  connection  with  the  imperial 
meat  inspection  law.  For  the  preliminary  reception  and  denatural- 
izing of  the  confiscated  meat,  Lohoff  recommends  that  hogsheads 
filled  with  creolin  water  should  be  placed  in  the  yards  of  private 
slaughterhouses. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  the  following  requirements  are 
made  in  issuing  permits  for  private  slaughterhouses  : 

The  height  of  the  butchering  rooms  shall  be  at  least  three 
meters  and  they  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  permit  of  windows  on 
two  opposite  walls  for  light  and  ventilation.  Or,  if  light  and  air 
enter  the  room  from  only  one  side,  care  must  be  taken  to  secure 
the  construction  of  one  or  more  air-shafts  for  ventilating  purposes, 
if  the  free  space  of  the  room  is  not  supplied  with  a  sufficiently 
rapid  change  of  air.  The  walls  of  the  butchering  room  are  to 
be  covered  with  cement  and  are  to  be  coated  to  the  height  of  at 
least  two  meters  with  a  light,  not  red,  oil  paint  The  floor  must  be 
impervious  to  water  and  must  not  be  planked.  For  the  fluid 
refuse  and  bloody  water,  which  can  not  be  allowed  to  run  into  the 
general  city  sewer  system,  a  water-tight  cesspool  must  be  provided, 
^with  a  tight  cover,  as  near  as  possible  to  the  butchering  room 
.and  connected  with  it  by  a  drain.  Into  this  cesspool  all  wash 
must  be  allowed  to  flow  by  gravity.  In  inhabited  regions  in- 


PRACTICAL   EXECUTION   OF   OBLIGATORY   MEAT   INSPECTION  45 

summer  the  cesspool  is  to  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  after  each, 
slaughter;  in  the  winter,  twice  a  week.  The  solid  slaughterhouse 
refuse  is  either  to  be  removed  immediately  after  slaughtering  or 
collected  in  a  special  water-tight  receptacle  and  covered  with 
caustic  lime  until  it  is  removed. 

The  slaughterhouse  must  be  so  constructed  that  a  view  from 
the  street  is  impossible.  As  a  rule,  slaughtering  in  the  yard  is 
to  be  prohibited. 

If  a  supply  of  pure  water  is  not  provided  for  in  other  ways,  it 
should  be  acquired  by  the  slaughterhouse  being  so  placed  that 
a  spring  is  found  in  the  yard,  or  water  should  be  piped  into  the 
house. 

(c)  COMPULSORY  INSPECTION. 

For  the  satisfactory  regulation  of  meat  inspection,  the  funda- 
mental principle  should  be  established  that  all  animals  intended  as 
food  for  man  are  to  be  inspected  before  and  after  slaughter.  The 
exceptions  which  are  made  in  older  regulations  in  meat  inspection 
with  regard  to  small  animals  (sheep  and  hogs)  and  young  animals 
are  without  hygienic  foundation  and  are  to  be  discontinued.  For 
diseases  frequently  occur  in  small  animals  so  as  to  render  the  meat 
dangerous  or  of  inferior  value  as  food.  It  is  only  necessary  to  call 
attention  to  tuberculosis  and  cysticerci  in  hogs,  to  erysipelas  in 
these  animals,  to  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague,  as  well  as  to 
the  numerous  organic  diseases  which  occur  not  only  in  hogs  but 
also  in  sheep  and  goats.  "With  regard  to  young  animals,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  those  pyemic  and  septic  diseases,  which  have 
unfortunately  become  so  well  known  through  cases  of  meat 
poisoning,  are  not  rare.  Moreover,  exceptions  in  favor  of  animals 
slaughtered  for  private  use  should  not  be  made,  for  the  person  who 
slaughters  them  may  not  only  injure  himself  by  enjoying  this 
exception,  but  also  his  family  and  servants.  It  should  also  be 
remembered  that  meat  ostensibly  slaughtered  or  alleged  to  be 
slaughtered  for  home  consumption  frequently  comes  into  other 
hands,  even  if  usually  limited  only  to  relatives.  Thus  in  Berlin 
in  the  last  twenty  years  sporadic  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  have 
frequently  occurred  after  eating  pork  which  had  been  slaughtered 
for  private  use  outside  of  Berlin,  and  which,  according  to  precepts 
of  the  regulations  in  the  place  of  slaughter,  was  not  required  to- 
be  subjected  to  an  examination  on  account  of  its  being  intended, 
for  private  purposes. 


46  GENEBAL  DISCUSSION  ON  MEAT  INSPECTION 

(D)  FREIBANKS. 

The  introduction  of  so-called  freibanks  or  similar  institutions 
«uch  as  have  long  existed  in  southern  Germany  are  inseparable 
from  the  regulation  of  meat  inspection.  Although  public  sanitation 
is  primarily  concerned  in  withholding  dangerous  meat  from  traffic, 
it  has,  nevertheless,  the  function  of  determining  that  the  traffic  in 
meat  shall  be  conducted  in  a  proper  manner.  No  more  of  the 
-capital  represented  by  food  animals  should  be  withdrawn  from 
the  national  resources  by  confiscation  than  is  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  protection  of  human  health.  This  tolerance  is,  moreover, 
indicated  from  a  consideration  of  the  production  of  the  cheapest 
possible  animal  food  for  the  greatest  number  of  people.  Far  more 
human  beings  die  from  defective  nutrition  than  from  the  harmful 
properties  of  meat.  Moreover,  the  national  resources  suffer  the 
loss  of  millions  (Bollinger)  when  only  one-half  to  three-fourths 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  food  animals  which  represent  values  of 
five  to  six  milliards  is  excluded  from  consumption.* 

Some  animals  must  therefore  be  admitted  for  human  food 
although  not  in  perfect  health,  but  the  meat  of  which  must  be 


*  From  April  1,  1892,  to  March  31,  1893,  in  243  public  slaughterhouses  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Prussia,  22,487  horses,  600,501  cattle,  914,216  calves,  916,962  sheep, 
4,72o  goats,  8,678  other  not  separately  counted  calves,  sheep  and  goats,  and  1,873,26ft 
hogs  were  slaughtered,  as  well  as  an  additional  number  of  30,056  horses  in  horse 

;  slaughterhouses.  Of  this  total  number,  the  following  numbers  were  found  unfit  for 
human  food  :  152  horses  =  0.3  per  cent.;  4,067  cattle  =  0.68  per  cent.;  1,171  calves 
=  0.13  per  cent. ;  603  sheep  =  0.066  per  cent. ;  32  goats  =  0.64  per  cent. ;  6,297  hogs 
=  0.34  percent.;  and  parts  of  animals  in  the  following  numbers:  581  horses  =  1.1 
per  cent.;  65,891  cattle  =  10.98  per  cent.;  2,412  calves  =  0.26  per  cent.;  39,683 
sheep  =  4.3  per  cent.;  79  goats  =  1.6  per  cent.;  and  59,267  hogs  =  3.1  per  cent. 
In  the  year  1896,  in  321  Prussian  slaughterhouses,  28,162  horses,  726,824  cattle, 
1,088,784  calves  under  six  weeks  of  age,  1,09(5,997  sheep  and  goats,  as  well  as 
3,018,367  hogs,  were  slaughtered.  From  this  total  the  following  numbers  were  with- 
held from  the  market  as  entirely  unfit  for  food:  208  horses  =  0  74  per  cent.;  3,716 

•  cattle  =  0  5t  per  cent.;    1,892  calves  =  0.17  per  cent.;   522  sheep  and  goats  =  0.04 
percent.;  3.654  hogs  =  0.12  per  cent.;  and  parts  of  animals  in  the  following  num- 
bers: 126  horses  =  0.44  per  cent. ;  4,318  cattle  =  0.59  per  cent. ;  414  calves  —  0.079 
per  cent. ;  2,267  sheep  and  goats  =  0.2  per  cent. ;  and  4,984  hogs  =  0.16  per  cent. 
In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  the  following  animals  were  slaughtered: 

Admitted  to 

market  without  Delivered  to 

restriction  Destroyed            the  freibank 

Number                     Per  cent.  Per  cent.              Per  cent. 

1894 785,915         ....         99.18         ....  0.15  ....         0.66 

1896 876,000        ....         99.4          ....  0.13  ....         0.71 

1899 1,001,388        ....        99.13        ....  0.11  ....        0.76 


PRACTICAL  EXECUTION   OF   OBLIGATORY  MEAT   INSPECTION  47 

regarded  as  harmless  according  to  sanitary  and  experimental  data. 
The  number  of  these  diseased  animals  admitted  for  food  in  the 
raw  or  cooked  condition  is  very  large  (tuberculosis,  swine  ery- 
sipelas, swine  plague,  hog  cholera,  actiuomycosis,  measles  and 
other  parasitic  diseases,  icterus,  bloody  or  watery  meat,  or  meat 
of  an  abnormal  odor).  The  meat  of  such  animals  should  not  be 
admitted  to  sale  without  restriction,  since  the  consumer  has  the 
right  to  demand  that  in  the  open  market  only  the  meat  of  healthy 
animals  or  those  which  are  affected  with  unimportant  diseases — 
that  is,  products  which  are  marketable  or  fit  for  food — shall  be 
found.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  the  slightest  objection 
to  the  sale  of  unmarketable  meat  ,or  that  which  is  conditionally 
fit  for  food  in  a  special  booth  and  with  a  declaration  of  its  defects 
so  that  the  purchaser  may  be  fully  apprised  of  the  character  of 
the  meat  he  is  about  to  purchase.  The  pure  food  law  gives  a 
legal  basis  for  the  institution  of  a  proper  traffic  with  non- 
marketable  meat,  for  it  allows  the  sale  of  "spoiled" — 'that  is, 
non- marketable — meat  under  the  necessity  of  a  declaration.* 

The  institution  of  a  freibank,  however,  not  only  renders  it 
certain  that  the  consumer  will  obtain  in  the  open  market  what 
he  thinks  he  is  buying,  but  it  also  makes  it  possible  for  the 
sanitary  police  to  give  permission  under  certain  regulations 
and  restrictions  to  traffic  in  meat; — for  example,  measly  meat 
after  previous  cooking,  pickling,  or  preservation  in  cold  storage ; — 
which  in  the  absence  of  a  freibank  would  be  withheld  from  the 
market  as  dangerous  to  health — for  example,  the  meat  of  measly 
animals — and  destroyed. 

If  it  is  said  that  the  classification  of  meat  as  marketable  and 
not  marketable  may  offer  difficulties,  this  must  be  admitted  for 
individual  cases  on  the  border  line ;  but,  even  in  these  instances, 
a  decision  is  much  easier  and  simpler  than  when  in  the  absence  of 
a  freibank  we  have  to  determine  whether  the  meat  is  marketable  or 
whether  it  should  be  destroyed.  For  in  the  latter  case  we  have  a 
sharp  line  of  demarcation,  while  with  the  institution  of  a  freibank, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  broad  boundary  line  between  market- 
able meat  and  that  which  ought  to  be  destroyed. 


*  The  terms  "marketable"  and  "non-marketable"  are  old  trade  expressions 
which  are  associated  with  the  legal  measures  of  the  oil  regulations  of  meat  inspection 
and  trade  orders  that  only  marketable  meat  should  be  sold  in  the  ordinary  meat 
booths,  while  non-marketable  meat  should  not  be  sold  there.  "Suitable  for  market," 
"nor  suitable  for  market,"  "shop  not  clean,"  and  "shop  clean"  are  also  synonymous 
terms. 


48  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON   MEAT   INSPECTION 

From  tlie  standpoint  of  the  tradesmen  who  see  in  the  freibank: 
an  undesirable  competition,  many  objections  have  been  raised 
against  the  institution.  One  such  objection  is  that  meat  inspectors 
are  not  in  a  position  in  all  cases  to  give  a  proper  decision 
concerning  the  marketable  or  non-marketable  character  of  the 
meat.  The  answer  to  this  objection  is  that  which  was  given  by 
Bellinger  to  an  opponent  of  the  freibank.  "Oar  abattoir  veter- 
inarians have  to  answer  almost  daily  the  questions  which  you  have 
put  to  me.  Experiments  in  the  laboratory  as  well  as  experience  in 
in  practice  have  taught  that  abattoir  veterinarians  are  very  com- 
petent to  determine  what  meat  shall  be  considered  *  wholesome/ 
'inferior,' or 'dangerous  to  health.5'  In  consequence  of  the  new 
regulation  concerning  the  requirement  of  a  guaranty  in  traffic  with 
food  animals  which  was  brought  about  by  public  statutes  for  the 
German  Empire  and  by  imperial  decree,  it  is  pleasing  to  note,. 
as  appears  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Twenty-second  Session 
of  German  Butchers,  that  an  interest  in  the  proper  utilization 
of  harmless  but  inferior  meat  has  been  awakened  among  the 
butchers. 

It  has  been  a  universal  experience  that  meat  exposed  upon  the 
freibanks  always  finds  a  ready  sale  on  account  of  the  smaller  price 
which  is  associated  with  the  declaration.  No  injustice  is  done  any 
one  by  the  introduction  of  the  freibank,  for  every  person  is  free  to 
buy  meat  upon  the  freibank  or  not.  "  Volenti  non  fit  injuria." 

In  instituting  a  freibank,  it  is  assumed  that  an  underhanded 
traffic  with  non-marketable  meat  will  be  prevented.  In  ordinances 
with  reference  to  this  point,  provision  is  to  be  made  to  permit 
the  sale  of  meat  only  in  small  quantities  and  exclusively  to  persons 
•who  are  to  eat  it  themselves  and  to  exclude  from  patronizing  the 
freibank  all  butchers,  sausage  makers,  hotel  and  restaurant  keepers, 
as  well  as  other  middlemen.  An  effective  control  of  the  traffic  with 
freibank  meat  ?s  possible,  however,  only  in  communities  of  not 
too  great  an  extent.  In  large  cities  in  which  this  control  is  not 
possible,  an  institution  similar  to  the  freibank  is  to  be  provided 
in  the  place  of  the  freibank,  as,  for  example,  in  Berlin  Here 
an  attempt  is  made  to  eliminate  the  middleman  and  the  dangers 
connected  with  his  business  under  certain  circumstances,  by  not. 
permitting  unmarketable  meat  to  be  offered  for  sale  except  after 
cooking. 

The  objections  which  were  once  raised  by  landowners,  to  the 
effect   that  agriculture   might  be   injured  by    the    institution    of 
freibanks,  are  quite  unfounded.     On  the   contrary,  it  is  on  agri- 


PRACTICAL  EXECUTION   OF   OBLIGATORY   MEAT  INSPECTION  40 

culture  that  the  freibanks  have  conferred  the  most  benefit,  for  they 
permit  the  legitimate  utilization  of  the  meat  of  animals  whicli 
are  not  in  perfect  health,  which  meat  was  formerly  either  entirely 
destroyed  or  sold  for  merely  nominal  prices  to  a  questionable  class 
of  butchers.  As  a  pleasing  evidence  that  this  conviction  has  taken 
root  among  the  landowners,  we  must  regard  a  decision  arrived 
at  several  years  ago  by  the  German  Agricultural  Council  to 
send  representatives  to  the  Reichsregierung  and  Landesregierungen 
in  the  interest  of  a  general  introduction  of  freibanks,  since  they 
were  necessarily  correlated  with  the  practice  of  obligatory  meat 
inspection. 

History  of  the  Freibank. — The  freibank  and  compulsory 
declaration  for  defective  meat  are  old  German  institutions,  the 
necessity  for  which  became  evident  during  the  empirical  regulation 
of  meat  inspection.  Thus,  the  Augsburg  charter  (1276)  prescribed 
that  "any  butcher  who  shall  slaughter  a  measly  animal  shall  sell  ife 
to  no  one  without  his  knowing  its  condition."  Such  meat,  in  so  far 
as  its  sale  was  permitted  at  all,  could  not  be  sold  in  the  ordinary 
meat  booths,  but  the  sale  must  take  place  in  a  booth  which  was 
separate  and  some  distance  from  the  ordinary  meat  booths.  The 
freibanks  were  sometimes  called  "measly-banks,"  for  the  reason 
that  they  served  chiefly  for  traffic?  in  measly  meat.  "With  regard  to> 
such  "  measly-banks,"  the  charter  of  "Wimpfen  (1404)  provided  that 
they  must  be  located  three  steps  from  the  ordinary  meat  booths. 

The  belief  that  in  early  times  freibanks  existed  only  in 
Southern  Germany  is  not  correct;  for,  according  to  a  butcher  law 
in  Hamburg  in  1375,  it  was  required  that  measly  meat  should  be 
sold  in  a  special  booth  and  upon  a  white  cloth.  Similar  require- 
ments were  also  in  force  in  Liibeck  and  Stade.  (Compare  p.  16.) 

The  institution  of  freibanks  has  become  established  also  in 
Italy,  Belgium  and  France,  and  this  constitutes  a  further  proof  of 
their  necessity. 

Present    Distribution    of    Freibanks    in    Germany. — 

The  institution  of  freibanks  has  for  a  long  time  existed  in  connec- 
tion with  all  the  abattoirs  in  Bavaria,  Wurtemburg,  Baden,  Hessen, 
and  Alsace-Lorraine.  At  present,  moreover,  the  majority  of 
abattoirs  in  northern  Germany  also  possess  freibanks.  The  intro- 
duction of  freibanks  was  provided  according  to  law  simultaneously 
with  obligatory  meat  inspection  in  the  Duchy  of  Gotha  (ministerial 
regulation  of  December  22,  1891).  Furthermore,  the  imperial 


50  GENERAL   DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

Prussian  General  President  of  Silesia  and  Posen  conferred  upon 
the  presidents  of  the  Regierungen  the  power  to  make  every  possible 
effort  toward  the  introduction  of  freibanks.  Accordingly,  the 
president  of  the  R?gierung  at  Brornberg  provided,  by  means  of  the 
police  regulation  of  June  15,  1893,  for  the  introduction  of  freibanks 
throughout  his  entire  It^gierung.  In  the  year  1899,  345  of  the 
381  public  abattoirs  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  were  furnished 
with  freibanks. 

The  great  economic  value  of  freibanks  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing data : 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  in  1892,  0.25  per  cent,  of  the  food 
animals  which  were  inspected  in  the  public  slaughterhouses  were 
entirely  withdrawn  from  the  market,  while  0.42  per  cent,  were 
admitted  for  sale  upon  the  freibank.  In  the  year  1894  the  per- 
centage of  the  total  condemnations  and  consignments  to  freibanks 
were  0.15  and  0.66  per  cent.;  in  the  year  1899,  0.11  and  0.76  per 
cent.  In  the  absence  of  freibanks,  all  of  the  food  animals  which 
were  sold  upon  the  freibauk  must  have  been  entirely  excluded  from 
market ;  and  these  conditions  prevail  wherever  freibanks  have  not 
been  introduced. 

In  Lftipsic,  in  1891,  the  meat  of  604  cattle,  89  calves,  28  sheep, 
983  hogs,  and  104  parts  of  animals,  with  a  total  weight  of  271,609 
kg.,  were  utilized  upon  the  freibank.  The  average  proceeds  from 
non-marl  stable  animals,  after  deducting  the  expenses,  were  as 
follows:  For  cattle,  32699  marks;  for  calves,  23.81;  for  sheep, 
22.3  ;  for  hogs,  90  63  ;  viz.,  58.3  pfennig  per  pound  of  beef,  44.2  per 
pound  (  t  veal,  54  5  per  pound  of  mutton,  and  57.4  per  pound  of 
pork.  (The  price  of  marketable  meat  wa<*,  for  beef,  75.6  pfennig; 
for  veal,  55.5  ;  for  mutton,  58  8  ;  for  pork,  61.)  This  same  average 
of  proceeds  was  attained  in  Leipsic  in  later  years  also.  From  these 
data  it  appears  that  the  sale  of  meat  on  the  freibank  makes  possible 
a  quite  extensive  utilization  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals. 

The  determination  of  the  price  of  freibank  meat  is  left  with 
the  owner  or  seller  of  the  meat,  according  to  the  industrial 
regulation. 

5.— Technical  Supervision  of  the  Meat  Traffic. 

(A)  SCIENTIFIC  EXPERTS. 

Training. — It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  it  is  a  part  of 
the  chief  functions  of  veterinary  medicine,  through  the  supervision 
of  meat  inspection,  to  protect  human  health  against  danger  from 


TECHNICAL   SUPERVISION   OF  THE   MEAT  TRAFFIC  51 

eating  meat.  In  this  regard  a  very  significant  movement  has  taken 
place,  since  at  present  the  special  line  of  veterinary  science — that 
is,  meat  inspection — which  was  previously  held  in  less  esteem, 
is  no  longer  without  proper  consideration.  The  most  satisfactory 
recognition  of  the  improvement  of  meat  inspection  was  given  by  tbe 
deliberations  of  the  German  Reichstag  concerning  the  estimates  cf 
entrance  qualifications  for  students  of  veterinary  science.  It  was 
thereby  made  plain  that  for  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  in 
the  German  Empire  the  proper  qualifications  for  the  study  of 
veterinary  science  must  be  required.  This  movement  is  based 
upon  the  recognized  fact  that  meat  inspection  is  not  a  subordinate 
branch  of  science,  but  that  comprehensive  attainments  and  a 
thorough,  practical  education  are  necessary  to  its  proper  mastery 
and  practice. 

The  rather  fragmentary  training  in  meat  inspection  which  the 
student  of  veterinary  science  previously  received  during  his  course 
of  study  could  not  be  considered  as  sufficient.  Meat  inspection 
had  to  become  a  separate  subject  of  study,  receiving  special  atten- 
tion at  the  veterinary  institutions,  and  this  has  been  done  in 
Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  Switzerland,  England,  America 
and  Japan.  "  With  reference  to  the  importance  and  responsible 
position  of  veterinarians  as  technical  officials  in  the  realm  of 
veterinary  hygiene,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  State,  besides  giving 
attention  to  the  highest  possible  training  of  these  men,  to  furnish 
special  instruction  in  hygiene  and  the  pathology  of  human  food 
materials"  (Bollinger).  In  this  connection  it  is  also  greatly  to  be 
desired  that  the  practical  training  of  the  future  veterinarian  in  meat 
inspection  should  be  obtained  by  a  practical  course  of  several 
months'  duration  at  one  of  the  larger  abattoirs.  The  Imperial 
Wurtemburg  Regierung  has  officially  recognized  the  necessity 
of  such  special  training  in  so  far  as  it  requires  for  admission  to  the 
public  examination  in  veterinary  science,  by  which  the  chief 
official  veterinarians  are  selected,  proof  of  practice  for  a  period  of 
at  least  two  months  in  one  of  the  larger  public  slaughterhouses 
under  regulated  veterinary  police  control  and  in  the  inspection 
station  of  one  of  the  larger  cities  for  meat 'which  is  imported  from 
foreign  countries.*  This  example  has  been  followed  in  Prussia  and 
Saxony,  as  well  as  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hessen,  in  so  far  as  meat 

*  By  proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Wiirtemburg  Ministry  of  the  Interior,, 
October  28,  1897,  it  is  provided  that  candidates  must  have  had  practice  in  a  city  of  at 
K-ast  30,000  inhabitants,  fulfilling  all  the  prescribed  requirements,  and  in  the  inspec- 
tion station  of  such  a  city. 


52  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON   MEAT   INSPECTION 

inspection  is  included  among  tlie  examination  subjects,  at  least  for 
official  veterinarians.  It  is  hoped  that  a  provision  similar  to  that 
of  Wiirternburg  will  be  made  by  the  other  Regierungen,  not  only 
for  official  veterinarians,  but  also  for  all  veterinarians  who  are 
appointed  as  managers  of  public  slaughterhouses. 

The  suggestion  made  by  Melchers,  that  only  those  veterinarians 
should  be  appointed  as  managers  of  abattoirs  who  have  passed 
through  a  preliminary  service  of  at  least  one  year  at  one  of  the 
larger  abattoirs  with  modern  equipment,  and  after  the  completion  of 
this  preliminary  service  have  passed  a  special  examination,  deserves 
much  consideration.  The  tille,  Sanitary  Veterinarian,  should  be 
conferred  upon  such  veterinarians.  In  the  interest  of  the  better 
training  of  veterinarians  in  the  subject  of  meat  inspection,  the 
change  in  the  examination  requirements  in  Germany  for  veterina- 
rians, as  recommended  by  Schmaltz,  is  to  be  characterized  as 
highly  desirable.  Schmaltz  proposed  that  meat  inspection  be 
added  to  the  first  section  of  the  examination  as  an  obligatory 
subject  of  examination.  At  present  only  a  part  of  the  candidates. 
in  veterinary  science  in  Germany  are  examined  in  me.-it  inspection,, 
a-nd  even  this  part  only  on  theoretical  subjects  and  not  on  practical 
ones.  Such  a  test  can  not  be  considered  as  sufficient  for  a  profes- 
sion of  such  practical  significance  as  meat  inspection.  In  Hungary 
and  in  Switzerland  meat  inspection  has  already  been  made  a 
theoretical  and  practical  subject  of  examination  in  public  veterinary 
examinations. 

Special  examinations  for  slaughterhouse  veterinarians  are 
already  in  existence  in  France.  Tin  Central  Police  Bureau  of  Paris 
makes  the  appointment  of  abattoir  veterinarians  depend  upon 
the  veterinary  candidate  passing  an  examination  prepared  by 
the  Director  of  Meat  Inspection  in  Paris.  The  examination  is 
both  written  and  oral;  the  written  part  includes  a  treatise  on  some 
subject  in  anatomy  or  pathology;  the  preparation  of  a  report 
concerning  the  violation  of  the  meat  inspection  law  or  other 
regulations.  The  practical  part  of  the  test  falls  into  three  sections  :; 
First,  inspection  of  the  meat  of  a  diseased  animal  and  diagnosis 
of  the  disease ;  secondly,  determination  of  parts  and  organs 
of  a  body  according  to  anatomical  characteristics;  and  thirdly, 
microscopic  examination  of  pathological  alterations  and  parasitic 
diseases. 

In  the  United  States  also  special  examinations  have  been 
introduced  for  veterinarians  who  are  to  be  appointed  as  meat 
inspectors. 


TECHNICAL   SUPERVISION   OF   THE   MEAT  TRAFFIC  «B 

Compensation  and  Appointment. — In  return  -for  -their 
-difficult  and  responsible  -  duties,  veterinarians  who  are  intrusted 
with  the  practice  of  meat  control  should  receive  a  commensurate 
compensation.  In  southern.  Germany  this  is  commonly  too  small, 
due  to  the  fact  th  it  ideas  of  former  times,  in  which  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  money  was  higher,  are  still  prevalent.  Further- 
more, the  fees  for  meat  inspection  should  be  paid  to  the  meat 
inspectors  by  the  municipal  authorities,  who  should  retain  the 
right  to  collect  the  fees  from  the  tradesmen.  Finally,  the  attempt 
should  be  made  to  appoint  the  veterinarians  who  officiate  at 
abattoirs  as  high  communal  officials  for  life  and  with  right  to  a 
pension.  For  only  under  such  circumstances  can  it  be  expected 
that  the  best  veterinarians  will  devote  themselves  to  abattoir 
service  and  will  discharge  their  duties  in  the  strictest  manner, 
unbiassed  by  friendship  or  enmity.  In  a  memorial  of  the  Society 
of  Abattoir  Veterinarians  of  the  Rhine  Province  presented  to  th& 
Prussian  lower  house,  attention  was  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
interests  of  meat  inspection,  which  coincide  with  those  of  the 
public,  are  frequently  opposed  to  the  interests  of  butchers  who 
operate  in  the  abattoirs,  and  that  the  butchers  are  only ,  too 
strongly  inclined  to  regard  in  a  personal  manner  measures  which 
the  director  of  the  abattoir  must  enforce  in  the  interests  of  the 
public.  Since,  however,  the  butchers  in  small  communities  exercise 
an  indirect  or  direct  influence  as  tax-paying  citizens  upon  the 
municipal  corporation,  the  position  of  the  director  of  an  abattoir, 
who  is  not  appointed  permanently,  frequently  becomes  very  un- 
certain, if  he  discharges  his  duties  in  a  conscientious  manner. 

Fees. — In  the  veterinary  district  of  Oberfranken  the  fees  for 
the  inspection  of  a  large  animal  before  and  after  slaughter  amount 
to  24  pfennige,  and  for  a  small  animal,  12  pfennige.  These  rates 
were  reasonable  at  a  time  when  the  meat  which  was  inspected  had 
but  little  value  and  was  offered  for  sale  at  a  few  pfennige  per 
pound. *  In  northern  Germany  the  fees,  corresponding  to  our 

*  According  to  a  quotation  from  the  cities  of  Berlin  and  Cologne  for  the  year 
1661,  the  price  of  meat  was  fixed  at  the  following  rates: 

The  best  pound  of  beef  . . ! 1  groschen 

A  pound  of  beef  next  to  the  best. ...  ^ .................   11  pfennige 

The  poorest 10  pfennige 

A  pound  of  veal  shall  be  worth 1  groschen     3  pfennige 

A  pound  of  fattened  mutton 1  groschen    4  pfennige 

A  pound  of  pork,  as  low  as. 1  groschen    6  pfennige 

The  best  and  fattest  pork,  per  pound. ................     2  groschen 


£4  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   ON  MEAT  INSPECTION 

present  money  values,  are  much  higher.  Thus,  for  example,  the> 
meat  inspection  ordinance  in  Goch  fixes  the  following  rates :  For~ 
one  horse,  2  marks ;  for  one  beef  animal,  2  marks ;  for  one  hog,. 
1  mark;  for  one  sheep,  goat  or  calf  under  ten  weeks  of  agp,  .75 
mark;  for  one-half  of  a  large  animal  or  smaller  parts,  1  mark;  for 
one-half  of  a  small  animal  or  smaller  parts,  two-thirds  of  the  fee. 
ITor  the  Regieruijgsbezirk  of  Oppeln,  the  following  fees  were  fixed  r. 
!For  a  horse  or  beef  animal,  1.5  marks ;  for  a  hog,  except  in  case  of 
trichina  inspection,  1  mark ;  for  a  goat,  sheep  or  calf  under  six 
"weeks  of  age,  0  5  mark. 

If  the  inspector  of  animals  for  the  abattoir  is  at  the  same  time 
meat  inspector  for  the  investigation  of  trichina,  he  receives  a  fee  of 
1^  marks  for  the  complete  inspection  of  a  hog. 

Appointment  of  Abattoir  Veterinarians.— Section  56V 
Title  V,  of  the  Prussian  Municipal  Order,  prescribes  as  follows 
concerning  municipal  officers:  "The  appointment  shall  be  inade- 
for  life  except  in  cases  of  mere  temporary  service.  Subordinate 
officials  who  are  occupied  with  mechanical  work  may  be  employed 
subject  to  removal." 

Section  65,  Title  V,  of  the  Municipal  Order  prescribes  a  pen- 
sion allowance  for  municipal  officials  who  are  appointed  for  life. 
Accordingly,  abattoir  veterinarians  must  be  appointed  for  life  and 
"with  a  pension  allowance;  as,  for  example,  the  Royal  Prussian 
Hegierung  at  Armsberg  decreed  August  2,  1888  :  "  The  director  of 
an  abattoir  is  a  municipal  official,  since  this  position  does  not 
involve  mechanical  work  or  temporary  service." 

Moreover,  according  to  a  decision  of  the  Prussian  Court  of 
Administration  of  November  20,  1881,  abattoir  veterinarians  must 
be  appointed  for  life  and  with  a  pension  allowance,  for  the  reason 
that,  on  the  one  hand,  official  authority  is  exercised  (release  or 
confiscation  of  the  meat),  and  since,  on  the  other  hand,  the  occu- 
pation in  which  they  engage  does  not  belong  to  the  industrial 
occupations  or  those  which  are  established  simply  for  securing 
an  income  for  the  city. 

In  the  interest  of  the  public,  it  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
permissible  that  the  city  authorities  should  exclude  the  allowance 
of  a  pension  for  municipal  officers  who  are  appointed  for  life 
"by  conditions  named  in  the  contract  of  appointment. 

(The  opinion  of  the  Prussian  Court  of  Administration  of  Sept., 
26,  1885 ;  compare  also  Wysocki,  Ztschr.  f.  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg.^ 
Vol.  3 ;  and  the  decision  of  Eeichsgericht  of  Sept.  12,  1892.) 


TECHNICAL   SUPERVISION   OF  THE   MEAT  TRAFFIC  55 

According  to  the  new  Prussian  law  concerning  the  appointment 
and  maintenance  of  communal  officials,  every  appointment  must  be 
made  upon  the  basis  of  a  written  contract.  The  ordained  ad- 
ministrative officers  (Regierung  presidents  or  state  councillors) 
determine  whether  the  communal  authorities  proceed  with  legal 
exactness  in  installing  the  official.  In  the  appointment  of  officials, 
it  is  necessary  to  adhere  to  the  principle  that  authoritative  func- 
tions shall  be  exercised  exclusively  by  officials,  while  the  com- 
munities retain  the  right  to  accept  in  civil  service  persons  who  are 
exclusively  occupied  with  the  management  of  industrial  affairs  and 
are  not  empowered  to  act  on  behalf  of  the  government.  According 
to  the  text  of  the  law  and  a  ministerial  commentary  to  the  laws, 
abattoirs  and  stockyards,  as  a  rule,  belong  to  municipal  industries. 
The  officials  of  abattoirs  and  stockyards  may  therefore  be  appointed 
by  notification  by  means  of  a  private  contract.  This  fact,  however, 
does  not  exclude  the  possibility  that  official  authority  may  be 
granted  to  certain  persons  appointed  to  service  in  these  industries 
ii  they  are  to  be  allowed  to  exercise  authority  in  the  way  of  police 
regulations.  The  necessity  for  such  an  arrangement  with  regard 
to  the  foremen  of  abattoirs  is  recognized  in  the  ministerial 
proclamation,  for  the  reason  that  the  order  for  the  delivery  of 
inferior  meat  to  the  freibank  must  be  entrusted  to  them. 
Mai  km  us  rightly  contended  that  this  necessity  should  also  be 
recognized  with  regard  to  other  abattoir  veterinarians,  for  the 
reason  that  they  must  daily  exercise  police  authority  (confiscation 
of  individual  parts,  preliminary  confiscation  of  whole  animals), 
if  the  reliability  of  meat  inspection  is  not  to  be  called  in  ques- 
tion. According  to  Oariel  (Municipal  Ordinance  for  the  Six 
Eastern  Provinces,  2d  ed.,  Liegnitz,  1893),  all  abattoir  veterinarians 
in  Prussia  belong  to  the  higher  municipal  official  class  (compare 
Mrlchers,  Zfcschr.  f.  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg.,  vol.  4).  In  order  to 
avoid  subsequent  proceedings,  it  is  desirable  that  the  power  of 
higher  municipal  officials  should  be  conferred  upon  abattoir 
veterinarians,  as  well  as  a  life-long  appointment  with  provision 
for  a  pension.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  special  contract 
before  the  acceptance  of  the  position  (see  Bohlen,  Zeit.  f.  Fleisch 
u.  Milchhyg.,  vol.  4). 

Number  of  hours  of  service. — The  number  of  daily  work- 
ing hours  for  a  responsible  service  of  abattoir  veterinarians  should 
be  confined  within  such  limits  that  meat  inspection  may  be  always 
practiced  in  a  reliable  manner.  (Compare  the  decree  of  the  Boyal 


56  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT  INSPECTION 

A  ..'•,• 

Bavarian  Regierung  of  Rheinpfalz ;  also  Ostertag,  Zeifc.  f.  Fleisch  u. 
Milchhyg.,  vol.  4.) 

The  number  of  food  animals  which  can  be  inspected 
In  a  day  by  an  expert. — Henschel,  on  the  basis  of  several 
years'  experience  in  a  Berlin  abattoir,  states  that  during  one  day's 
work  a  veterinarian  at  an  abattoir  may  carefully  inspect,  before  and 
after  slaughter,  75  cattle,  or  250  calves,  or  200  hogs,  or  400  slieep. 
In  estimating  the  number  of  hogs,  it  is  presupposed  that  in  an 
inspection  for  cysticerci  an  assistant  meat  inspector  (stamper  or 
sampler)  shall  be  on  duty.  In  exceptional  cases,  the  number  of 
animals  inspected  may  exceed  the  above  figures  by  one-third  or 
one-half.* 

(B)  ASSISTANT  MEAT  INSPECTORS. 

Necessity  for  training  and  limitation  of  their  functions. 

— The  number  of  veterinarians  in  Germany  is  not  sufficient  to 
enable  them  to  carry  out  the  requirements  of  meat  inspection 
without  assistants.  For  the  control  of  slaughtering  in  the  country, 
assistant  or  empirical  meat  inspectors  are  to  be  appointed  as  their 
assistants,  according  to  the  method  already  put  in  practice  with 
Excellent  results  in  southern  Germany.  The  training  of  the 
assistants  should  have  taken  place  at  abattoirs  under  the  direction 
'of  veterinarians.  A  theoretical  training  of  the  meat  inspector  is 
quite  insufficient  for  his  later  duties,  but  an  authority  for  rendering 
decisions  commensurate  with  their  limited  information  should  be 
granted  to  empirical  meat  .inspectors  who  have  been  educated  in 
a  practical  manner.  They  should  have  the  right  of  rendering 
decisions  only  in  the  case  of  perfectly  healthy  animals,  or  in  cases 
of  diseases  which  are  perfectly  evident.  In  all  other  cases  of 
disease,  and  especially  in  emergency  slaughter,  the  assistant  meat 
inspectors  should  be  required  to  obtain  the  decision  of  the  local 
veterinarian  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  police  officials. 
Furthermore,  a  fixed  order  of  inspection  must  be  obligatory  upon 
assistant  meat  inspectors,  in  order  that  the  actual  determination  of 
the  diseases  which  occur  in  food  animals  may  be  made  certain. 

A  principle  proclaimed  in  Belgian  and  southern  German 
'ordinances  is  worthy  of  general  approval.  According  to  this 
principle,  in  communities  in  which  there  is  a  veterinarian,  he  is 

*  These  figures  are  not  applicable  to  the  more  systematic  method  of  inspection 
practised  in  America. — TRANSLATOR. 


TECHNICAL   SUPERVISION   OF   THE   MEAT   TRAFFIC  57 

first  to  be  called  to  make  an  inspection  of  meat,  and  exceptions  can 
be  taken  to  this  rule  only  with  the  permission  of  the  R^gierung. 
The  assistant  meat  inspectors  are  to  be  required  to  keep  accounts 
of  their  operations.  They  are  to  be  visited  without  previous 
notice  as  frequently  as  possible  by  official  veterinarians  on  their 
inspecting  trips,  and  are  to  be  re-examined  from  time  to  time — 
say  every  two  years.  In  order  to  increase  the  responsibility  of 
the  assistant  meat  inspectors,  and  also  their  authority  with  regard 
to  tradesmen,  they  should  be  given  an  official  character  in  the 
manner  already  practised  in  southern  and  middle  German  allied 
States  where  meat  inspection  is  a  regular  institution.  The  salary 
of  assistant  meat  inspectors,  like  that  of  scientific  experts,  should 
be  provided  for  in  proper  manner  by  the  communities. 

With  reference  to  the  training  of  meat  inspectors,  the  following 
opinion  was  handed  down  August  13,  1896,  by  the  Royal  Prussian 
Technical  Deputation  for  Veterinary  Service:  "The  simple  theo- 
retical knowledge  of  the  contents  of  paragraphs  of  the  regulations 
and  provisions  of  the  service  are  not  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
fitness  of  a  layman  (merchant)  to  practice  the  inspection  of  food 
animals.  The  inspector  mnst  be  able  to  demonstrate  in  healthy 
and  diseased  living  and  dead  animals  that  he  actually  possesses  the 
knowledge  which  is  presupposed  in  the  regulations,  and  that  he  can 
make  a  practical  application  of  it.  Otherwise  there  would  be  the 
greatest  danger  that  the  meat  inspector  would  allow  meat  which 
was  dangerous  to  health  to  appear  on  the  market."  The  ducal 
public  veterinarian,  Georges  von  Gotha,  made  the  following 
arrangement,  which  is  worthy  of  imitation.  The  assistant  meat 
inspectors  are  assembled  twice  yearly  by  means  of  the  bezirk 
veterinarians.  At  these  meetings  general  reports  are  presented  by 
the  meat  inspectors,  and  they  receive  further  education  through 
the  discussion  of  noteworthy  cases  by  the  bezirk  veterinarians. 

The  inadmissibility  of  the  appointment  of  empirical 
meat  inspectors  in  abattoirs. — Empiric  meat  inspectors  have 
in  some  instances  been  appointed  as  superintendents  of  abattoirs  in 
small,  poor  communities.  This  procedure  is  not  to  be  approved. 
Only  veterinarians  should  be  appointed  as  directors  of  slaughter- 
houses. This  is  also  iu  the  interest  of  tlio  communities.  For,  by 
the  appointment  of  a  veterinary  director  of  an  abattoir,  the 
expenses  are  avoided  which  come  from  the  inevitable  veterinary 
revisions  in  the  case  of  the  empirical  management  of  an  abattoir, 
and  this  is  true  without  taking  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the 


58  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

veterinary  director  of  an  abattoir  furnishes  greater  security  for 
the  proper  execution  of  meat  control  than  a  lay  director.* 

A  decree  of  the  Royal  Prussian  R^gierung  President  at  Guni- 
binnen,  August  11,  1396,  prescribes  that  as  a  general  rule  only 
approved  veterinarians  shall  be  appointed  as  expert  officials  in 
public  slaughterhouses  in  the  sense  of  the  Prussian  abattoir  law  of 
March  11,  1869,  and  March  9,  1881,  and  that  the  inspection  of  food 
animals  and  meat  shall  be  entrusted  exclusively  to  them. 

Indirectly,  the  compulsory  appointment  of  veterinary  directors 
of  abattoirs  was  decreed  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  by  the  regula- 
tion concerning  the  sale  of  the  meat  and  fat  of  diseased  animals, 
December  17,  1892.  For,  according  to  this  regulation,  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  meat  of  trichinous  and  tuberculous  animals  is  permitted 
only  in  abattoirs  which  are  under  the  supervision  of  veterinarians. 
In  fact,  the  large  number  of  tuberculous  animals  which  may  be 
utilized  in  this  way  serves  as  an  inducement  to  larger  communities 
in  the  kingdom  to  establish  abattoirs  and  to  appoint  veterinary 
experts  exclusive!}'  for  their  supervision. 

Examination  and  control. — Examination  and  control  of 
assistant  meat  inspectors,  including  trichina  inspectors,  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  veterinarians.  The  physicians  in  northern 
Germany  who  in  former  years  took  park  in  the  education  and 
supervision  of  trichina  inspectors,  were  not  so  well  prepared  for 
this  duty  by  their  course  of  study  as  are  veterinarians.  Steinbach 
justly  contends  that  these  functions  should  be  exclusively  entrusted 
to  veterinarians,  since  it  is  usually  a  question  of  determining  animal 
diseases,  for  which  only  the  curriculum  of  veterinary  science  is 
calculated  to  prepare  one.  In  recognition  of  this  fact,  the  inspec- 
tion of  horse  meat  was  everywhere  put  into  the  hands  of  veter- 
inarians for  veterinary  police  reasons.  It  is,  therefore,  merely  a 
logical  sequence  that  all,  other  branches  of  meat  inspection  should 
be  placed  under  the  supervision  of  veterinarians,  especially  since 
the  sanitary  police  interests  which  come  into  consideration  possess 
no  less  importance  than  the  veterinary  police  interests  in  the 
inspection  of  horse  meat.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  this 
conclusion  is  drawn  in  the  new  Prussian  kreis-physician  law. 
This  law  prescribes  (Sections  79,83)  that  "the  supervision  of  the 

*  It  is  quite  worthy  of  mention  that  the  Brandenburg  Butchers'  Unions  sent 
representatives  to  the  Royal  General* President  of  the  Province  of  Brandenburg  to 
request  that  only  veterinarians  should,  he  appointed  us  incut  inspectors  throughout 
the  whole  province,  or  at  any  rate  in  communities  of  more  lhan  2,000  inhabitants. 


TECHNICAL   SUPERVISION   OF  THE   MEAT  TRAFFIC  59 

traffic  in  meat,  the  establishment  and  management  of  slaughter- 
houses, are,  so  far  as  the  technical  side  of  the  matter  is  concerned,, 
primarily  an  affair  of  official  veterinarians." 

(c)  METHODS  OF  APPEAL. 

In  cases  in  which  the  tradesman  is  not  satisfied  with  the 
decision  of  the  meat  inspector,  he  has  the  right  to  appeal  to  the 
judgment  of  a  higher  authority.  In  case  of  a  decision  by  an 
assistant  meat  inspector,  the  higher  decision  lies  within  the  pro- 
vince of  the  local  veterinary  expert.  In  other  cases,  in  which 
recourse  is  sought  against  the  decision  of  a  veterinarian,  the 
regulation  of  super-revision,  in  accordance  with  the  Belgian  law,, 
is  to  be  recommended  (compare  p.  33).  Melchers  proposes  in  this 
connection  the  following  modifications  of  the  method  of  appeal : 
The  tradesman,  within  twenty-four  hours  at  the  outside  limit,  must 
appeal  to  the  first  expert  and  the  authorities  who  are  immediately 
over  him,  and  must  give  the  name  of  the  expert  whom  he  has- 
chosen  to  give  the  contrary  opinion.  The  latter  individual  is- 
hereupon  to  be  summoned  by  the  authorities.  If  the  judgment  of 
the  witness  for  the  plaintiff  agrees  with  that  of  the  first  expert,  the 
decision  as  first  rendered  shall  be  enforced ;  while  in  case  of  a. 
disagreement  the  matter  may  be  dropped  or  a  request  for  au 
opinion  may  be  made  upon  the  highest  local  veterinary  authority. 
The  highest  veterinary  authorities  in  Prussia  are  the  Department- 
veterinarians ;  in  Bavaria,  the  kreis-veterinarians ;  and  in  other 
countries,  the  corresponding  official  veterinarians  of  high  degree.- 
Finally,  in  case  of  questions  of  fundamental  importance,  an  appeal 
may  be  made  to  the  court  of  last  resort  (the  Veterinary  Com- 
mission), which  will  decide  the  question  according  to  the  legal 
testimony. 

It  is  unreasonable  to  assess  the  costs  upon  the  tradesman 
under  all  conditions,  as  has  happened  in  certain  meat  inspection 
regulations.  The  costs  are  justly  to  be  defrayed  by  the  losing 
party,  and  in  case  the  opinions  of  the  expert  are  set  aside,  the  cost* 
are  to  be  borne  by  the  community  in  which  he  is  serving. 

A  police  regulation  for  the  Regierungsbeziik  of  Miinster,_ 
dated  May  7,  1897,  prescribes  with  regard  to  this  matter,  "if  the 
decision  of  the  meat  inspector  is  finally  considered  as  unjust,  the 
costs  which  are  incurred  by  the  owner  in  securing  the  higher 
opinion  are  to  be  borne  by  the  local  police  authorities.  The  local 
police  authorities  likewise  shall  bear  the  costs  when  they  make- 
request  for  a  final  decision  from  these  officials." 


'60  GENERAL   DISCtJSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

6.— Official  Ordinances  Concerning  the  Regulation  of 
Meat  Inspection. 

In  the  interest  of  a  uniform  practice  of  meat  inspection, 
imperial  or  state  laws  should  be  enacted 'Concerning  the  control  of 
meat  trnffin,  with  detailed  specifications  concerning  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  to  be  executed.  Nothing  is  calculated  to  bring 
meat  inspection  into  greater  disrepute  than  a  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  practice  of  meat  inspection  in  one  and  the  same  country.  This 
becomes  apparent  whenever  the  regulation  of  meat  inspection  is 
left  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  provincial  or  Bezirk-Hegieruugen 
or  of  individual  communities. 

On  account  of  the  important  position  which  meat  from  its 
varied  nature  occupies  with  regard  to  other  food  materials*  it  is  not 
practicable  to  consider  it  in  laws  concerning  food  stuffs  together 
•with  .other  food  materials  and  condiments.  It  has  become  apparent 
in  Germany  that  the  legal  provisions  concerning  food  materials  can 
not  be  applied  in  general  to  meat  without  doing  violence  to  the 
construction  of  the  law.  Regard  should  therefore  everywhere  be 
had  to  the  passage  of  special  meat  inspection  laws. 

In  the  imperial  or  state  laws,  it  must  be  specified  that  all  food 
animals  are  to  be  inspected  before  or  after  slaughter  by  veteiv 
inarians  or  assistant  meat  inspectors.  Furthermore,  the  state 
laws  must  contain  principles  for  directing  the  establishment  of 
slaughterhouses  and  for  the  procedure  with  the  meat  of  healthy 
and  diseased  animals.  In  regard  to  the  latter  question,  they  should 
particularly  specify  that  the  meat  which  is  to  be  admitted  freely  to 
the  market  shall  be  stamped  with  a  certain  mark,  and,  furthermore^ 
that  meat  which  is  excluded  from  the  market  shall  be  technically 
utilized  in  the  proper  manner,  and,  finally,  that  in  certain  diseases 
of  food  animals  the  meat,  after  cooking,  pickling,  or  other  suitable 
treatment,  may  be  delivered  to  f reibanks  for  sale  under  certain 
restrictions.  In  the  meat  inspection  laws,  the  authority  of  the 
officials  of  meat  inspection  to  make  unannounced  visits  of  inspec- 
tion upon  butchers  should  be  regulated. 

The  provisions  of  state  laws  concerning  the  control  of  the 
train*  j  in  meat  are  to  be  supplemented  by  stringent  regulations  for 
enforcing  these  laws.  In  these  regulations  the  details  should  b.e 
carefully  worked  out  concerning  the  appointment  and  compensation 
of  expert  meat  inspectors,  concerning  the  training,  examination, 
-control  and  subsequent  examination  of  empirical  meat  inspectors  ; 


SUMMARY  61 

concerning  the  order  of  super-revision  ;  concerning  the  location  and 
equipment  of  slaughterhouses,  the  establishment  of  freibanks,  and 
the  trade  restrictions  upon  freibank  meat,  as  well  as  concerning  the 
disinfection  of  parts  and  whole  animals  which  are  absolutely 
excluded  from  use  as  food. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  make  farther  specifications  concerning 
the  practice  of  meat  inspection  in  the  state  laws  and  in  the 
regulations  for  enforcing  these  laws.  Thus,  it  would  not  be  in 
accordance  with  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection  to  lay  down  prin- 
ciples concerning  the  sanitary  police  procedure  with  the  meat  of 
diseased  airmals.  The  scientific  side  of  meat  inspection  is  still  in 
a  developmental  stage,  and  the  investigations  in  this  field  are 
continually  bringing  to  light  new  points  of  view  with  regard  to 
the  utilization  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals.  It  is  therefore 
desirable  that  the  regulation  of  this  part  of  meat  inspection  should 
be  left  to  the  ministerial  authorities,  who,  supported  by  the 
opinions  of  scientific  central  authorities,  may  prescribe  a  procedure 
with  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  in  accordance  with  the  progress 
of  the  science  of  meat  inspection  at  any  given  time.  In  this 
connection  it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  ministerial  decree  can 
go  into  effect  much  more  quickly  than  a  law  which  comes  into 
existence  after  a  long  and  tedious  process  and  the  passage  of  which 
does  not  depend  exclusively  upon  scientific  factors. 

Summary. 

The  most  essential  requirements  for  the  execution  of  obligatory 
meat  inspection  consist  of  the  following  measures :  The  estab- 
lishment of  public  slaughterhouses  and  the  introduction  of  com- 
pulsory slaughter  in  these  institutions  in  all  the  larger  communities;, 
compulsory  inspection  for  all  food  animals  intended  for  human 
consumption,  both  before  and  after  slaughter;  ample  encourage- 
ment of  the  science  of  meat  inspection  at  the  veterinary  high 
schools;  training  and  appointment  of  empirical  meat  inspectors 
with  restricted  powers  to  render  decisions  concerning  diseased 
animals  in  country  districts  ;  veterinary  supervision  of  all  slaughter- 
ing which  is  done  in  abattoirs  as  well  as  all  outside  slaughtering 
in  cases  which  can  not  be  disposed  of  by  the  assistant  meat 
inspectors.  In  addition  to  the  special  training  of  veterinarians  in 
meat  inspection  in  the  curriculum  provided  for  them,  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  special  course  for  abattoir  and  official  veterinarians,  the 
enactment  of  public  laws  concerning  meat  inspection  with  ex— 


62  GENERAL  DISCUSSION   OF   MEAT   INSPECTION 

Lausfcive  provisions  for  their  enforcement,  especially  laws  concern* 
ing  the  uniform  regulation  of  the  traffic  in  unmarketable  meat,  as 
well  as  concerning  the  destruction  or  most  advantageous  technical 
utilization  of  the  parts  and  whole  animals  which  are  absolutely 
excluded  from  use,  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  measures 
mentioned  above. 

These  measures  point  to  a  goal  which,  on  account  of  its 
importance  to  the  public  welfare,  it  should  be  the  object  of  every 
civilized  country  to  attain.  When  this  goal  is  attained,  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  population  will  be  improved,  honest 
traffic  in  meat  and  meat  products  will  be  created,  and,  finally,  a 
beginning  will  have  been  made  in  the  improvement  of  the  health 
of  our  domesticated  animals  which  are  at  present  so  excessively 
parasitized  and  infected  with  disease. 

The  most  important  condition  to  the  attainment  of  this  goal 
is  the  education  of  industrious,  reliable  experts  to  whom  the 
execution  and  supervision  of  meat  inspection  may  be  entrusted. 
The  chief  functions  of  practical  meat  inspection  (careful  investiga- 
tion of  all  animals  before  and  after  slaughter,  a  most  accurate 
determination  of  all  variations  from  the  normal  condition,  a  scien- 
tifically and  legally  correct  separation  of  marketable  and  non- 
marketable  meat,  and  the  sanitary  destruction  of  organs  and  whole 
animals  which  are  excluded  from  use)  are  such  important  duties 
and  so  intimately  connected  with  general  sanitation  and  the 
national  welfare  as  to  make  it  evident  that  they  should  be  under- 
taken only  by  thoroughly  trained  experts.  A  defective  knowledge 
of  the  subject  is  most  bitterly  avenged  in  meat  inspection.  Either 
it  allows  meat  dangerous  to  health  to  pass  upon  the  market  or 
causes  a  loss  to  the  national  resources  by  unjust  condemnations. 


II. 

THE  IMPERIAL  LEGAL   FOUNDATION  FOR  THE  REGU- 
LATION OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT  IN  GERMANY. 


All  state  laws,  ministerial  decrees,  regulations  of  the  govern- 
ments and  local  police  orders  must,  so  far  as  exceptions  are  nofc 
expressly  permitted,  be  confined  within  the  bounds  of  the  provisions 
of  the  imperial  law.  If  the  state  laws,  ministerial  decrees,  police 
regulations,  municipal  ordinances,  etc.,  overstep  the  limits  pre- 
scribed by  the  imperial  law,  they  are  legally  ineffective  and 
violations  of  them  can  not  be  punished  by  the  criminal  justices. 

The  foundation  for  the  regulation  of  meat  traffic  in  the  German 
Empire  is  henceforth  laid  by  the  imperial  law  of  June  3,  1900, 
concerning  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat.  Moreover, 
in  rendering  opinions  on  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  and  in 
the  organization  of  meat  inspection,  the  other  imperial  laws,  copies 
of  which  are  given  below,  come  into  consideration,  at  least  in  a  part 
of  their  provisions. 

1.— The  Imperial  Law  of  June  3,  1900,  Concerning  the 
Inspection  of  Food  Animals  and  Meat.* 

SEC.  1.  Cattle,  swine,  sheep,  goats,  horses  and  dogs,  the  meat 
of  which  is  intended  to  be  used  as  food  for  man,  shall  be  subjected 
to  an  official  inspection  both  before  and  after  slaughter.  By 
decision  of  the  Federal  Council,  obligatory  inspection  may  be 
extended  to  other  food  animals. 

In  case  of  emergency  slaughter,  the  ante-mortem  inspection 
may  be  omitted. 

The  following  are  to  be  considered  as  cases  of  emergency: 
When  there  is  reason  to  fear  that  the  animal  may  die  before  the 
arrival  of  the  proper  local  inspector,  or  that  the  meat  may  become 


*  The  translation  of  the  imperi;il  law  as  published  in  the  Report  of  Bur.  Anim» 
Ind.  for  1900  has  been  followed  with  slight  alterations. — TRANSLATOR. 

63 


REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

materially  reduced  in  value  owing  to  aggravation  of  the  diseased 
condition,  or  when,  in  consequence  of  an  accident,  the  animal  must 
be  killed  immediately. 

SEC.  2.  In  the  case  of  food  animals  the  meat  of  which  is 
intended  to  be  used  exclusively  in  the  owner's  own  household,  the 
ante-rnortern  inspection  may  be  omitted  whenever  the  animals  do 
not  present  any  signs  of  disease  which  would  exclude  the  fitness 
of  their  meat  as  food;  the  post-mortem  inspection  also  may  be 
omitted  whenever  such  indications  of  disease  are  likewise  not 
revealed  during  the  killing  and  dressing. 

Traffic?  in  meat  the  inspection  of  which  has  been  omitted  on 
the  ground  of  Sec.  2,  paragraph  1,  is  forbidden. 

As  "own  household"  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  2,  paragraph  1,  are 
not  to  be  considered:  The  household  of  the  barracks,  hospitals, 
educational  institutions,  restaurants,  prisons,  almshouses  and 
similar  institutions,  nor  the  household  of  the  butchers,  meat 
dealers,  nor  of  hotels,  saloons  and  restaurants. 

SEC.  3.  The  federated  governments  are  authorized  to  order 
the  inspection,  at  places  where  and  times  when  a  communicable 
animal  disease  prevails,  of  all  food  animals  exposed  to  said  disease. 

SEC.  4.  Meats,  in  the  sense  of  this  law,  are  fresh  or  prepared 
parts  of  warm-blooded  animals,  so  far  as  these  parts  are  edible. 
Fats  and  sausages  prepared  from  warm-blooded  animals  are  also 
considered  as  "  parts  ";  other  products,  however,  only  so  far  as  the 
Federal  Council  orders. 

SEC.  5.  For  the  furtherance  of  inspection,  districts  shall  be 
established ;  at  least  one  inspector  and  one  deputy  inspector  shall 
be  appointed  for  each  of  such  districts. 

The  establishment  of  the  inspection  districts  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  inspectors  devolve  upon  the  federated  governmental 
authorities.  For  the  inspections  to  be  performed  in  the  military 
preserved  meat  factories  there  may  be  special  inspectors  appointed 
by  the  military  authorities. 

Official  recognized  veterinarians,  or  other  persons  who  have 
demonstrated  a  sufficient  knowledge,  are  to  be  appointed  as- 
inspectors. 

SEC.  6.  If  during  the  inspections  there  is  shown  the  presence 
or  the  suspicion  of  a  disease  for  which  compulsory  notification 
exists,  action  is  to  be  taken  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
in  force  governing  the  case  at  hand. 

SEC.  7.  If  the  ante-mortem  inspection  does  not  furnish  any 
ground  for  preventing  slaughter,  the  inspector  shall  permit  it  to> 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  65 

take  place  under  any  special  precautions  which  in  his  judgment 
should  be  adopted. 

The  slaughter  of  the  animal  presented  for  inspection  shall  not 
take  place  before  permission  is  given,  and  then  only  under  the 
special  precautionary  measures  ordered. 

If  slaughter  does  not  take  place  at  latest  two  days  after 
permission  is  given,  then  it  shall  be  allowable  only  after  a  re- 
inspection  and  a  second  permit. 

SEC.  8.  If  the  post-mortem  inspection  shows  no  ground  for 
the  condemnation  of  the  meat,  the  inspector  shall  declare  it  as  fit 
for  consumption  by  man. 

Parts  of  a  slaughtered  animal  shall  not  be  taken  away  before 
inspection. 

SEC.  9.  If  the  inspection  shows  that  the  meat  is  unfit  as  food 
for  man,  then  the  inspector  shall  place  a  provisional  embargo  upon 
it,  inform  the  owner  of  this  fact,  and  shall  immediately  give  notice 
to  the  police  authorities. 

Meat  the  unwholesomeness  of  which  has  been  established  by 
inspection  shall  not  be  brought  into  traffic  as  food  or  condiment 
for  man. 

The  use  of  the  meat  for  other  purposes  may  be  permitted  by 
the  police  authorities,  so  far  as  sanitary  considerations  do  not 
contraindicate.  The  police  authorities  shall  determine  what  pre- 
cautionary measures  are  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  prevent  the  use 
of  such  meats  as  food  for  man. 

The  meat  shall  not  be  brought  into  traffic  without  permission 
from  the  police,  and  then  only  under  the  precautionary  measures 
prescribed  by  the  police  authorities. 

The  meat  shall  be  disposed  of  by  the  police  authorities  in 
such  manner  that  it  can  do  no  harm,  so  far  as  its  use  for  other 
purposes  [Sec.  9,  paragraph  3]  is  not  permitted. 

SEC.  10.  If  the  inspection  shows  that  the  meat  is  only  con- 
ditionally fit  as  food  for  man,  then  the  inspector  shall  place  a 
provisional  embargo  upon  it,  shall  inform  the  owner  of  this  fact, 
and  shall  immediately  give  notice  to  the  police  authorities.  The 
latter  shall  determine  under  what  safeguarding  measures  the  meat 
can  be  made  fit  for  human  food. 

Meat  which  has  thus  been  recognized  as  only  conditionally 
utilizable  shall  not  be  brought  into  traffic  as  food  and  condiment 
for  man  before  it  has  been  made  fit  for  human  food  by  the  safe* 
guarding  measures  prescribed  by  the  police  authorities. 


66  REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

So  far  as  such  action  of  making  the  meat  fit  for  food  is  not 
taken,  the  provisions  of  Sec.  9,  paragraphs  3  to  5,  shall  apply. 

SEC.  11.  Dealing  in  meat  thus  made  fit  as  food  for  man  [Sec. 
10,  paragraph  1]  can  take  place  only  under  a  designation  making 
this  condition  recognizable. 

Dealing  in  and  use  of  such  meat  by  meat  dealers  and  hotel, 
saloon,  and  restaurant  keepers  are  allowed  only  on  license  from  the 
police  authorities.  This  license  shall  be.  revocable  at  any  time. 
Such  meat  shall  be  delivered  to  the  above-mentioned  tradespeople 
only  so  far  as  such  a  license  has  been  granted  to  them.  In  the 
business  rooms  of  these  persons  it  must  be  made  especially  evident, 
by  means  of  an  intelligible  siga  in  a  conspicuous  place,  that  meat 
of  the  quality  designated  in  paragraph  1  [Sec.  11]  is  sold  or  used. 

Meat  dealers  shall  not  offer  for  sale  nor  sell  this  quality  of 
meat  in  the  same  rooms  in  which  wholesome  meat  [Sec.  8]  is 
offered  for  sale  or  sold. 

The  importation  past  the  customs  line  of  meat  in  hermetically 
sealed  cans,  or  in  other  similar  vessels,  of  sausages  and  other 
mixtures  made  from  chopped  meat,  is  prohibited. 

As  for  all  other  meats,  the  following  provisions  relative  to 
their  importation  past  the  customs  line  shall  be  in  force  until 
December  31, 1903 : 

1.  Fresh  meat  may  be  imported  past  the  customs  line  only  in 
entire  carcasses,  but  the  carcasses  of  cattle  (with  the  exception  of 
calves)  and  of  swine  may  be  cut  into  halves. 

The  pleura  and  the  peritoneum,  lungs,  heart,  kidneys,  and,  in 
case  of  cows,  the  udder  also,  must  be  attached  to  the  carcass  in 
natural  connection.  The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  to  extend 
this  provision  to  other  organs. 

2.  Prepared  meat  may  be  imported  only  when  from  its  origin 
and   its   preparation   danger  to   human   health   is,    as   shown    by 
experience,   excluded,   or   when,   at   the   time   of  importation,   its 
harmlessness  to  human  health  can  be  determined   in*  a  reliable 
manner.     This   determination  is   to  be   considered  impracticable, 
especially  in  shipments  of  pickled  meat,  when  the  weight  of  single 
pieces  is  less  than  four  kilograms.     This  order  does  not  apply  to 
hams,  bacon  and  casings. 

Meat  which,  although  subjected  to  a  preserving  process,  has 
practically  retained  the  properties  of  fresh  meat,  or  which,  through 
suitable  treatment,  can  recover  those  properties,  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  prepared  meat.  Such  meat  comes  under  the  pro- 
visions of  number  1. 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  67 

After  December  31, 1903,  the  conditions  governing  the  importa- 
tion of  meat  are  to  be  determined  anew  by  law.  If  no  new  law  is 
enacted  by  the  time  mentioned,  the  regulations  established  by 
Sec.  12,  paragraph  2,  shall  remain  in  force  until  further  measures 
are  adopted. 

SEC.  13.  Meat  passing  the  customs  line  shall  be  subject,  upon 
its  importation,  to  an  official  inspection,  made  with  the  cooperation 
of  the  customs  authorities.  Such  meat  as  is  proved  to  have 
already  been  inspected,  according  to  regulations,  in  the  inland,  and 
meat  intended  for  shipment  in  direct  transit,  is  excepted  herefrom. 

The  importation  of  meat  shall  take  place  only  via  certain 
customs  houses.  The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  these 
customs  houses,  and  also  the  customs  and  revenue  offices  where 
the  inspection  of  the  meat  may  take  place. 

SEC.  14.  For  game  and  fowls,  and  further,  for  meat  carried  for 
use  on  journeys,  the  provisions  of  Sees.  12  and  13  shall  be  applic- 
able only  so  far  as  the  Federal  Council  orders. 

For  meat  imported  in  the  minor  frontier  trade,  as  well  as  in 
the  trade  of  the  fairs  and  markets  of  frontier  districts,  exceptions 
to  the  regulations  of  Sees.  12  and  13  may  be  made  by  order  of  the 
federated  governments. 

SEC.  15.  The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  to  decree  more 
sweeping  prohibitions  and  restrictions  of  importation  than  are 
provided  in  Sees.  12  and  13. 

.  SEC.  16.  The  provisions  of  Sec.  8,  paragraph  1,  and  of  Sees.  9 
to  11,  apply  also  to  meat  imported  inside  of  the  customs  line. 
Instead  of  the  innocuous  disposal  or  of  the  safeguarding  measures 
ordered  by  the  police,  the  re-exportation  of  the  meat  may,  however, 
be  permitted  under  corresponding  precautionary  measures,  so  far 
as  hygienic  considerations  do  not  contraindicate. 

SEC.  17.  Meat  which  is  not  intended  as  food  for  man,  but 
which  can  be  so  used,  may  be  imported  without  inspection,  after  it 
has  been  rendered  unfit  for  human  food. 

SEC.  18.  The  inspection  (Sec.  1)  of  horses  must  be  made  by 
officially  recognized  veterinarians. 

Dealing  in  horse  meat,  as  well  as  the  importation  of  such  meat 
inside  of  the  customs  line,  shall  take  place  only  under  a  designa- 
tion, in  the  German  language,  which  makes  the  meat  recognizable 
as  horse  meat. 

Dealing  in  and  the  use  of  horse  meat  shall  be  permitted  to 
meat  dealers  and  hotel,  saloon  and  restaurant  keepers  only  with  a 
license  from  the  police  authorities ;  the  license  shall  be  revocable 


68  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

at  any  time.  Horse  meat  may  be  delivered  to  the  above-named 
tradespeople  only  so  far  as  such  a  license  has  been  granted  to 
them.  In  the  business  rooms  of  these  persons  it  must  be  made 
especially  evident,  by  means  of  an  intelligible  sign  in  a  conspicuous 
place,  that  horse  meat  is  dealt  in  or  used. 

Meat  dealers  shall  not  offer  for  sale  nor  sell  horse  meat  in  the 
same  rooms  in  which  meat  from  other  animals  is  offered  for  sale  or 
sold. 

The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  to  order  that  the  above 
regulations  be  applied  to  asses,  mules,  dogs  and  other  animals 
which  are  more  rarely  slaughtered. 

SEC.  19.  The  inspector  shall  clearly  indicate  upon  the  meat 
the  result  of  tlie  inspection.  Meat  imported  from  abroad  is,  in 
addition,  to  be  plainly  stamped  as  imported  meat. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  the  kind  of  mark  to  be  used. 

SEC.  20.  Meat  which  has  been  subjected  within  the  German 
Empire  to  official  inspection,  according  to  Sees.  8  to  16,  may  be 
subject  to  an  official  reinspection  only  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining whether  it  has  spoiled  in  the  meantime,  or  whether  it  has 
otherwise  suffered  any  change  in  its  condition,  rendering  it  in- 
jurious to  health. 

Enactments  of  the  federated  governments,  according  to  which, 
for  communities  with  public  slaughterhouses,  the  dealing  in  fresh 
meat*  may  be  subjected  to  restrictions,  especially  to  obligatory 
inspection  within  the  community,  shall  remain  unaffected,  with  the 
proviso  that  their  applicability  shall  not  be  made  dependent  upon 
the  origin  of  the  meat. 

SEC.  21.  In  the  industrial  preparation  of  meat  no  materials  or 
processes  shall  be  used  which  are  capable  of  imparting  to  the 
wares  a  condition  injurious  to  health.  It  is  forbidden  to  import 
from  abroad  such  prepared  meat  or  to  offer  it  for  sale,  to  sell  it,  or 
otherwise  to  bring  it  into  traffic. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  the  materials  and  the 
processes  to  which  these  regulations  shall  be  applied. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  order  how  far  the  regulations  of 
paragraph  1  are  applicable  also  to  special  materials  and  processes 
which  are  apt  to  conceal  an  unwholesome  or  inferior  quality  of  the 
wares. 

SEC.  22.     The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  : 

1.  To  issue  regulations  relative  to  determining  whether  persons 
possess  sufficient  knowledge  to  act  as  meat  inspectors. 

2.  To   establish   general   principles,   according  to   which    th& 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  69 

inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat  is  to  be  carried  out,  and  for 
the  farther  treatment  of  food  animals  and  of  meat  in  case  they  are 
not  passed. 

3.  To  make  the  necessary  arrangements  for  carrying  out  the 
provisions  of  Sec.  12  and  for  determining  the  fees  for  the  inspection 
of  meat  brought  inside  the  customs  line. 

SEC.  23.  The  laws  of  the  federated  governments  determine 
who  has  to  bear  the  cost  of  the  official  inspection  (Sec.  1).  In  all 
other  matters,  the  necessary  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  law 
shall  be  issued  by  the  governments  of  the  federated  states,  so  far  as 
the  Federal  Council  has  not  been  declared  competent,  or  in  so  far 
as  the  Federal  Council  makes  no  use  of  the  authority  conferred 
upon  it  by  Sec.  22. 

SEC.  24  Eegulations  of  the  federated  governments  in  regard 
to  trichina  inspection  and  the  dealing  in  and  use  of  meat  which, 
although  fit  as  food  for  man,  is  considerably  diminished  in  its 
nutritive  and  food  value;  further,  regulations  of  the  federated 
government  establishing  more  extensive  obligations  than  does  this 
law  relative  to :  (1)  The  animals  to  be  subjected  to  inspection,  (2) 
the  carrying  out  of  inspections  by  officially  recognized  veterinarians, 
(3)  the  dealing  in  rejected  moat,  or  in  meat  of  animals  desig- 
nated in  Sec.  18,  are  permissible  on  the  condition  that  their 
applicability  shall  not  be  made  dependent  upon  the  place  of  origia 
of  the  food  animal  or  of  the  meat. 

SEC.  25.  The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  how  far  the 
provisions  of  this  law  apply  to  meat  imported  into  that  part  of  the 
Empire  situated  outside  of  the  customs  line. 

SEC.  26.  Imprisonment  in  jail  not  exceeding  six  months  and  a 
fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  five  hundred  marks,  or  either  of 
these  penalties,  shall  be  imposed  upon: 

1.  Any  person  who  knowingly  acts  in  contravention  of  Sec.  9, 
paragraphs  2,  4;  Sec.  10,  paragraphs  2,  3;    Sec.  12,  paragraph  1; 
or  Sec.  21,  paragraphs  1,  2 ;  or  bf  a  prohibition  based  upon  Sec.  21, 
paragraph  3. 

2.  Any  person  who  shall  knowingly  bring  into  traffic  as  food  or 
condiment  for  man  meat  which  has  be«n  imported  contrary  to  the 
regulations  of  Sec.  12,  paragraph  1,  or  meat  which  has  been  ren- 
dered unfit  for  human  food  according  to  Sec.  17. 

3.  Any  person  who  shall  fraudulently  affix  or  alter  the  marks 
provided  for  in  Sec.  19,  or  who  shall  kno,wingly  offer  for  sale  or  sell 
meat  on  which  the  marks  have  been  fraudulently  affixed,  altered,  or 
removed. 


70  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

SEC.  27.  A  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  fifty  marks  or 
imprisonment  will  be  imposed  upon : 

1.  Any  person  who  through  carelessness  shall  commit  one  of 
the  acts  designated  in  Sec.  26,  numbers  1  and  2. 

2.  Any  person  who  shall  undertake  to  slaughter   an   animal 
before  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  inspection  prescribed  in  this. 
law,  or  ordered  on  authority  of  Sec.  1,  paragraph  1,  sentence  2; 
Sec.  3 ;  Sec.  18,  paragraph  5 ;  or  Sec.  24. 

3.  Any  person  who  shall  bring  meat  into  traffic  before  it  has 
been  subjected  to  the  inspection  prescribed  in  this  law,  or  ordered 
on  authority  of  Sec.  1,  paragraph  1,  sentence  2 ;   Sec.  3 ;   Sec.  4> 
paragraph  1 ;  Sec.  18,  paragraph  5  ;  or  Sec.  24. 

4.  Any  person  who  shall  act  in  contravention  of  Sec.  2,  para- 
graph 2 ;    Sec.  7,  paragraphs  2,  3 ;    Sec.  8,  paragraph  2 ;    Sec.  11  * 
Sec.  12,  paragraph  2;  Sec.  13,  paragraph  2;  Sec.  18,  paragraph  2  to 
•4 ;  also,  any  person  who  shall  contravene  orders  issued  in  accord- 
ance with  Sec.  15,  or  Sec.  18,  paragraph  5 ;    or  the  regulations  of 
the  federated  governments  concerning  the  dealing  in  and  the  use  of 
meat,  issued  on  authority  of  Sec.  24. 

SEC.  28.  In  the  cases  in  Sec.  26,  numbers  1  and  2,  and  in  Sec, 
27,  number  1,  the  confiscation  of  the  meat  shall  be  ordered  in. 
addition  to  the  penalty.  In  cases  in  Sec.  26,  number  3,  and  Sec.  27* 
numbers  2  to  4,  the  seizure  of  the  meat,  or  of  the  animal,  may  be 
ordered  in  addition  to  the  penalty.  In  the  case  of  confiscation,  it  is 
immaterial  whether  the  object  seized  belongs  to  the  condemned 
person  or  not. 

If  the  prosecution  or  the  condemnation  of  a  given  person  is  not 
possible,  then  the  seizure  may  be  ordered  independently. 

SEC.  29.  The  provisions  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879  (page  145, 
Reichsgesetzbl.),  regarding  the  traffic  in  foods,  condiments  and 
articles  of  use,  remain  unchanged.  The  provisions  of  Sec.  16  of 
said  law  shall  also  be  applicable  to  offences  against  the  provisions 
of  the  present  law. 

SEC.  30.  Those  provisions  of  this  law  which  relate  to  the 
adoption  of  the  arrangements  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  law  for 
the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  of  meat  shall  take  effect  on  the 
day  of  the  promulgation  of  this  law. 

Furthermore,  the  time  when  the  law  goes  into  effect,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  shall  be  fixed  by  an  imperial  order  with  the? 
assent  of  the  Federal  Council. 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  71 

Remarks  Concerning  Meat  Inspection  Law. 

(A)  GENERAL. 

The  enactment  of  the  bill  concerning  the  introduction  of  the 
inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat  in  the  German  Empire  was  not 
accomplished  by  a  unanimous  vote  on  the  part  of  the  Reichstag. 
Strangely  enough,  according  to  a  statement  of  the  State  Secretary, 
Count  Posadowsky,  certain  persons  were  opposed  to  the  law  from 
whom  such  opposition  was  not  to  be  expected.  It  seemed  to  have 
been  forgotten  that  the  new  meat  inspection  law  had  in  the  first 
place  a  hygienic  purpose — the  protection  of  the  public  health. 

The  State  Secretary  of  the  German  Empire,  in  a  noteworthy 
Speech,  characterized  the  high  purpose  of  the  meat  inspection  law 
and  also  the  defects  which  were  due  to  the  resolutions  of  the 
majority  of  the  Eeichstag.  The  original  draft  of  the  law  was  not 
enacted  in  the  hygienically  complete  form  in  which  the  Eeichs- 
regierung  presented  it  to  the  Eeichstag.  The  majority  of  the 
Eeichstag,  which  remained  deaf  to  the  statements  of  experts, 
introduced  regulations  into  the  law  which  we  must  regret  from  a 
standpoint  of  hygiene.  Nevertheless,  the  bill,  which  has  now 
become  a  law,  is  a  great  hygienic  fact,  the  effects  of  which  will  be 
beneficial  to  the  consumer,  producer  and  dealer  in  equal  degree. 

From  the  standpoint  of  hygiene,  we  must  consider  that 
slaughtering  for  one's  own  household,  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  law,  is  not  subject  to  obligatory  inspection,  and  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  this  exception  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  well- 
known  interests  of  the  farmer.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that  the 
facultative  meat  inspection  in  slaughtering  for  one's  own  house- 
hold, like  facultative  inspection  for  trichina  in  hogs  slaughtered  for 
home  use,  will  pass  over  into  obligatory  inspection  after  the  un- 
desirability  of  the  exception  has  become  apparent  from  practice. 

The  majority  in  the  Eeichstag,  furthermore,  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  farmer  and  consumer,  struck  out  the  obligatory  provisions 
concerning  the  sale  of  inferior  meat  upon  the  freibank. 

Moreover,  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  the  admission  of  separate 
pieces  of  meat  from  foreign  countries  is  to  be  characterized  as  a 
defect  in  the  law,  since  the  inspection  of  such  pieces  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  their  harmlessness  is  an  impossibility.  It  must  be 
admitted,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Eeichstag,  contrary  to  the 
original  draft  of  the  law,  introduced  a  prohibitive  order  against  the 
introduction  of  manufactured  articles,  such  as  sausages  and  con- 


72  BEGULATION  OP  TRAFFIC  IN   MEAT 

serves,  the  composition  of  which  is  entirely  beyond  control.  More- 
over, it  is  possible  that  in  the  introduction  of  separate  pieces  of 
meat  a  change  for  the  better  may  occur  when  it  becomes  possible, 
by  the  admission  of  animals  from  foreign  countries  in  abattoirs  on 
the  border,  to  enforce  strictly  the  requirement  that  only  whole 
parts  of  animals  in  their  natural  connections  with  the  internal 
organs  shall  be  introduced.  Finally,  some  objections  may  be 
raised  against  the  wording  of  Sec.  20,  which  permits  cities* 
to  make  a  subsequent  inspection  of  meat  introduced  from  foreigd 
countries  only  when  it  is  in  a  fresh  condition,  as  well  as  against  the 
penalties  which  have  created  contradictions  between  the  new  law 
and  the  corresponding  provisions  of  the  food  law  and  the  criminal 
statutes  for  the  German  Empire. 

It  will  be  the  duty  of  the  Federal  Council  and  the  governments 
of  the  various  federated  States  to  regulate  this  matter  by  the 
decree  of  ordinances  for  enforcing  the  law. 

The  rationale  of  the  law,  together  with  technical  commentaries 
on  it,  are  found  in  Act  138  of  the  Reichstag,  10th  Legislative 
Period,  First  Session,  1898  1899.  Furthermore,  with  regard  to  the 
history  of  the  origin  of  the  law,  Act  631  of  the  Reichstag,  10th 
Legislative  Period,  First  Session,  1898-1899,  is  important  as  con- 
taining the  report  of  the  15th  Session,  which  was  entrusted  with 
making  the  draft  of  the  law,  and,  finally,  the  stenographic  reports  of 
the  Keichstag  for  the  Sessions  67,  68,  162,  163,  164,  199,  200,  and 
201  of  the  above-mentioned  legislative  period.  From  these  sources 
the  following  commentary  is  taken.* 

(B)  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  DIFFERENT  PROVISIONS  OP  THE 
MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW. 

Section  1. 

Cattle,  swine,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  dogs,  the  meat  of  which  is  intended  to 
be  used  as  food  for  man,  shall  be  subjected  to  an  official  inspection  both  before  and 
after  slaughter. .  By  decision  of  the  Federal  Council,  obligatory  inspection  may  be 
extended  to  other  food  animals. 

In  case  of  emergency  slaughter,  the  ante-mortem  inspection  may  be  omitted. 

The  following  are  to  be  considered  as  cases  of  emergency:  When  there  LSI 
reason  to  fear  that  the  animal  may  die  before  the  arrival  of  the  proper  local  inspector, 
or  that  the  meat  may  become  materially  reduced  in  value  owing  to  aggravation  of  the 
diseased  condition,  or  when,  in  consequence  of  an  accident,  the  animal  must  be  killed 
immediately. 


*  Compare  also  the  Commentary  of  von  Rohrscheidt,  The  Meat  Inspection 
of  June  3,  1900.     Leipsic:  1900. 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  75 

(a)  Compulsory  inspection  is  restricted  to  domesticated   ani- 
mals, although  from  a  hygienic  standpoint  the  regulation  of  traffic 
in  birds,  game,  fish,  amphibia,  Crustacea  and  mollusks  would  also 
be  desirable.     The  control  of  the  traffic  in  fowl,  game,  fish,  etc.,  is 
so  essentially  different  from  the  regulation  of  the  traffic  in  other 
meats  that  it  was  not  considered  practicable  to  treat  these  different 
matters  in  one  and  the  same  law.     The  control  of  fowl,  game  and 
fish  markets  is,  therefore,  reserved  for  later  municipal  ordinances. 

The  fact  fhat  clogs  were  introduced  in  Sec.  1  is  not  in  accord- 
ance with  the  original  purpose  of  the  law ;  for,  according  to  this 
purpose,  only  those  animals  should  be  mentioned  the  meat  of 
which  is  of  value  as  a  food  material  for  large  classes  of  the 
population. 

(b)  "Food for  man."      A  preliminary  condition  to  obligatory 
inspection  is  the  utilization  of  the  animals  as  a  human  food  ma- 
terial.    Animals  which  are  utilized  as  food  for  other  animals   (in 
menageries,  piggeries   and   dog  kennels),  or   are   to   be   used  for 
technical  purposes,  are  excluded  from  inspection. 

(c)  "Before   and  after  slaughter"      The    provision    that   food 
animals  are  to  be  inspected  also  before  slaughter  takes  account  of 
the  fact  that,  for  a  well-founded  opinion  of  the  fitness  of  meat  for 
food,  there  is  required  not  only  an  inspection  of  the  slaughtered 
animals,  but  also  an  examination  of  the  animals  before  slaughter. 

The  control  of  the  market  (extraordinary  meat  inspection,  see 
p.  1),  the  regulation  of  which  is  an  affair  of  the  police  administra- 
tion, is  independent  of  the  inspection  prescribed  by  the  Imperial 
Meat  Inspection  Law. 

(d)  "Emergency  slaughter"     In  cases  of  emergency  slaughter, 
inspection  before  slaughter  must  be  omitted,  for  the  reason  that 
slaughter   must   necessarily   take   place  so  quickly  that  the  long 
delay  in  waiting  the  arrival  of  an  inspector  might  result  in  the 
death  of  the  animal.     A  compensation  for  this  omission  is  had  in 
the   more   accurate,    microscopical,   bacteriological    and    chemical 
inspection  of  the  meat  and  in  the  stricter  judgment  of  it  (admission 
as  human  food  only  in  case  no  doubt  exists  regarding  the  nature  of 
the  disease  which   occasioned   the   emergency  slaughter,   and  re- 
garding the  fitness  of  the  meat  for  food).     In  order  to  prevent  the 
illegal  evasion  of  the  inspection  of  food  animals  before  slaughter, 
and  in  order  to  give  the  criminal  justice  facts  for  directing   his 
judgment,  the  meaning  of  emergency  slaughter  is  expressly  declared 
by   the   Eeichst  ig.      In   accordance   with   the   law   an   emergency 
slaughter  exists  only  when  a  diseased  animal  is  to  be  slaughtered 


74  REGULATION  O'F  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

simply  for  the  reason  that  the  prospect  of  recovery  is  slight  or  that 
the  further  maintenance  of  the  animal  may  not  be  profitable. 

Section  2. 

In  the  case  of  food  animals  the  meat  of  which  is  intended  to  be  used  exclusively 
in  the  owner's  own  household,  the  ante-mortem  inspection  may  be  omitted  whenever 
the  animals  do  not  present  any  signs  of  disease  which  would  exclude  the  fitness  of 
their  meat  as  food ;  the  post-mortem  inspection  also  may  be  omitted  whenever  such 
indications  of  disease  are  likewise  not  revealed  during  the  killing  and  dressing. 

Traffic  in  meat  the  inspection  of  which  has  been  omitted  on  the  ground  of 
Sec.  2,  paragraph  1,  is  forbidden. 

As  "own  household"  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  2,  paragraph  1,  are  not  to  be  con- 
sidered: The  household  of  the  barracks,  hospitals,  educational  institutions,  res- 
taurants, prisons,  almshouses,  and  similar  institutions,  nor  the  household  of  the 
butchers,  meat  dealers,  nor  of  hotel,  saloon  and  restaurant  keepers. 

(a)  The  fundamental  significance  of  the  determination  of  exceptions.. 
According  to  the  provisions  of  the  law,  only  a  portion  of  the  animals 
slaughtered  for  home  consumption  (sheep,  goats,  and  calves  and 
pigs  under  three  months)  were  excluded  from  compulsory  inspection, 
and  then  only  so  far  as  the  animals  showed  no  evidence  of  disease. 
By  such  a  wording  of  the  law,  the  requirements  of  sanitation  and 
the  principal  desires  of  farmers  in  slaughtering  for  their  own  use 
"will  be  satisfied  to  the  same  degree.  The  Reichstag  Commission, 
however,  extended  the  prescribed  exceptions  to  Sec.  2  to  include  all 
slaughtering  for  home  use,  although  the  representatives  of  the 
Tarious  governments  explained  that  meat  inspection  must  be 
extended  to  all  slaughtering  for  home  use  for  the  reason  that  sani- 
tary protection  should  be  furnished  uniformly  for  all  consumers,  and 
for  the  further  reason  that  the  veterinary  police  take  great  interest 
in  the  inspection  of  animals  slaughtered  for  home  use,  and  the 
inspection  of  slaughtered  animals  for  home  use  had  justified  itself 
wherever  it  had  been  introduced  (Hessen-Nassau  and  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony).  The  wording  given  by  the  Reichstag  Commission  to 
Sec.  2  may  be  a  Greek  gift  to  the  farmers,  to  whom  the  broader 
construction  was  supposed  to  be  an  advantage.  The  legal  decisions 
collected  in  the  Imperial  Health  Office  concerning  the  violations  of 
the  food  law  show  that  the  farmers  who  slaughter  for  home  use  do 
not  realize  the  responsibility  which  they  assume  in  the  utilization  of 
the  meat  of  animals  not  inspected  by  experts.  The  farmer  does  not 
tnow  that  in  using  in  his  own  household  meat  injurious  to  health 
and  of  the  injurious  character  of  which  he  is  nofc  aware,  he  is  guilty 
of  a  violation  of  Sec.  12  to  14  of  the  food  law,  since  the  traffic  in 
injurious  food  material  for  which  punishment  is  provided  in  these 
paragraphs  means  nothing  more  nor  less  than  "  to  make  accessible 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  75 

to  others  for  food."  If  even  now  criminal  proceedings  are  frequently 
begun  against  farmers  on  the  basis  of  the  food  law,  they  will 
probably  be  much  more  numerous  after  the  introduction  of  com- 
pulsory meat  inspection,  for  the  reason  that  recognition  of  the  value 
of  meat  inspection  will  be  much  more  common  than  previously 
among  consumers,  and  all  meat  which  has  not  been  inspected  will 
be  regarded  with  suspicion.  The  more  discerning  farmers  have^ 
therefore,  urgently  advised  their  fellow-farmers,  for  the  sake  of 
their  own  health  and  in  order  to  avoid  malignant  denunciation  by 
their  servants,  to  yield  the  exception  in  favor  of  slaughter  for  home 
use  and  to  place  the  responsibility  for  the  utilization  of  meat 
slaughtered  for  home  use  upon  an  expert  to  be  selected  for  this 
purpose. 

With  regard  to  the  exception  from  compulsory  inspection  of 
hogs  slaughtered  for  home  use,  it  should  be  remembered  that  all 
cases  of  trichinosis  which  have  occurred  in  Berlin  since  1883  have 
been  due  to  pork  products  sent  from  outside  localities  to  private 
persons.  These  products  in  the  place  where  the  slaughtering  was 
done  were  intended  for  home  consumption  and  were  therefore  not 
required  to  be  inspected  for  trichina. 

The  restrictive  provision  that  animals  which  show  evidence  of 
the  presence  of  a  disease  renderiDg  the  meat  unfit  for  use  must  be 
inspected  is  not  calculated  to  prevent  all  harm  resulting  from  the 
consumption  of  meat  which  was  not  inspected  because  it  was 
intended  for  private  use.  For  this  provision  allows  a  wide  play  to 
individual  opinions  and  the  less  scrupulous  farmers  will  attempt  to 
shirk  their  responsibility  by  a  pretended  ignorance  of  the  symptoms 
in  question. 

Manifestly,  stock  owners  are  not  prevented  from  voluntarily 
offering  for  inspection  animals  which  are  not  subject  to  compulsory 
inspection.  Furthermore,  it  is  left  to  the  different  States  through, 
the  regulations  of  Sec.  24,  paragraph  1,  to  subject  animals  slaugh- 
tered for  home  use,  throughout  their  territory  in  general  or  under 
certain  conditions,  to  compulsory  inspection. 

(b)  "  Owner's  own  household.1"  "  Industrial  utilization  of  meal." 
The  meaning  of  "  owner's  own  household "  appears  from  the 
regulation  of  paragraph  3,  e  contrario.  In  the  institutions  mentioned 
in  paragraph  3,  exceptions  to  compulsory  slaughter  are  not  permis- 
sible, since  in  these  cases  a  higher  public  concern  exists  for  the 
health  of  those  persons  who  are  brought  to  these  institutions  or  are 
doing  busines  in  them.  Slaughtering  for  home  use,  however,  which 
may  be  carried  out  by  the  inmates  of  servants'  quarters  in  these- 


76  REGULATION   OF  TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

institutions,  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  other  cases  of  slaughter  fdr 
liome  consumption.  The  regulation  with  regard  to  the  household 
cf  butchers  is  intended  to  prevent  the  sale,  offering  for  sale,  or  other 
utilization  of  meat  which  ostensibly  was  intended  for  the  private 
household  of  those  persons,  but  was  placed  upon  the  market  by  an 
evasion  of  compulsory  inspection.  The  tradesmen,  also,  who 
prepare  or  manipulate  meat  before  its  sale  (sausage  makers, 
conserve  manufacturers,  etc.),  are  to  be  considered  as  meat  dealers. 

Unfortunately,  according  to  Sec.  2,  only  the  industrial  utiliza- 
tion of  meat  which  has  not  been  inspected  is  forbidden,  and  not  the 
giving  of  it  away  gratis  or  incidentally  (explanation  of  the  State 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  at  the  200th  Session  of  the  Reichstag).  It 
^was  intended  in  this  provision  to  allow  farmers  who  had  slaughtered 
too  much  meat  for  their  own  household  an  opportunity  to  dispose 
of  the  excess,  despite  the  fact  that  it  would  have  been  more  suitable 
to  make  the  subsequent  disposition  of  the  surplus  dependent  upon 
the  inspection  of  the  meat.  "  The  utilization  is  industrial  only 
when  it  is  undertaken*  and  continued  for  the  purpose  of  gain.  A 
single  instance  of  the  utilization  of  the  meat,  is,  therefore,  not 
industrial  if  there  is  no  intention  of  continuing  in  the  business.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  financial  advantage  does  not  necessarily  consist 
in  money."  (Rohrscheidt,  according  to  decisions  of  the  Upper 
Tribunal  Court,  the  Upper  Administrative  Court,  Imperial  Court, 
and  the  Court  of  Chancery.) 

(c)  "  Signs  of  disease  which  would  exclude  the  fitness  of  their  meat 
asfood."  In  order  that  this  restriction  of  Sec.  2  may  have  any 
practical  value,  it  is  necessary  in  the  regulations  for  enforcing  the 
law  to  specify  those  diseases  which  render  meat  unfit  for  use,  and 
their  symptoms.  It  must  then  be  the  business  of  the  local  author- 
ities to  make  generally  known  these  commentaries  of  Sec.  2  of  the 
meat  inspection  law. 

Section  3. 

The  federated  governments  are  authorized  to  order  the  inspection,  at  places 
irhere  and  times  when  a  communicable  animal  disease  prevails,  of  all  food  animals 
^exposed  to  said  disease. 

Sec.  3  is  copied  after  a  Bavarian  meat  inspection  regulation  in 
order  to  make  possible  the  inspection  of  all  food  animals  for  the 
protection  of  the  consumers  and  for  the  determination  of  the  cases 
of  disease  in  the  interest  of  the  veterinary  police,  at  least  during 
the  prevalence  of  plagues  (epizootic  anthrax,  swine  erysipelas,  swine 
plague,  and  hog  cholera).  Since  in  tbis  instance  it  is  a  case  of  local 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  77 

origin  and  temporary  measures,  the  competency  of  the  different 
Hegierungen  is  conceded. 

Section  4. 

Meats,  in  the  sense  of  this  law,  are  fresh  or  prepared  parts  of  warm-blooded 
animals,  so  far  as  these  parts  are  edible.  Fats  and  sausages  prepared  from  warm- 
blooded animals  are  also  considered  as  "parts";  other  products,  however,  only  so  far 
as  the  Federal  Council  orders. 

(a)  "  Meat."     The  meaning  of  meat  was  not  well  defined.     It 
was  desirable,  therefore,  to  define  its  limits  accurately,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  a  precedent  for  the  application  of  federal 
inspection  to  the  various  kinds  of  foreign  meat.     According  to  the 
definition  given  in  the  law,  meat  is  to  be  considered  as  including  all 
parts  of  warm-blooded  animals  in  so  far  as  they  are  suitable  for 
human  food.     It  is  not  required  that  they  be  also  intended  for  this 
purpose.      In  the  sense  of  Sec.  4,  prepared  and  manufactured  meat, 
sausages,  fats,  and  intestines  are  also  included  under  meat. 

(b)  "  Other  products."     These  are,  for  example,  meat  extracts, 
meat  peptones,  meat  gelatines,  soup  tablets,  the  necessity  for  the 
control  of  which  before  their  admission  to  the  food  market  had  not 
made  itself  felt  until  the  present  time,  as  is  asserted  in  the  law. 
The  Federal  Council,  however,  shall  have  the  right  to  subject  all 
these  other  products  to  compulsory  inspection  in  cases  of  emergency. 

(c)  "  Ports  of  ivarm-llooded  animals"      By  means  of  this  limita- 
tion the  meat  of  fish,  amphibia,  Crustacea,  and  mollusks  is  excluded, 
while  that  of  fowls  is  included. 

Section  6. 

For  the  furtherance  of  inspection,  districts  shall  be  established;  at  least  one 
inspector  and  one  deputy  inspector  shall  be  appointed  for  each  of  such  districts. 

The  establishment  of  the  inspection  districts  and  the  appointment  of  the 
inspectors  devolve  upon  the  federated  governmental  authorities.  For  the  inspections 
to  be  performed  in  the  military  preserved  meat  factories,  there  may  be  special 
inspectors  appointed  by  the  military  authorities. 

Officially  recognized  veterinarians,  or  other  persons  who  have  demonstrated  a 
sufficient  knowledge,  are  to  be  appointed  as  inspectors. 

(a)  Inspection  districts.     The  establishment  of  inspection  districts 
is  necessary  in  order  to  control  the  execution  of  the  provisions  of 
the  law.     The  boundaries  of  the  districts  depend  upon  local  con- 
ditions.    This  matter  was,  therefore,  left  to  local  authorities. 

(b)  Inspectors.     The  original  draft  of  the  law  read:  "It  is  ex- 
pedient that  only  veterinarians  shall  be  appointed  as  inspectors. 
Other  persons  must  submit  to  an  examination  before  their  appoint- 
ment."    By  means  of  this  wording,  an  attempt  was  made  to  give 


78  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN   MEAT 

expression  to  the  view  that  in  localities  where  veterinarians  were  to 
be  obtained  they  should  be  appointed  as  inspectors  and  that  other 
persons  should  be  appointed  only  in  localities  where  this  supposi- 
tion did  not  apply.  The  problem  of  inspection  is  regulated  in  this 
manner  in  the  South  German  meat  inspection  ordinances  and  in  the 
Belgian  meat  inspection  law.  This  takes  into  consideration  the 
fact  that  the  best  guaranty  for  expert  practice  of  the  inspection  of 
food  animals  and  meat  is  obtained  when  it  is  carried  on  by  approved 
veterinarians.  Practically,  the  final  wording  of  Sec.  5  of  the  law 
does  not  change  the  intent  of  the  original  draft,  since  for  reasons 
already  given  the  supervisory  authorities  are  to  bear  in  mind  the 
expediency  of  the  appointment  of  veterinarians  as  inspectors. 

The  exclusive  competency  of  approved  veterinarians  is  pro- 
vided for  in  the  law  only  in  the  case  of  the  inspection  of  horse  meat 
(Sec.  18,  paragraph  1).  Furthermore,  the  Federal  Council  may  call 
upon  them  for  an  inspection  of  animals  which  are  more  rarely 
brought  to  slaughter.  Moreover,  in  Sec.  24,  number  2,  authority  is 
given  to  limit  in  a  legal  manner  the  appointment  of  laymen  as  meat 
inspectors,  or  to  exclude  them  entirely  within  the  various  federal 
States. 

Aside  from  the  investigation  of  horses,  veterinary  inspection  is 
absolutely  necessary  in  cases  of  emergency  slaughter,  for  meat 
introduced  from  foreign  countries,  and  for  meat  which  after  slaugh- 
ter is  found  to  exhibit  important  variations  from  the  normal 
condition. 

Sec.  22  gives  the  Federal  Council  the  authority  to  make 
regulations  concerning  the  proof  of  sufficient  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  assistant  meat  inspectors,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be 
lowered  beyond  a  certain  standard  and  in  order  that  the  training 
and  examination  of  these  persons  may  be  regulated  in  a  uniform 
manner  throughout  the  German  Empire. 

The  technical  commentaries  upon  the  original  draft  of  the 
meat  inspection  law  contain  the  following  statement  concerning  the 
competency  of  the  veterinarian  for  meat  inspection. 

For  judging  the  healthy  and  diseased  condition  in  the  living 
and  slaughtered  animal,  approved  veterinarians  are  best  adapted 
from  their  previous  course  of  training  and  from  their  active  duties 
in  practice.  In  addition  to  the  fundamental  sciences  of  anatomy, 
pathology,  pathological  anatomy,  bacteriology,  parasitology,  and 
animal  industry,  students  in  veterinary  high  schools  receive  special 
training  in  meat  inspection.  In  the  majority  of  States  this  branch 
of  knowledge  receives  consideration  in  the  examination  for  the  posi- 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  79 

iion  of  official  veterinarian.  In  Wiirtemburg,  admission  to  this 
examination  is  made  to  depend  upon  a  practical  course  in  one  of 
the  larger  abattoirs.  In  other  States  the  same  condition  may  be 
required.  Many  veterinarians  actively  employed  in  public  abattoirs 
liave  already  chosen  the  special  service  of  officials  of  the  sanitary 
police  as  a  life  work  and  have  made  important  contributions  to  the 
scientific  foundation  of  meat  inspection.  It  is,  therefore,  expedient 
that  only  approved  veterinarians  be  appointed  as  meat  inspectors. 
In  cities  in  which  veterinarians  have  located,  this  will  nearly  always 
be  possible. 

(c)  Special  inspectors  for  the  investigations  to  be  undertaken  in 
army  conserve  factories.  The  desirability  of  the  appointment  of 
military  veterinarians  for  the  inspection  of  army  conserve  factories 
was  questioned  in  the  Commission  of  the  Reichstag.  On  this  point 
the  representative  of  the  Ministry  of  War  remarked  that  horse 
doctors  were  approved  veterinarians  and  that  in  the  practice  of 
their  duties  they  had  abundant  opportunity  to  occupy  themselves 
with  meat  inspection.  Thus,  for  more  than  a  year,  the  inspection 
of  animals  before  and  after  slaughter,  not  only  in  army  conserve 
factories,  but  also  for  all  meat  rations  issued  to  troops,  has  been 
enforced.  The  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat  in  the 
maneuver  abattoir  is  quite  general.*  Finally,  it  was  asserted  that 
the  horse  doctors  had  occasion  to  occupy  themselves  with  this 
branch  of  the  service  with  especial  thoroughness  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  in  all  army  corps  special  annual  courses,  partly  theoretical 
and  partly  practical,  were  given  under  the  direction  of  horse 
doctors,  and  in  these  courses  the  commissary  officials  and  pay- 
masters received  instruction  in  meat  inspection. 

Section  6. 

If  during  the  inspections  there  is  shown  the  presence  or  the  suspicion  of  a 
disease,  for  which  compulsory  notification  exists,  action  is  to  be  taken  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations  in  force  governing  the  case  at  hand. 

The  duty  of  notification.  When  it  appears  in  making  an  inspec- 
tion that  a  disease  or  the  suspicion  of  a  disease  exists,  of  which, 
according  to  the  Imperial  or  State  law,  it  is  necessary  to  give 
notice,  the  inspector  and  also  the  owner  are  required,  according  to 
the  regulations,  to  give  notice  of  this  fact  at  the  proper  place. 
(Compare  p.  177  ff.) 


*  According  to  the  regulations  of  the  array  veterinary  ordinances,  the  inspec- 
tion of  meat  intended  for  the  troops  belongs  to  the  duties  of  the  horse  doctors. 


80  REGULATION  OF  TBAFFIC  IN  MEAT 


Section  7. 

If  the  ante-mortem  inspection  does  not  furnish  any  ground  for  preventing 
slaughter,  the  inspector  shall  permit  it  to  take  place  under  any  special  precautions 
which  in  his  judgment  should  be  adopted. 

The  slaughter  of  the  animal  presented  for  inspection  shall  not  take  place  before 
permission  is  given,  and  then  only  under  the  special  precautionary  measures  ordered. 

If  slaughter  does  not  take  place,  at  latest  two  days  after  permission  is  given, 
then  it  shall  be  allowable  only  after  a  reinspection  and  a  second  permit. 

(a)  Passing  for  slaughter.     The  inspector  shall  have  the  author- 
ity to  enforce  certain  measures  concerning  slaughter;   for  example, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  dissemination  of  virus  or  contagion  in  the 
case  of  diseased  or  suspected  animals,  or  in  order  to  diagnose  the 
disease  more  accurately,  or  to  render  more  reliable  the  judgment 
concerning  the  fitness  of  the  meat  of  the  slaughtered  animals  for 
food.     The  passing  of  the  animal  may  be  made  subject  to  the  con- 
dition that  the  animal  shall  be  slaughtered  only  in  a  particular 
room   (in  public  abattoirs,  in  the  so-called  police  slaughterhouse, 
see  p.  39),  or  that  slaughter  shall  take  place  without  delay. 

(b)  That  the  permission  to  slaughter  should  become  inoperative 
if  it  is  not  taken  advantage  of  within  two  days  after  it  is  granted 
appears  to  be  well  founded  from  the  fact  that  important  alterations 
may  occur  in  the  general  condition  of  the  animal  in  the  meantime, 
which  would  require  a  revocation  of  the  permission  or  the  issuance 
of  special  regulations.     As  a  justification  of  the  two-day  period,  the 
general  principle  may  be  cited  from  Section  199  of  the  Civil  Pro- 
cesses and  Section  187  of  the  Civil  Statutes  that  in  periods  for 
which  some  event,  or  a  point  of  time  during  the  course  of  the  day, 
constitutes  the  beginning,  that  day  is  not  to  be  reckoned  in  which 
the  event  or  the  point  of  time  falls.     In  addition  to  the  day  on 
which  the  permission  for  slaughter  is  granted,  the  two  following 
days  of  the  calendar  are  to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  period. 

Section  8. 

If  the  post-mortem  inspection  shows  no  ground  for  the  condemnation  of  the 
meat,  the  inspector  shall  declare  it  as  fit  for  consumption  by  man. 

Parts  of  a  slaughtered  animal  shall  not  be  taken  away  before  the  inspection. 

Section  9. 

If  the  inspection  shows  that  the  meat  is  unfit  as  food  for  man,  then  the  inspector 
shall  place  a  provisional  embargo  upon  it,  inform  the  owner  of  this  fact,  and  shall 
immediately  give  notice  to  the  police  authorities. 

Meat  the  unwholesomeness  of  which  has  been  established  by  inspection  shall  not 
be  brought  into  traffic  as  food  or  condiment  for  man. 

The  use  of  the  meat  for  other  purposes  may  be  permitted  by  the  police  authori- 
ties, so  far  as  sanitary  considerations  do  not  contraindicate.  The  police  authorities 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  81 

•shall  determine  what  precautionary  measures  are  to  be  adopted  in  order  to  prevent 
the  use  of  such  meats  as  food  for  man. 

The  meat  shall  not  be  brought  into  traffic  without  permission  from  the  police, 
and  then  only  under  the  precautionary  measures  prescribed  by  the  police  authorities. 

The  meat  shall  be  disposed  of  by  the  police  authorities  in  such  manner  that  it 
<jan  do  no  harm,  so  far  as  its  use  for  other  purposes  [Sec.  9,  paragraph  3]  is  not 
permitted. 

Section  10. 

If  the  inspection  shows  that  the  meat  is  only  conditionally  fit  as  food  for  man, 
then  the  inspector  shall  place  a  provisional  embargo  upon  it,  shall  inform  the  owner 
of  this  fact,  and  shall  immediately  give  notice  to  the  police  authorities.  The  latter 
shall  determine  under  what  safeguarding  measures  the  meat  can  be  made  fit  for 
human  food. 

Meat  which  has  thus  been  recognized  as  only  conditionally  utilizable  shall  not 
"be  brought  into  traffic  as  food  and  condiment  for  man  before  it  has  been  made  fit  for 
human  food  by  the  safeguarding  measures  prescribed  by  the  police  authorities.  i 

So  far  as  such  action  of  making  the  meat  fit  for  food  is  not  taken,  the  provi- 
sions of  Sec.  9,  paragraphs  3  to  5,  shall  apply. 

Section  11. 

Dealing  in  meat  thus  made  fit  as  food  for  man  [Sec.  10,  paragraph  1]  can  take 
place  only  under  a  designation  making  this  condition  recognizable. 

Dealing  in  and  use  of  such  meat  by  meat  dealers  and  hotel,  saloon  and  res- 
taurant keepers  are  allowed  only  on  license  from  the  police  authorities.  This  license 
shall  be  revocable  at  any  time.  Such  meat  shall  be  delivered  to  the  above-mentioned 
tradespeople  only  so  far  as  such  a  license  has  been  granted  to  them.  In  the  business 
rooms  of  these  persons  it  must  be  made  especially  evident,  by  means  of  an  intelligible 
sign  in  a  conspicuous  place,  that  meat  of  the  quality  designated  in  paragraph  1 
[Sec.  11]  is  sold  or  used. 

Meat  dealers  shall  not  offer  for  sale  nor  sell  this  quality  of  meat  in  the  same 
rooms  in  which  wholesome  meat  is  offered  for  sale  or  sold. 

(a)  Results  of  the  investigation  and  judgment  of  meat  with  reference 
to  its  fitness  for  food.  The  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law  distin- 
guishes between  three  fundamentally  different  classes  of  meat  with 
reference  to  their  fitness  for  food :  (1)  Meat  which  is  fit  for  food 
(Sec.  8) ;  (2)  meat  which  is  unfit  for  food  (Sec.  9) ;  (3)  meat  which 
is  qualifieclly  fit  for  food  (Sec.  10). 

The  original  draft  of  the  law  characterizes,  as  a  fourth  kind  of 
meat,  such  as  is  of  inferior  value  (meat  which  is  fit  for  human  food 
but  which  is  very  inferior  in  its  nutritive  value).  The  Reichstag, 
however,  for  reasons  which  are  absolutely  unintelligible,  rejected 
the  regulation  by  Imperial  law  of  traffic  in  meat  of  inferior  value 
and  the  introduction  of  freibanks  which  is  directly  connected  with 
it,  and  without  which  a  proper  practice  of  meat  inspection  is 
unthinkable,  and  left  the  promulgation  of  suitable  regulations  to 
the  different  governments.  The  only  persons  who  could  be  oppo- 


82  BEGULATION   OF  TBAFFIO   IN   MEAT 

nents  of  tlie  regulation  of  the  traffic  in  inferior  meat  and  of  freibaiiks 
are  farmers,  and  they  only  from  ignorance  of  the  real  conditions. 
Since,  however,  freibanks  are  already  authoritatively  introduced  in 
southern  Germany,  middle  Germany,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony, 
and  since  the  representatives  of  the  Prussian  Agricultural  Chamber^ 
in  harmony  with  the  German  Agricultural  Council,  declared  in 
favor  of  the  introduction  of  freibanks,*  it  is  to  be  assumed 
that  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  as  well  as  in  other  parts  of 
Germany  the  freibank  question  will  be  regulated  by  means  of  state 
laws. 

(b)  "  Meat  which  is  fit  for  food,  meat  which  -is  unfit  for  food  and 
meat  which  is  qualifiedly  fit  for  food"  The  term  "  meat  which  is  fit  for 
food"  is  synonymous  with  "marketable"  of  the  older  meat  inspec- 
tion laws,  and,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  original  draft  of 
the  law,  included  meat  "  which  is  of  normal  quality  and  which  gives 
rise  to  no  suspicion  with  regard  to  its  wholesoineness."  This  defini- 
tion is  not  entirely  clear,  and,  moreover,  is  not  sufficient,  for  meat  of 
normal  appearance  can  not  give  rise  to  any  suspicion  as  to  its 
wholesomeness.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  we  must  reckon  in 
this  class  such  meat  as  shows  only  unimportant  variations  from  the 
normal ;  for  instance,  a  very  slight  degree  of  icterus. 

The  term  "unfit  for  food,"  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
law,  includes  meat  which,  on  account  of  the  danger  to  human  health 
connected  with  its  use  as  food,  must  be  absolutely  excluded  from 
utilization  as  a  food  material.  This  definition  is  also  unsatisfactory, 
for  we  may  have  meat  which,  without  being  dangerous  to  health,  is 
unfit  for  human  food ;  for  example,  watery,  strong  smelling,  highly 
discolored,  meat  infested  with  numerous  harmless  parasites,  etc. 
That  the  law  makers  intended  to  have  these  defects  considered  as 
a  sufficient  ground  for  a  declaration  of  unfitness  for  food  is 
apparent  from  the  technical  commentaries  to  the  laws,  in  which 
meat  from  acute  cases  of  swine  plague,  swine  erysipelas,  trichin- 
osis, measles,  poisoning,  dropsy,  wasting  diseases,  etc.,  is  declared 
to  belong  to  the  class  "  unfit  for  food." 

Meat  is  held  to  be  qualifiedly  fit  for  food  when  it  is  not 
utilizable  as  human  food  in  its  natural  condition  without  injuring 
health,  but  which  may  have  lost  its  dangerous  properties  by  suit- 
able treatment ;  for  example,  measly  or  trichinous  meat,  and  also 
the  meat  in  certain  forms  of  tuberculosis. 


*  Report  concerning  the  Proceedings  of  a  Conference  Instituted  by  the  Central 
Authority  for  Animal  Industry  of  the  Prussian  Agricultural  Chamber  for  the  pre- 
paration of  an  Obligatory  Insurance  Law  for  Food  Animals  in  Prussia.  Berlin:  1901. 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  83 

Furthermore,  although  it  was  not  mentioned  in  the  text  of  the 
law  or  in  the  technical  commentaries,  all  meat  belongs  to  this 
class  which  comes  from  such  diseases  as  may  be  disseminated 
through  meat  traffic ;  for  example,  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague, 
and  hog  cholera. 

With  reference  to  the  classification  of  defective  meat,  the  text 
of  the  law  declares  that  characters,  by  which  the  proper  classification 
of  meat  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  groups  mentioned  is  determined, 
can  not  be  mentioned  in  an  exhaustive  manner  on  account  of  the 
great  differences  which  are  observed  in  the  appearance  of  meat  in 
general.  The  decision  must  rather  be  reached  independently  in 
each  case.  The  desired  uniformity  of  classification  will,  therefore, 
be  sufficiently  assured  by  the  fact  that  the  Federal  Council  estab- 
lished certain  guiding  principles  for  the  judgment  of  meat,  for  which 
authority  is  given  in  Sec.  22,  paragraph  2. 

(c)  Method  of -procedure  in  the  case  of  defective  meat.  While  meat 
which  is  fit  for  food  is  not  subject  to  any  restriction  in  traffic,  meat 
which  is  unfit  for  food  may  never  be  admitted  to  sale  as  food  or 
condiment  for  human  beings,  and  meat  which  is  qualifiedly  fit  for 
food  may  thus  be  admitted  only  after  it  has  been  made  utilizable 
by  boiling,  steaming,  pickling,  or  refrigerating.  For  other  purposes, 
as  for  technical  utilization  (the  preparation  of  oils,  soaps,  and 
candles)  for  feeding  animals  and  the  like,  the  utilization  of  the  meat 
may  be  permitted  by  the  police  authorities  in  so  far  as  no  sanitary 
scruples  exist.  Measures  for  assuring  the  proper  procedure  in 
rendering  meat  which  is  qualifiedly  fit  for  food  suitable  foi  use,  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  the  utilization  of  dangerous  meat  as 
human  food,  may  be  found  in  the  regulations  of  the  police  author- 
ities ;  for  example,  the  denaturaiization  of  the  meat  by  the  assistants 
or  deputies  of  the  police.  The  certainty  of  proper  treatment  may, 
however,  "be  secured  by  police  requirements  upon  the  owners  oi  the 
meat,  the  fulfillment  of  which  is  controlled  officially.  In  the  case 
of  meat  which  is  unfit  for  human  food,  it  will  be  necessary,  as  a 
rule,  to  take  care  that  it  is  not  admitted  to  the  market  before  it  is 
rendered  externally  unfit  for  human  consumption.  The  choice  of 
means  for  securing  this  result  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  police 
authorities,  according  to  the  regulations  of  the  Federal  Council 
based  upon  the  principles  contained  in  Sec.  22,  paragraph  2.  The 
owner  does  not  have  the  right  to  require  that  the  meat  shall  be 
delivered  to  him  for  applying  the  necessary  treatment ;  for  example, 
cooking  of  measly  or  trichinous  pork.  In  so  far  as  admission  of 
meat  which  is  unfit  for  food  for  other  purposes  than  for  human 


84:  BEGULATION  OF  TKAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

food  appears  to  be  undesirable,  the  police  authorities  are  to  provide 
for  its  harmless  disposal  (burying,  burning,  etc.).  It  is  not  uncon- 
ditionally required  that  they  themselves  or  their  deputies  should 
undertake  this  destruction  ;  it  may,  under  certain  conditions,  suffice 
if  the  proper  disposal  of  the  meat  is  made  under  their  immediate 
supervision  and  according  to  regulations  which  they  have  adopted. 
If  the  required  treatment  of  meat  which  is  qualifiedly  fit  for  food  is 
omitted,  it  is  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food. 

(d)  Condemnation  and  notice  of  condemnation  to  the  police  author- 
ities.     In  the  case  of  condemnation,  the  duty  of  the  meat  inspector, 
aside    from    notifying   the   owner   and   the   police   authorities,   is 
restricted  to  taking  charge  of  the  meat  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
its  secret  removal  or  illegal  utilization.     Farther  measures  (such  as 
the  harmless  disposal  of  meat  which  is  unfit  for  food,  its  condem- 
nation for   technical   utilization,   determination   of   procedure    for 
rendering  suitable  for  food  meat  which  was  qualifiedly  fit  for  con- 
sumption) are  entrusted  to  the  local  police  authorities.     The  final 
decision  concerning  condemned  meat  is,  therefore,  rendered  not  by~ 
the  meat  inspector,  but  by  the  police  authorities.     The  extent  to 
which  the  police  authorities  are  bound  by  the  judgment  of  the  meat 
inspector,  concerning  the  quality  of  the  meat  and  the  manner  in, 
which  the  owner  of  the  slaughtered  animal  may  be  granted  the 
privilege   of   contesting  the   condemnation   of  the  meat,  is  to  be- 
regulated  by  authority  of  the  various  governments  (Sec.  23).     The 
transfer  of  police  authority  to  the  abattoir  directors,  as  was  stated 
during  the  sessions  of  the  Commission,  is  not  in  accordance  with 
the  Imperial  law  with  regard  to  the  conditions  of  the  local  police 
authorities  and  the  administrative  arrangements  in  the  different 
States.     In  Saxony  and  Wiirtemburg,  police  powers  are  conferred 
upon  some  of  the  abattoir  directors. 

In  case  of  slaughter  and  inspection  of  a  large  number  of 
animals  in  abattoirs  and  similar  institutions,  special  notice  need  not 
be  given  to  the  police  authorities  for  each  separate  animal.  It 
appears  to  be  much  more  satisfactory  to  make  a  general  report  for 
several,  say  for  all  the  animals  condemned  during  one  day. 

(e)  Limitations  of  traffic  in  meat  which  is  qualifiedly  fit  for  food,  but 
which  has  been  rendered  utilizable.     Meat  which  has  been  rendered 
suitable  for  food  by  any  process  whatever  is  still  defective.     The 
provisions  contained  in  the  section  are,  therefore,  necessary  in  order 
to  prevent  the  sale  of  this  meat,  as  if  it  were  without  defect  and 
saleable  for  the  same  price  as  meat  of  prime  quality. 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  85" 

Section  12. 

The  importation  past  the  customs  line  of  meat  in  hermetically  sealed  cans,  or  in 
other  similar  vessels,  of  sausages  and  other  mixtures  made  from  chopped  meat,  is 
prohibited. 

As  for  all  other  meats,  the  following  provisions  relative  to  their  importation  past 
"the  customs  line  shall  be  in  force  until  December  31,  1903: 

1.  Fresh  meat  may  be  imported  past  the  customs  line  only  in  entire  carcasses, 
tout  the  carcasses  of  cattle  (with  the  exception  of  calves)  and  of  swine  may  be  cut  into 
-halves. 

The  pleura  and  the  peritoneum,  lungs,  heart,  kidneys,  and,  in  case  of  cows,  the 
udder  also,  must  be  attached  to  the  carcass  in  natural  connection.  The  Federal 
'Council  is  authorized  to  extend  this  provision  to  other  organs. 

2.  Prepared  meat  may  be  imported  only  when  from  its  origin  and  its  preparation 
danger  to  human  health  is,  as  shown  by  experience,  excluded,  or  when,  at  the  time  of 
importation,  its  harmlessness  to  human  health  can  be  determined  in  a  reliable  manner. 
This  determination's  to  be  considered  impracticable,  especially  in  shipments  of  pickled 
meat,  when  the  weight  of  single  pieces  is  less  than  four  kilograms.     This  order  does 
not  apply  to  hams,  bacon,  and  casings. 

Meat  which,  although  subjected  to  a  preserving  process,  has  practically  retained 
the  properties  of  fresh  meat,  or  which,  through  suitable  treatment,  can  recover  those 
properties,  is  not  to  be  considered  as  prepared  meat.  Such  meat  comes  under  the 
provisions  of  number  1. 

After  December  31,  1903,  the  conditions  governing  the  importation  of  meat  are 
to  be  determined  anew  by  law.  If  no  new  law  is  enacted  by  the  time  mentioned,  the 
regulations  established  by  Sec.  12,  paragraph  2,  shall  remain  in  force  until  further 
.measures  are  adopted. 

(a)  Prohibition  of  the  introduction  of  canned  meats,  sausages,  and 
Bother   mixtures   of  minced  meat.      This   prohibition  is   the  natural 
consequence  of  the  execution  of  the  law  in  the  interior,  since  canned 
meats,  sausages,  and  other  mixtures  made  of  minced  meat  can  not 
be  accurately  tested  with  regard  to  their  fitness  for  food. 

(b)  "  Whole   animal  bodies."      The   meaning   of  whole   animal 
bodies  requires  a  more  detailed  definition.     According  to  the  word- 
ing of  Sec.  12,  the  trunk,  together  with  the  parts  of  the  extremities 
and  head,  which  are  meat,  are  to  be  understood  as  included  under 
the  term  animal  bodies. 

(c)  The  introduction  of  certain  organs  in  their  natural  connection. 
The  number  of  organs  which,  according  to  Sec.  12,  are  to  be  intro- 
duced in  their  natural  connection  is  not  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of 
-rendering  accurate  judgment  on  meat.     It  is  desirable,  also,  that  the 

uterus  in  female  animals,  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  spleen  in  all 
food  animals  (diagnosis  of  anthrax  and  Texas  fever),  as  well  as  the 
head  of  cattle  (cysticercus)  and  horses  (glanders),  in  case  it  is  not 
.reckoned  with  the  animal  bodies,  should  also  be  introduced.  In 
^he  case  of  the  horse,  the  skin  in  its  natural  connection  is  also 
required  for  the  diagnosis  of  glanders. 


86  REGULATION  OP  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

(d)  Introduction  of  prepared  meat.  The  provisions  concerning 
the  introduction  of  prepared  meat  are  to  be  considered  as  t?he  result 
of  a  compromise  which  is  technically  not  well  founded ;  for  in 
individual  pieces  of  prepared  meat,  even  when  their  weight  amounts 
to  more  than  4  kg.,  the  harmlessness  of  the  meat  can  not  be  deter- 
mined in  a  reliable  manner;  take,  for  example,  anthrax,  septicemia, 
and  generalized  tuberculosis ;  even  the  dangerous  animal  parasites 
(cysticerci  and  trichina)  are  only  accidentally  demonstrable  ID 
individual  pieces.  Thus  it  happens  that  by  the  customary  methods 
of  preparation  (pickling,  salting,  and  smoking)  the  harmful  proper- 
ties of  meat  are  either  not  destroyed  at  all  or  at  least  not  with 
certainty. 

According  to  the  compromise,  the  following  forms  of  prepared 
meat  are  for  the  present  permitted  to  be  introduced  :  pieces  of 
pickled  meat  of  a  weight  of  more  than  4  kg.,  beef  livers  under  the 
same  conditions,  and  also  hams,  bacon  sides,  and  intestines. 

Section  13. 

Meat  passing  the  customs  line  shall  be  subject,  upon  its  importation,  to  an 
official  inspection  made  with  the  cooperation  of  the  customs  authorities.  Such  meat 
as  is  proved  to  have  already  been  inspected,  according  to  regulations,  in  the  inland, 
and  meat  intended  for  shipment  in  direct  transit  is  excepted  herefrorn. 

The  importation  of  meat  shall  take  place  only  via  certain  customs  houses.  The 
Federal  Council  shall  determine  these  customs  houses  and  also  the  customs  and 
revenue  offices  where  the  inspection  of  the  meat  may  take  place. 

(a)  Foreign  meat.     All  meat  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  4  is  subject  to  a 
compulsory  inspection.     Therefore,  not  only  the   meat  of  animals 
which,  according  to  the  law  or  according  to  local  regulations  pro- 
vided for  therein,  are  subject  to  inspection,  but  also  the  meat  of  all 
warm-blooded  animals  so  far  as  exceptions  are  not  made  in  the  law. 
Compulsory  inspection  applies  also  in  the  same  manner  to  meat 
which  is  intended  for  private  use  as  to  that  which  is  intended  for 
general  utilization. 

(b)  The  "  customs  inland  "  is  not  co-extensive  with  the  boundaries 
of  the  Germar  Empire. 

To  the  German  customs  inland  belong  also  Luxemburg  and  the 
customs  ports  lying  in  the  Austrian  regions.  The  free  harbor 
regions,  on  the  contrary,  do  not  belong  to  the  customs  inland. 

(c)  Cooperation  of  the  customs  officials.       The  cooperation  of  the 
customs   officials   is   confined   to   making   possible   the   immediate 
seizure  of  all  meat  introduced  for  sanitary  inspection  and  to  prevent 
the  meat  from  being  freely  admitted  to  the  market  before  a  satis- 
factory decision  on  the  inspection  is  reached. 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  87 


Section  14. 

For  game  and  fowls,  and,  further,  for  meat  carried  for  use  on  journeys,  the 
provisions  of  Sees.  12  and  13  shall  be  applicable  only  so  far  as  the  Federal  Council 
orders. 

For  meat  imported  in  the  minor  frontier  trade,  as  well  as  in  the  trade  of  the 
fairs  and  markets  of  frontier  districts,  exceptions  to  the  regulations  of  Sees.  12 
and  13  may  be  made  by  order  of  the  federated  governments. 

The  exception  from  compulsory  inspection  of  wild  game  and  fowls, 
as  well  as  all  meat  which  is  transported  for  use  in  travelling.  The  draft 
of  the  law  states  on  this  point  that  the  necessity  of  a  sanitary 
control  in  general  does  not  exist  for  wild  game  and  the  meat  of 
fowls.  Occasionally,  to  be  sure,  in  outbreaks  of  epizootics  among 
game  and  fowl  in  foreign  countries,  a  method  of  control  may  be 
shown  to  be  necessary.  In  the  case  of  meat  which  is  carried  for 
use  on  journeys  .and  also  in  the  case  of  meat  which  is  ordered  from 
foreign  countries  by  post,  it  appears  that  so  long  as  no  especially 
dangerous  conditions  exist  the  practice  of  an  official  inspection  may 
be  omitted.  On  the  one  hand,  the  quantities  of  meat  which  come 
into  consideration  in  this  connection  are,  as  a  rule,  inconsiderable, 
and  are  not  for  subsequent  sale,  but  for  private  use  of  the  persons 
concerned.  On  the  other  hand,  again,  the  inspection  of  these 
materials  would  be  connected  with  great  inconvenience  on  the  part 
of  the  owners  and  recipients.  The«original«draft  of  the  law,  there- 
fore, gave  authority  to  the  Federal  Council  to  determine  according 
to  requirements  in  how  far  an  inspection  of  meat  of  these  classes 
should  be  undertaken. 

Section  15. 

The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  to  decree  more  sweeping  prohibitions  and 
restrictions  of  importation  than  arefprovided  in  Sees.  12  and  13. 

Further  prohibitions  and  restrictions  concerning  the  introduc- 
tion of  meat  are  provided  in  case  of  the  possibility  that  in  the 
future  new  meat  preparations  which  can  not  be  inspected  might  be 
introduced. 

Section  18. 

The  inspection  (Sec.  1)  of  horses  must  be  made  by  officially  recognized 
Teterinarians. 

Dealing  in  horse  meat,  as  well  as  the  importation  of  such  meat  inside  of  the 
customs  line,  shall  take  place  only  under  a  designation  in  the  German  language  which 
makes  the  meat  recognizable  as  horse  meat. 

Dealing  in  and  the  use  of  horse  meat  shall  be  permitted  to  meat  dealers  and 
hotel,  saloon,  and  restaurant  keepers  only  with  a  license  from  the  police  authorities; 
the  license  shall  be  revocable  at  any  time.  Horse  meat  may  be  delivered  to  the 


88  REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

above-named  tradespeople  only  so  far  as  such  a  license  has  been  granted  to  them.  In 
the  business  rooms  of  these  persons  it  must  be  made  especially  evident,  by  means, 
of  an  intelligible  sign  in  a  conspicuous  place,  that  horse  meat  is  dealt  in  or  used. 

Meat  dealers  shall  not  offer  for  sale  nor  sell  horse  meat  in  the  same  rooms  in, 
which  meat  from  other  animals  is  offered  for  sale  or  sold. 

The  Federal  Council  is  authorized  to  order  that  the  above  regulations  be  applied 
to  asses,  mules,  dogs,  and  other  animals  which  are  more  rarely  slaughtered. 

(a)  Exclusive  competency  of  veterinarians  for  the  inspection  of  horses. 
The  inspection  of  horses  must  be  performed  by  approved  veter- 
inarians, since  the  recognition  of  glanders  and  the  formation  of 
judgment  on  the  fitness  for  food  of  horse  meat  requires  a  mass  of 
technical  information  such  as  is  usually  not  possessed  by  assistant 
inspectors. 

(b)  The  requirement  of  a  declaration  for  horse  meat  is  justified 
by  the  inferior  market  value  which  horse  meat  possesses  as  com- 
pared with  beef  and  other  kinds  of  meat  and  by  the  antipathy 
which  many  people  feel  against  the  consumption  of  horse  meat. 
For  similar  reasons,  declaration  is  indicated  for  the  meat  of  other 
solipeds  and  dogs,  as  well  as  for  the  meat  of  goats  and  buffaloes. 

Section  20. 

Meat  which  has  been  subjected  within  the  German  Empire  to  the  official 
inspection  according  to  Sees.  8  to  16,  may  be  made  subject  to  an  official  reinspection 
only  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  it  has  spoiled  in  the  meantime,  or 
whether  it  has  otherwise  suffered  any  change  in  its  condition,  rendering  it  injurious 
to  health. 

Enactments  of  the  federated  governments,  according  to  which,  for  communities, 
with  public  slaughterhouses,  the  dealing  in  fresh  meat  may  be  subjected  to  restrictions, 
especially  to  obligatory  inspection  within  the  community,  shall  'remain  unaffected, 
with  the  proviso  that  their  applicability  shall  not  be  made  dependent  upon  the  origin 
of  the  meat. 

(a)  Repeated  official  inspection.  The  text  of  the  law  declares  that 
the  previously  customary  repeated  inspection  of  meat  which  has 
already  been  inspected  inland  has  given  rise  to  many  complaints  on 
account  of  the  expenses  and  other  inconveniences  which  are  con- 
nected with  it.  Such  a  repeated  inspection  will  be  dispensed  with 
for  the  future,  for  every  inspection  carried  out  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  Imperial  law  will  be  regarded  as  binding  upon  the 
entire  Empire.  This  holds  good  especially  for  che  inspection  which 
is  provided  for  foreign  meat.  The  law  proceeds,  therefore,  upon 
the  principle  that  in  general  a  single  inspection  is  sufficient  and 
must  be  binding  upon  the  entire  Empire.  This  principle,  however, 
requires  certain  qualifications.  In  the  first  place,  reinspection  must 
be  permitted  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  question  of  determining  whether 


MEAT   INSPECTION   LAW  89 

Changes  have  occurred  (since  the  performance  of  the  inspection) 
which  may  make  the  meat  unfit  for  use.  The  draft  of  the  law, 
therefore,  provided  that  in  the  latter  case  a  re-inspection  should  be 
permitted.  Moreover,  it  is  apparent  that  the  general  control  of 
food  materials,  which  is  based  on  the  food  law,  shall  not  be  abro- 
gated in  the  case  of  meat  which  is  inspected  according  to  the 
provisions  of  the  law.  The  requirement  in  Sec.  29  leaves  no  doubt 
on  this  point.  This  control,  moreover,  is  indispensable,  since  other- 
wise it  can  not  be  determined  whether  the  meat  which  is  brought 
to  the  market  has  ever  been  inspected  and  whether  it  bears  the 
stamp  required  in  Sec.  19  as  evidence  of  inspection,  as  well  as  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  the  offering  for  sale  of  spoiled  meat  or 
meat  which  has  subsequently  become  unfit  for  use  in  any  other 
way ;  for  example,  meat  treated  with  injurious  preserving  re-agents. 
A  general  secondary  inspection  can  no  longer  be  ordered  by  the 
local  authorities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  authority  of  the  police  to 
undertake  subsequent  official  inspection  remains  unaffected  in 
individual  instances,  especially  in  case  of  suspicion  of  violation  of 
the  provisions  of  meat  inspection  or  of  failure  of  the  meat  inspector 
to  perform  his  duty,  as  well  as  from  reasons  of  public  sanitation. 
The  same  holds  good  for  subsequent  tests  which  may  be  required 
when  in  a  particular  case  doubt  may  be  entertained  concerning  the 
findings  of  the  meat  inspector  and  concerning  decision  regarding 
the  fitness  of  the  meat  for  food. 

(b)  Especial  provisions  for  communities  with  public  abattoirs. 
According  to  the  Prussian  Slaughterhouse  Law,  it  may  be 
ordered,  in  communities  which  have  erected  a  public  slaughter- 
house, that  no  meat  which  is  not  slaughtered  in  a  public 
abattoir  can  be  offered  for  sale  within  the  district  until  it  is  sub- 
jected to  an  inspection  by  expert  inspectors  for  a  fee  which  is 
returned  to  the  communal  treasury.  This  provision,  which  includes 
a  secondary  inspection  of  meat  introduced  from  outside  localities, 
removes  to  a  certain  extent  the  scruples  which  might  be  entertained 
with  regard  to  provision  of  Sec.  20,  paragraph  1.  Considered  from 
a  purely  theoretical  standpoint,  the  latter  provision  is  correct. 
From  the  practical  aspects  of  the  affair,  however,  the  authority  for 
repeated  complete  inspection  should  not  be  excluded.  The  annual 
reports  of  the  municipal  meat  inspection  at  Berlin  offer  convincing 
proof  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  subject  introduced  meat  to  a 
complete  subsequent  inspection,  even  when  it  has  been  already 
inspected  elsewhere,  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  market  at  the  point 
of  introduction.  In  order  to  give  a  single  example,  trichinae  are 


90  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

almost  annually  found  in  hogs  which  were  inspected  at  the  place  of 
slaughter  and  were  admitted  to  the  market  as  apparently  free  from 
trichina.  Exactly  the  same  conditions  prevail  in  other  cities.  On 
the  basis  of  similar  experiences  it  is  provided  in  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Baden,  which  at  the  present  time  possesses  the  best  organization 
of  meat  inspection  inside  of  the  German  Empire,  that  all  meat 
introduced  from  one  part  of  Baden  into  another  shall  be  again 
carefully  inspected  before  it  is  offered  for  sale  in  the  second  locality 
and  shall  be  certified  by  the  meat  inspector.  The  repetition  of  the 
inspection  of  meat  which  is  transported  from  one  inspection  district 
into  another  must  be  considered  as  absolutely  necessary,  since  it 
furnishes  the  only  effective  means  of  preventing  evasions  of  meat 
inspection,  false  stamping,  and  defective  inspection.  Without 
special  provisions  in  favor  of  communities  with  public  abattoirs, 
the  system  of  meat  inspection  hereby  established  would  be  com- 
pelled to  take  a  step  backward.  The  same  undesirable  conditions 
would  be  brought  about  which  were  fortunately  obviated  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Prussia  in  the  year  1887  by  the  amendment  to  the 
slaughterhouse  law. 

Section  21. 

In  the  industrial  preparation  of  meat  no  materials  or  processes  shall  be  used 
which  are  capable  of  imparting  to  the  wares  a  condition  injurious  to  health.  It  is 
forbidden  to  import  from  abroad  such  prepared  meat  or  to  offer  it  for  sale,  to  sell  it, 
or  otherwise  to  bring  it  into  traffic. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  the  materials  and  the  processes  to  which 
these  regulations  shall  be  applied. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  order  how  far  the  regulations  of  paragraph  1  are 
applicable  also  to  special  materials  and  processes  which  are  apt  to  conceal  an  unwhole- 
some or  inferior  quality  of  the  wares. 

Harmful  preserving  materials  and  stuffs  which  are  calculated  to 
conceal  the  dangerous  or  inferior  character  of  the  products.  By  means 
of  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  the  above  mentioned  materials, 
which  is  to  be  expected  in  regulations  issued  by  the  Federal 
Council,  all  uncertainty  which  had  been  caused  by  divergent 
opinions  of  experts  concerning  permission  for  the  addition  of  boric, 
salicylic,  and  sulphurous  acids,  and  coloring  materials  to  meat  and 
meat  products,  are  removed. 

Section  22. 

The  Federal  Council  is  authorized: 

1.  To  issue  regulations  relative  to  determining  whether  persons  possess  sufficient 
knowledge  to  act  as  meat  inspectors. 

2.  To  establish  general  principles,  according  to  which  the  inspection  of  food 


MEAT  INSPECTION   LAW  \)L 

animals  and  of  meat  is  to  be  carried  out,  and  for  the  further  treatment  of  food 
animals  and  of  meat  in  case  they  are  not  passed. 

3.  To  make  the  necessary  arrangements  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  Sec., 
12  and  for  determining  the  fees  for  the  inspection  of  meat  brought  inside  the  custom* 
line. 

By  the  fact  that  the  authority  mentioned  in  Sec.  22  is  reserved 
for  the  Federal  Council,  uniformity .  in  the  execution  of  meat 
inspection  is  assured. 

Section  23. 

The  laws  of  the  federated  governments  determine  who  has  to  bear  the  cost  of  the 
official  inspection  (Sec.  1).  In  all  other  matters,  the  necessary  regulations  for  carry- 
ing out  the  law  shall  be  issued  by  the  governments  of  the  federated  States,  so  far  as 
the  Federal  Council  has  not  been  declared  competent  or  in  so  far  as  the  Federal 
Council  makes  no  use  of  the  authority  conferred  upon  it  by  Sec.  22. 

"  The  laws  of  the  federated  governments."  According  to  the 
commentary  of  Rohrscheidt  in  the  report  of  the  commission,  it  is> 
not  necessary  that  the  provisions  in  question  should  be  embodied 
in  a  Liw.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  ordinances.  The 
particular  federal  State  concerned  decides  whether  a  law  is  neces- 
sary or  not.  It  is  not  prescribed  in  the  Imperial  law  for  the 
individual  States  which  method  of  procedure  they  shall  choose. 

Section  24. 

Regulations  of  the  federated  governments  in  regard  to  trichina  inspection  and 
the  dealing  in  and  use  of  meat  which,  although  fit  as  food  for  man,  is  consider- 
ably diminished  in  its  nutritive  and  food  value;  further,  regulations  ot  the  federated 
governments  establishing  more  extensive  obligations  than  does  this  law  relative  to: 
(1)  The  animals  to  be  subjected  to  inspection,  (2)  the  carrying  out  of  the  inspections 
by  officially  recognized  veterinarians,  (3)  the  dealing  in  rejected  meat  or  in  meat  of 
animals  designated  in  Sec.  18,  are  permissible  on  the  condition  that  their  applicability 
shall  not  be  made  dependent  upon  the  place  of  origin  of  the  food  animal  or  of  the 
meat. 

(a)  Provisions  by  decree  of  individual  States  concerning  trichina 
inspection.     Sec.   24  furnishes  the  means  of  introducing  a  general 
trichina  inspection  and,  therefore,  also  for  hogs  which  are  slaugh- 
tered for  use  in  the  household  of  the  owner. 

(b)  Meat  of  inferior  value.     Meat  of  inferior  value  requires  the 
same  trade  restrictions  as  meat  which  was  qualifiedly  fit  for  use, 
but  has  been  rendered  utilizable   as   food   for   man.      (Compare 
p.  81.)     Through  Sec.  24  it  is  made  possible  for  the  authorities  of 
the  individual  States  to  regulate  traffic  in  meat  of  inferior  value  by- 
suitable  provisions. 

(c)  Further  provisions  with  reference  to  the  animals  ivhich  are  to  be 
subject  to  inspection  and  to  the  execution  of  meat  inspection  by  approved 


"*)2  EEGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

veterinarians.  In  general  the  law  must  determine  the  minimum 
requirements  which  must  be  fulfilled  throughout  the  Empire  with 
Deference  to  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat.  While  it 
remains  within  the  province  of  the  individual  federal  States  to  issue 
further  more  detailed  regulations  for  their  territory  in  so  far  as  the 
necessity  exists,  it  is  plainly  indicated,  as  in  the  interest  of  the  most 
effective  preservation  of  the  uniformity  of  the  law,  to  set  certain 
limits  in  this  connection  to  the  legislation  of  the  individual  States. 
For  this  purpose  in  Sec.  24  those  points  are  separately  brought  out 
to  which  the  authority  of  the  federal  States  shall  be  limited. 
According  to  No.  1,  the  extension  of  compulsory  inspection  may  be 
increased  in  two  directions;  viz.,  by  extension  to  other  animals  than 
those  mentioned  in  Sec.  1  or  declared  by  the  Federal  Council  as  sub- 
ject to  inspection ;  and  again  by  removal  or  a  restriction  of  the  in- 
spection in  favor  of  slaughtering  for  home  use  provided  for  in  Sec.  2. 
According  to  No.  2,  it  is  permissible  to  limit  the  appointment 
of  laymen  as  meat  inspectors  and  to  entrust  the  execution  of 
inspection  exclusively  to  approved  veterinarians  to  a  greater  extent 
than  the  draft  of  Sec.  18,  paragraphs  1  and  5,  provided ;  and  this 
liolds  good  for  certain  kinds  of  animals  or  for  animals  suspected  of 
l3eing  diseased  or  for  meat  which  from  its  appearance  awakens 
sanitary  scruples. 

Section  25. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  determine  how  far  the  provisions  of  this  law  apply  to 
meat  imported  into  that  part  of  the  Empire  situated  outside  of  the  customs  line. 

Localities  outside  of  the  customs  line.  In  localities  outside  the 
•customs  line,  the  regulations  of  the  law  do  not  apply  immediately. 
The  fact  that  particularly  in  the  regions  of  the  free  ports  we  have 
to  do  frequently  with  a  mere  exchange  with  foreign  countries  makes 
.a  considerable  number  of  measures  provided  in  the  law  appear 
inapplicable  in  such  States,  or  at  any  rate  unnecessary.  The 
requirement  of  introduction  of  regulations  of  the  law  will  differ  in 
various  regions  outside  of  the  customs  line  according  to  local 
conditions.  The  introduction  of  a  regulation  having  regard  to  this 
point  in  the  law  would,  however,  meet  with  difficulties.  The  deter* 
initiation,  therefore,  of  how  far  the  provisions  of  the  law  shall  be 
binding  for  localities  outside  of  the  customs  line  is  left  to  the 
authority  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Section  26. 

Imprisonment  in  jail  not  exceeding  six  months  and  a  fine  not  exceeding  one 
'thousand  five  hundred  marks,  or  either  of  these  penalties,  shall  be  imposed  upon— 


MEAT  INSPECTION  LAW  $3> 

1.  Any  person  who  knowingly  acts  in  contravention  of  Sec.  9,  paragraphs  2,  4: 
Sec.  10,  paragraphs  2,  3;  Sec.  12,  paragraph  1;  or  Sec.  21,  paragraphs  1,  2;  or  of  a 
prohibition  based  upon  Sec.  21,  paragraph  3. 

2.  Any  person  who  shall  knowingly  bring  into  traffic  as  food  or  condiment  for 
man  meat  which  has  been  imported  contrary  to  the  regulations  of  Sec.  12,  paragraph. 
1,  or  meat  which  has  been  rendered  unfit  for  human  food  according  to  Sec.  17. 

3.  Any  person  who  shall  fraudulently  affix  or  alter  the  marks  provided  for  in. 
Sec.  19,  or  who  shall  knowingly  offer  for  sale  or  sell  meat  on  which  the  marks  have 
been  fraudulently  affixed,  altered,  or  removed. 

Section  27. 

A  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  and  fifty  marks  or  imprisonment  will  be 
imposed  upon — 

1.  Any  person  who  through  carelessness  shall  commit  one  of  the  acts  designated 
in  Sec.  26,  numbers  1  and  2. 

2.  Any  person  who  shall  undertake  to  slaughter  an  animal  before  it  has  been 
subjected  to  the  inspection  prescribed  in  this  law,  or  ordered  on  authority  of  Sec.  1, 
paragraph  1,  sentence  2;  Sec.  3;  Sec.  18,  paragraph  5;  or  Sec.  24. 

3.  Any  person  who  shall  bring  into  traffic  meat  before  it  has  been  subjected  to 
the  inspection  prescribed  in  this  law,  or  ordered  on  authority  of  Sec.  1,  paragraph  !>. 
sentence  2 ;  Sec.  3 ;  Sec.  14,  paragraph  1 ;  Sec.  18,  paragraph  5 ;  or  Sec.  24. 

Section  28. 

In  the  cases  in  Sec.  26,  numbers  1  and  2,  and  in  Sec.  27,  number  1,  the  confisca- 
tion of  the  meat  shall  be  ordered  in  addition  to  the  penalty.  In  cases  in  Sec.  26,. 
number  3,  and  Sec.  27,  numbers  2  to  4,  the  seizure  of  the  meat,  or  of  the  animal,  may~ 
be  ordered  in  addition  to  the  penalty.  In  the  case  of  confiscation,  it  is  immaterial 
whether  the  object  seized  belongs  to  the  condemned  person  or  not. 

If  the  prosecution  or  the  condemnation  of  a  given  person  is  not  possible,  thert 
the  seizure  may  be  ordered  independently. 

Penal  provisions.  With  reference  to  the  penalties  provided  ia 
Sec.  26,  paragraph  3  (the  fraudulent  use  or  fraudulent  changing  of 
the  stamps  of  the  kind  mentioned  in  Sec.  19),  the  draft  of  the  law 
states  that  the  provisions  of  the  criminal  statutes  are  not  sufficient 
to  cover  cases  of  the  fraudulent  use  of  these  marks  or  the  fraudulent 
changing  of  them  as  such,  as  well  as  the  offering  for  sale  or  sale  of 
meat  from  which  the  stamps  have  been  removed.  Moreover,  cases, 
of  intentional  offering  for  sale  or  sale  of  meat  on  which  the  stamp 
has  been  fraudulently  placed  or  fraudently  changed  would,  as  a 
rule,  be  punished  as  forgery  according  to  the  general  provisions  of 
Sec.  270  or  Sees.  267  and  268  of  the  criminal  law.  The  application- 
of  these  provisions,  however,  would  lead  to  undoubted  hardships 
on  account  of  the  severity  of  the  punishments  provided  by  these 
laws.  It  appeared  to  be  proper,  therefore,  to  establish  a  special 
penal  provision  in  this  case  and  to  provide  merely  the  punishment 
required  for  violations  of  the  law  for  all  cases  which  come  into> 
I  consideration  in  this  connection,  since  in  the  first  place  they  ara 


94:  REGULATION   OF  TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

•violations  of  purely  police  control  measures.     Otherwise,  the  pro- 
visions of  the  criminal  law  shall  remain  unaffected. 

The  provision  of  Sec.  28,  paragraph  1,  according  to  which  iu 
•cases  mentioned  in  Sec.  26,  paragraphs  1  and  2,  and  Sec.  27, 
paragraph  1,  procedure  shall  be  instituted  for  seizure,  is  justified  by 
the  especially  dangerous  character  of  the  meat  which  is  presupposed 
in  these  cases.  In  other  cases  the  seizure  of  the  meat  is  left  to  the 
.discretion  of  the  court. 

Section  29. 

The  provisions  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879  (page  145,  Reichsgesetzbl.),  regarding 
"the  traffic  in  foods,  condiments  and  articles  of  use,  remain  unchanged.  The  pro- 
visions of  Sec.  16  of  said  law  shall  also  be  applicable  to  offences  against  the  provisions 
of  the  present  law. 

Further  validity  of  the  food  law.  For  the  avoidance  of  uncer- 
tainty, it  was  expressly  stated  in  the  law  that  the  regulations  of  the 
food  law  (see  p.  95)  should  remain  unaffected.  The  provision  of 
Sec.  29  is  made  with  reference  to  the  favorable  effects  which, 
according  to  past  experience,  have  been  produced  by  the  public 
announcement  of  condemnations  in  the  execution  of  the  food  law 
and  its  amendments. 

Those  provisions  of  this  law  which  relate  to  the  adoption  of 
the  arrangements  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  law  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  food  animals  and  of  meat  shall  take  effect  on  the  day  of  the 
promulgation  of  this  law. 

Section  30. 

Those  provisions  of  this  law  which  relate  to  the  adoption  of  the  arrangements 
necessary  for  carrying  out  the  law  for  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  of  meat 
shall  take  effect  on  the  day  of  the  promulgation  of  this  law. 

Furthermore,  the  time  when  the  law  goes  into  effect,  either  wholly  or  in  part, 
shall  be  fixed  by  an  imperial  order  with  the  assent  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Enforcement  of  the  various  provisions  of  the  laio.  For  the  execu- 
tion of  the  general  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat,  as  was 
provided  for  in  the  law,  detailed  administrative  measures,  especially 
the  creation  of  the  machinery  for  carrying  out  inspection  and  of  a 
personnel  of  inspection  competent  to  carry  out  their  functions,  are 
required.  While,  therefore,  on  the  one  hand,  it  appeared  to  be 
necessary  that  all  those  provisions  of  the  law  which  had  reference 
to  the  establishment  of  these  institutions  should  at  once  become 
operative,  consideration  must  be  had  in  determining  the  time  for 
putting  into  force  the  other  provisions  of  the  law  to  secure  a  suffi- 
cient period  of  time  for  these  preparations.  It  was  not  desirable 


FOOD   INSPECTION   LAW  95 

that  this  period  should  be  determined  in  the  law  itself,  since  it 
could  not  be  foreseen  with  certainty  what  length  of  time  would  be 
required  for  these  preparations  by  the  Imperial  government  and  by 
the  individual  federal  States.  According  to  the  precedent  of  other 
Imperial  laws,  the  determination  of  the  time  for  putting  into  force 
the  requirements  in  question  was  reserved  for  an  Imperial  pro- 
clamation with  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Council. 

2.— Imperial  Law  Concerning  Traffic  in  Food,  Condiments, 
and  Manufactured  Articles,  of  May  14,  1879. 

SEC.  1.  Traffic  in  food  and  condiments,  as  well  as  in  playthings, 
tapestry,  colors,  eating,  drinking,  and  cooking  utensils,  and  in 
petroleum,  is  subject  to  inspection,  according  to  the  provisions  of 
this  law. 

SEC.  2.  Police  authorities  are  empowered  to  enter  places  in 
in  which  articles  of  the  sort  mentioned  in  Sec.  1  are  offered  for 
sale,  during  the  usual  business  hours,  or  while  the  places  are  open 
for  traffic.  They  are  empowered  to  take  samples  at  their  discretion 
of  articles  of  the  sort  mentioned  in  Sec.  1  which  they  find  in  the 
places  in  question  or  which  are  offered  for  sale  in  public  places,  and 
to  give  a  receipt  for  the  same,  after  which  the  articles  are  to  be 
inspected.  Upon  request,  a  part  of  the  sample  may  be  officially 
closed,  sealed,  and  left  with  the  owner.  A  recompense  at  the  rate 
of  the  usual  selling  price  is  to  be  rnacle  for  the  sample  which  is 
taken  if  the  inspection  shows  that  the  material  is  utilizable. 

SEC.  3.  The  police  authorities  are  empowered  in  case  of  per- 
sons who  are  condemned  to  confinement  on  the  basis  of  Sees.  10, 12, 
and  13  of  this  law,  to  undertake  inspection  at  such  a  time  as  is 
described  in  Sec.  2  in  places  in  which  articles  of  the  sort  mentioned 
in  Sec.  1  are  offered  for  sale  or  which  serve  for  the  preservation  or 
preparation  of  such  articles  for  sale.  This  authority  begins  at  the 
time  when  judgment  is  pronounced  and  ends  after  the  lapse  of  three 
years  reckoned  from  the  day  on  which  the  sentence  was  completed, 
shortened,  or  annulled. 

SEC.  4.  The  competency  of  the  authorities  and  officials  with 
regard  to  the  measures  described  in  Sees.  2  and  3  is  determined  in 
accordance  with  regulations  made  by  the  government  concerned. 
State  regulations  which  give  the  police  further  authority  than  is 
mentioned  in  Sees.  2  and  3  remain  unaffected.* 


*  This  hoids  true  especially  with  regard  to  the  unannounced  inspection  of  store 
rooms  and  factories  by  meat  inspectors  in  Southern  Germany,  which  inspection  is 


96  REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

SEC.  5.  Regulations  may  be  made  for  the  whole  Empire  by 
Imperial  decree  with  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Council  for  the 
protection  of  health,  prohibiting  : 

1.  Certain  methods  of  preservation  and  packing  of  food  and 
condiments  which  are  intended  for  sale. 

2.  The  public  sale  or  offering*  for  sale  of  food  and  condiments 
of  a  certain  character  or  under  claim  of  a  quality  which  really  does 
not  belong  to  them. 

3.  The  sale  or  offering  for  sale  for  the  purpose  of  slaughter 
of  animals  which  are  suffering  from  certain  diseases,  as  well  as  the 
sale  or  offering  for  sale  of  the  meat  of  animals  which  were  affected 
with  certain  diseases. 

4.  The  utilization  of  certain  materials  and  coloring  matters  for 
the  preparation  of  clothing,  playthings,  tapestry,  eating,  drinking,, 
and  cooking  utensils,  as  well  as  the  public  sale  or  offering  for  sale 
of  articles  which   were   prepared  in   a   manner   contrary  to  this> 
prohibition. 

5.  The  public  sale  or  offering  for  sale  of  petroleum  of  a  certain 
character. 

SEC.  6.  By  means  of  an  Imperial  decree  with  the  consent  of 
the  Federal  Council,  the  preparation,  sale,  and  offering  for  sale  of 

ordered  for  all  butchers.  The  meat  inspectors  of  Southern  Germany  are  required  to 
perform  not  only  the  prescribed  inspection  of  stock  yards  and  slaughterhouses,  but 
also  the  stalls  and  workrooms,  as  well  as  the  rooms  of  the  butchers,  including  their 
cellars,  ice  chests,  sleeping  rooms  f6r  the  assistants,  and  also  the  sales  rooms  and  store 
rooms  of  all  persons  engaged  in  meat  traffic.  This  inspection  takes  place  at  least 
every  two  weeks,  and  inspection  without  notice  is  made,  as  a  rule,  each  week  of  the 
premises  of  dealers  in  wild  game,  fowl,  and  fish,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
cleanliness  and  other  observations  of  the  police  regulations  concerning  the  traffic  in 
meat,  etc.,  and,  in  case  conditions  are  not  found  to  be  in  accordance  with  the  law. 
the  required  procedure  is  to  be  taken  without  delay. 

Without  such  inspection  smuggling  in  uninspected  meat,  the  manufacture  of 
sausages,  and  the  cleanliness  of  the  butcher's  premises  can  not  be  controlled. 
Unannounced  inspection  of  the  sales  room  and  work  rooms  of  butchers  make,  there- 
fore, a  necessary  supplement  to  true  meat  inspection,  i.e.,  the  inspection  of  food 
animals  before  and  after  slaughter. 

The  Imperial  Government  President  in  Kassel,  with  regard  to  Sees.  2  and  3  of 
the  food  law,  ordered  the  district  veterinarians  of  his  district  on  December  27,  1892, 
to  make  use  of  the  authority  which  belonged  to  them  as  officials  of  the  veterinary 
police,  to  undertake  inspection  of  places  open  for  traffic,  and  to  take  samples  for 
inspection.  The  local  police  authorities  are  ordered  immediately  after  notification  by 
the  court  officials  to  communicate  to  the  district  veterinarians  of  the  Kassel  district 
the  names  of  such  persons  as  have  been  condemned  to  confinement  on  the  basis  of 
Sees.  10,  12,  and  13  of  the  food  law.  According  to  the  regulations  concerning- 
industrial  pursuits,  entrance  into  the  work  rooms  of  butchers  is  at  all  times  permitted 
to  police  officials. 


FOOD   INSPECTION   LAW  97 

articles  which  are  intended  for  the  adulteration  of  food  and  con- 
diments may  be  forbidden  or  restricted  within  the  limits  of  the 
Empire. 

SEC.  7.  Imperial  decrees  issued  on  the  basis  of  Sees.  5  and  6 
are  to  be  immediately  laid  before  the  Reichstag,  if  in  session,  other- 
wise at  its  next  session.  They  may  be  annulled  by  order  of  the 
Eeichstag. 

SEC.  8.  All  persons  who  violate  decrees  issued  according  to 
Sees.  5  and  6  are  to  be  punished  with  a  fine  of  150  marks  or  by 
imprisonment.  State  regulations  can  not  provide  a  more  severe 
punishment. 

SEC.  9.  All  persons  who,  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  Sees.  2 
to  4,  refuse  permission  to  enter  or  to  take  samples  or  to  make 
inspection  are  to  be  punished  with  a  fine  of  from  50  to  100  marks 
or  with  imprisonment. 

SEC.  10.  Imprisonment  not  exceeding  six  months  and  a  fine 
not  exceeding  1,500  marks,  or  either,  is  provided  for  (1)  all  persons 
who  imitate  or  adulterate  food  and  condiments  for  the  purpose  of 
deception,  in  business  and  traffic  in  them ;  (2)  all  persons  who- 
knowingly  sell  food  or  condiments  which  are  fraudulent  imitations, 
or  adulterated,  and  without  stating  this  fact,  or  who  offer  them  for 
sale  under  a  deceptive  label.  If  the  actions  mentioned  in  Sec.  10, 
number  2,  are  performed  from  carelessness,  the  punishment  is  a  fine 
not  exceeding  150  marks  or  imprisonment. 

SEC.  12.  Imprisonment,  together  with  the  possible  loss  of  civil 
rights,  is  provided  for  (1)  all  persons  who  purposely  prepare  articles 
which  are  intended  to  serve  as  food  or  condiment  for  others  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  may  be  injurious  to  human  health,  and  for  all 
persons  who  knowingly  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  otherwise  traffic  in  as 
food  or  condiments  articles  the  consumption  of  which  would  be 
injurious  to  human  health  ;  (2)  all  persons  who  purposely  prepare 
clothing  materials,  playthings,  tapestry,  eating,  drinking  and  cooking 
utensils,  or  petroleum  in  such  a  manner  that  the  intended  or  future 
use  of  these  articles  is  likely  to  be  injuricus  to  human  health  ;  and 
also  all  persons  who  knowingly  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  otherwise 
have  traffic  in  such  articles. 

Attempted  evasions  are  punishable. 

If  on  account  of  these  forbidden  actions  a  serious  bodily  injury 
or  death  of  a  human  being  is  caused,  the  punishment  is  confinement 
in  the  workhouse  for  five  years. 

SEC.  13.  If  in  cases  mentioned  in  Sec.  12  the  consumption  or 
use  of  the  article  was  likely  to  injure  human  health,  and  if  this  fact 


98  REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

was  known  to  the  vendor,  the  punishment  is  confinement  in  the 
workhouse  for  ten  years ;  and  if  by  the  action  in  question  the  death 
of  a  human  being  is  caused,  confinement  in  the  workhouse  for  not 
less  than  ten  years  or  for  life.  In  addition  to  the  punishment, 
police  supervision  must  be  permitted. 

SEC.  14.  If  any  one  of  the  actions  characterized  in  Sees.  12  or 
13  are  performed  through  carelessness,  the  punishment  is  a  fine  not 
exceeding  1,000  marks  or  imprisonment  not  exceeding  six  months; 
and  if  through  the  action  in  question  an  injury  is  caused  to  the 
health  of  a  human  being,  the  punishment  is  imprisonment  for  one 
year,  or,  if  the  death  of  a  human  being  was  caused,  imprisonment 
for  from  one  month  to  three  years. 

SEC.  15.  In  the  cases  mentioned  in  Sees.  12  to  14,  in  addition 
to  the  punishment,  those  articles  which  were  prepared,  sold,  offered 
for  sale,  or  otherwise  brought  into  trade  in  a  manner  contrary  to 
the  above  mentioned  regulations  may  be  seized  without  regard  to 
whether  they  belong  to  the  condemned  person  or  not.  In  the  cases 
mentioned  in  Sees.  8,  10,  and  11,  the  articles  may  also  be  seized. 
If  in  cases  mentioned  in  Sees.  12  to  14  the  prosecution  or  conviction 
of  a  certain  person  is  not  possible,  the  articles  may  rightly  be  seized. 

SEC!  16.  In  rendering  judgment  or  announcing  punishment  it 
may  be  ordered  that  the  conviction  shall  be  publicly  announced  at 
the  expense  of  the  guilty  person.  At  the  request  of  the  acquitted 
defendant,  the  court  must  order  the  public  announcement  of  the 
acquittal.  The  State  Treasury  bears  the  expenses  in  so  far  as  they 
are  not  imposed  upon  the  plaintiff.  The  manner  of  making  the 
announcement  is  to  be  determined  in  the  order. 

SEC.  17.  If  there  exists  in  the  locality  where  the  deed  was 
committed  a  public  institution  for  the  technical  investigation  of 
foods  and  condiments,  the  fines  which  are  imposed  on  the  basis  of 
this  law,  in  so  far  as  they  belong  to  the  State,  are  to  be  returned  to 
the  Treasury,  which  bears  the  cost  of  the  administration  of  the 
institution. 

AMENDMENT  TO  THE  LAW  CONCERNING  FOOD,  CONDIMENTS,  AND 
MANUFACTURED  ARTICLES,  OF  JUNE  29,  1887. 

By  the  amendment  of  June  29, 1887,  Sec.  16  of  the  law  of  May 
14,  1879,  receives  the  following  additional  provision  :  Whenever  a 
legal  conviction  takes  place  in  consequence  of  the  police  inspection 
of  articles  of  the  sort  mentioned  in  Sec.  1,  the  costs  of  the  police 
inspection  must  be  borne  by  the  convicted  party.  They  are  to  be 


FOOD   INSPECTION  LAW  99 

determined  at  the  same  time  with  the  costs  of  the  legal  procedure 
and  to  be  collected. 

Notes  on  the  Law  of  May  14,  1879. 

(A)  GENERAL. 

Until  the  passage  of  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law,  the 
food  law  was  the  only  means  for  applying  Imperial  law  to  the 
control  of  meat  traffic.  It  had  become  apparent,  however,  that 
the  peculiar  nature  of  meat  rendered  it  impossible  that  the  offering 
for  sale  and  sale  of  meat  could  be  regulated  by  the  general  pro- 
visions concerning  the  whole  subject  of  traffic  in  food  materials.  It 
is  necessary  also  to  consider  another  fact  which  rendered  impossible 
a  thorough  meat  inspection  on  the  basis  of  the  food  law,  namely,  the 
want  of  regulations  for  executing  the  Imperial  law  of  May  14,  1879. 
Finally,  in  this  law  no  account  was  taken  of  the  experience  which 
had  been  had  in  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  in  southern 
Germany  before  the  passage  of  the  law.  This  is  particularly 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  food  law  did  not  expressly  provide 
for  traffic  in  defective  (spoiled)  meat  upon  the  freibank.  This 
defect  was  disagreeably  felt  in  the  practice  of  meat  inspection. 

The  food  law,  the  provisions  of  which  are  not  abrogated  by  the 
Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law  (see  p.  94),  has,  since  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  latter  law,  the  value  of  a  supplementary  law,  and 
remains  for  the  future  the  legal  foundation  for  criminal  procedure 
in  traffic  with  "  spoiled,  imitated,  adulterated,  and  injurious  "  meat. 
The  sources  which  are  drawn  upon  in  explaining  the  provisions  of 
the  food  law  are  the  material  elaborated  in  the  Imperial. Health 
Office  for  a  technical  foundation  of  the  food  law,  the  report  of  the 
Reichstag  Commission,  and  the  proceedings  of  the  Reichstag  in 
connection  with  the  draft  of  the  law.*  Meyer  and  Finkelnburg 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  explaining  the  food  law  we  must 
consider  not  only  the  decisions  of  the  courts,  but  especially  those 
of  the  Imperial  Court  which  have  reference  to  the  punishments 
provided  in  Sees.  10  to  16  of  the  law  and  which  are  of  great  value 
in  making  a  commentary  on  them.  "For  although  a  complete 
retrial  of  the  facts  established  in  the  trial  court  in  a  particular  case 
may  not  be  indicated  for  the  Imperial  Court  by  the  nature  of  the 
legal  procedure  under  revision,  it  nevertheless  has  an  opportunity, 
in  making  a  review  for  the  purpose  of  determining  to  what  extent 

*  Compare  Meyer  and  Finkelnburg,  Commentaries  upon  the  Law  of  May  14,  1879. 


100  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

actual  error  appears  to  have  been  committed,  to  express  an  opinion 
concerning  the  meaning  of  the  provisions  of  the  law,  and  to  indicate 
clearly  their  application." 

The  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Court  have  given  an  explanation 
of  special  provisions  of  the  law,  especially  the  concept  "  spoiled," 
which  differ  essentially  from  those  contained  in  the  materials  for 
the  technical  foundation  of  the  law.* 

(B)  SPECIAL  NOTES  ON  SECS.  10  TO  14  OF  THE  FOOD  LAW, 

Partly  according  to  the  commentaries  of  Meyer  and  Firikelnburg  and 
partly  according  to  later  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Court  concern- 
ing the  application  of  the  paragraphs  cited  from  the  Law  of 
May  14, 1879. 

Section  10. 

Imprisonment  not  exceeding  six  months  and  a  fine  not  exceeding  1,500  marks, 
or  either,  is  provided  for  (1)  all  persons  who  imitate  or  adulterate  food  and  condiments- 
for  the  purpose  of  deception  in  business  and  traffic  in  them;  (2)  all  persons  who 
knowingly  sell  food  or  condiments  which  are  fraudulent,  imitations,  or  adulterated, 
and  without  stating  this  fact,  or  who  offer  them  for  sale  under  a  deceptive  label.  If 
the  actions  mentioned  in  Sec.  10,  number  2,  are  performed  from  carelessness,  the 
punishment  is  a  fine  not  exceeding  150  marks  or  imprisonment. 

(a)  "For  the  purpose  of  deception,"  "without  mentioning  the  fact" 
and  "  under  a  deceptive  label"  The  actual  status  of  the  misdemeanor 
for  which  punishment  is  provided  in  Sec.  10  differs  from  that  of 
Deception  (Sec.  263  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statute)  in  that  for  its  ful- 
filment neither  the  "intention  of  obtaining  illegitimate  profit  for 
one's  self  or  for  a  third  person,"  nor  the  creation  of  an  erroneous 
impression  "  by  the  representation  of  false  conditions  or  by  the 
suppression  or  covering  up  of  true  conditions"  need  be  present. 
The  violation  of  Sec.  10,  however,  may  be  a  case  of  deception. 

According  to  Sec.  10,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  act  be 
calculated  to  deceive  others  or  that  it  be  done  with  the  knowledge 


*  The  Koyal  Prussian  Ministers  for  Traffic,  Industries,  Interior,  etc.,  explained" 
to  the  representatives  of  several  trades  in  the  decree  of  September  14,  1883,  that  the 
explanation  of  Sec.  10  could  not  be  based  exclusively  on  the  ' '  materials  "  of  the  lawr 
which  proceeded  upon  quite  different  views  from  those  of  traffic  and  industry.  It 
was  further  stated  that  the  government  presidents  should  instruct  the  police  officials 
under  them  that  they  should  have  regard  in  all  doubtful  cases  to  the  interests  of 
trade  and  traffic  in  preparing  a  legal  prosecution  for  adulterations  of  food  and  condi- 
ments. It  was  held,  however,  that  it  was  not  the  purpose  of  the  law  to  limit  the  legal 
und  police  prosecution  to  actually  dangerous  adulterations.  The  judical  office rs*we re 
given  similar  instructions  by  the  Minister  of  Justice. 


FOOD   INSPECTION'  LAW  101 

-that  it  is  calculated  to  deceive.  According  to  the  intention  of  the 
law  the  vendor  must  do  all  within  his  power  to  make  clear  to 
intending  purchasers  the  true  character  of  the  wares.  If  the  dealer 
Imows  that  the  wares  are  spoiled,  imitations,  or  adulterated,  he 
must  state  this  expressly  or  must  otherwise  make  it  apparent. 
Trom  this  text  it  is  plain  that  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  was  not 
intended  to  prohibit  absolutely  the  sale  of  adulterated  or  spoiled 
food  materials  or  imitations,  but,  as  already  indicated  by  Schmidt- 
Mulheim,  it  was  intended  simply  to  introduce  a  compulsory  declara- 
tion for  such  food  materials. 

In  case  of  an  effected  sale,  it  is  sufficient  that  silence  was  main- 
tained concerning  the  special  character  of  the  wares.  In  offering 
for  sale  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  vendor  may  make  a  truthful 
statement  to  the  intending  purchaser.  On  this  account  punishment 
is  provided  expressly  for  offering  for  sale  "under  a  deceptive  label," 
but  not  for  offering  for  sale  in  general.  "The  determining  factor 
is,  however,  deception  concerning  the  character  of  the  materials, 
not  concerning  their  value  ;  both  will  occur  simultaneously  in  most 
cases,  but  not  necessarily."  (von  Schwarze.) 

By  the  term  "  offering  for  sale  "  is  to  be  understood  the  inten- 
iion  of  selling  a  thing  in  general  and  the  making  known  of  this 
intention,  even  if  but  one  person  is  present.  It  is  erroneous  to 
assume  that  the  article  in  being  offered  for  sale  must  be  made 
accessible  to  the  public  for  purchase  (opinion  of  the  Imperial 
-Court,  IV,  Criminal  Senate,  July  7,  1887).  The  mere  opening  of  a 
store  before  the  beginning  of  business  hours  does  not  constitute  an 
offering  for  sale  of  the  meat  which  is  contained  in  the  store 
(Decision  III,  of  January  14,  1886). 

Silence  concerning  the  spoiled  condition  of  meat  which  has 
been  sold  does  not  presuppose  a  suppression  of  the  true  conditions 
(compare  Deception).  On  the  other  hand,  the  spoiled  condition, 
when  known  to  both  vendor  and  vendee,  must  not  be  concealed 
(Decision  IV,  of  October  1,  1886).  In  harmony  with  this  statement 
the  Imperial  Court  handed  down  a  decision  September  29, 1894,  "if, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  defendant  knew  that  the  purchaser  recognized 
the  wares  as  spoiled  when  she  bought  them,  calling  attention, 
expressly  to  this  defect  would  have  been  a  useless  formality  which, 
could  not  have  had  any  influence  either  upon  the  knowledge  or  the 
intention  of  the  purchaser." 

(b)  Imitations.     Under  imitations  is  understood  "the  prepara- 
tion of  a  food  material  purposely  in  a  way  so  that  it  appears  to  be 
^different  from  what  it  is  in  reality  "  (Decision  I,  of  May  15,  1882). 


102  BEGULATION   OF  TRAFFIC   IN  MEAT 

In  the  case  which  served  as  a  basis  for  the  opinion  just  cited^, 
so-called  schwartenmagen,  contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  locality 
where  the  case  was  tried,  was  not  prepared  from  blood,  chopped 
meat,  bacon  rind,  and  bacon  of  hogs,  but  was  made  of  two-thirds 
sinews  and  tripe  and  one-third  blood,  with  a  little  fat. 

The  preparation  of  tongue  sausage  without  tongue  must  also  be 
characterized  as  an  imitation  of  food  material ;  similarly,  the  pre- 
paration of  sausage  from  dog  meat,  since  the  making  of  sausage 
from  this  meat,  which  does  not  pass  in  ordinary  traffic  as  a  food 
material,  gives  the  product  the  appearance  of  a  food  material  which 
is  suitable  for  man.  (Decision  II,  of  May  5,  1891.) 

(c)  Adulteration.  According  to  Meyer  and  Finkelnburg,  the 
attempt  to  make  a  legal  definition  for  the  concept  "adulteration'* 
was  abandoned  by  the  Reichstag  and  the  explanation  of  the  term 
was  left  to  legal  practice  and  science.  Since,  however,  the  essential 
part  of  a  violation  of  Sec.  10  consists  in  the  act  of  deception,  the 
question  of  adulteration  can  only  be  answered  on  the  basis  of  the 
normal  methods  of  preparation  and  manufacture.  These  differ,  as 
is  well  known,  in  different  regions. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  wheat 
flour  to  Eostbratwurst  (10  to  12  pounds  of  flour  to  5  kg.  of  meat)  is 
no  adulteration,  if  to  the  people  in  the  region  in  question  such  an 
addition  is  "in  no  way  an  unknown  or  unexpected  admixture  ; "  for, 
on  the  contrary,  "  flour  belongs  to  a  savory  bratwurst  according  to 
popular  opinion."  (Decision  III,  December  21, 1882.) 

Under  adulterated  food  materials,  we  understand  such  as  do  not 
possess  those  qualities  which  are  to  be  expected  in  actual  traffic. 
The  adulteration  of  a  food  material  may  be  accomplished  in  two 
ways  :  (1)  By  substantial  deterioration  ;  (2)  by  furnishing  a  material 
with  the  appearance  of  a  better  quality. 

The  addition  of  a  dough  made  of  potato  starch  and  water  to 
sausages,  contrary  to  the  usual  method  of  preparing  sausages  in  a 
given  place,  according  to  which  only  pure  meat  sausages  were 
understood  as  passing  under  the  label  in  question,  is  an  adultera- 
tion. (Decision  I,  of  October  4,  1883.) 

Coloring  the  gills  of  fish  by  means  of  a  red  stain,  so  as  to  give 
them  the  appearance  of  fresh  fish,  is  an  adulteration  (Decision  II, 
of  December  2,  1881).  Likewise  the  coloring  of  sausages  with  dye 
stuff  in  order  to  preserve  the  color  of  fresh  material  for  a  period 
during  which  without  this  manipulation  they  would  have  shown  by 
the  alteration  of  the  natural  color  that  they  were  not  fresh,  is  an: 
adulteration  (Decision  III,  of  February  18,  1882). 


FOOD   INSPECTION   LAW  103 

An  undoubted  case  of  adulteration  is  the  coloring  of  old  meat 
in  order  to  lend  it  the  appearance  of  fresh  meat,  and  finally,  the 
coloring  of  a  sausage,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  paste,  in  order 
to  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  meat  sausage,  is  a  double  adulteration. 

The  existence  of  an  adulteration  is  not  excluded  by  the  fact 
that  the  person  concerned  intended  to  give  the  food  or  condiment 
the  appearance  of  a  better  quality  for  the  purpose  of  deception, 
but  actually  brought  about  only  a  deterioration  of  the  product. 
(Decision  I,  of  February  28,  1887.) 

(d)  Food  or  condiments  which  are  "  spoiled."  The  punishments 
which  are  provided  for  trafficking  in  "  spoiled  "  food  materials  were, 
until  the  passage  of  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law,  the  most 
important  basis  for  the  regulation  of  traffic  in  meat  which  was  not 
dangerous  to  health  but  which  showed  certain  defects.  This  much- 
discussed  term  still  possesses  practical  significance,  since  "  spoiled  " 
meat  is  declared  to  be  meat  of  an  inferior  value,  concerning  the 
traffic  in  which  regulations  were  unfortunately  not  included  in  the 
Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law. 

The  definition  of  the  term  "  spoiled  "  has  been  the  subject  of  a 
large  number  of  decisions  by  the  Imperial  Court.  At  first,  after 
the  passage  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  these  opinions  were  based 
on  quite  other  points  of  view  than  the  later  opinions.  The  Imperial 
Court  at  first  declared  food  materials  or  condiments  to  be  spoiled 
when  they  were  not  in  a  normal  condition  or  when  they  va'ried  from 
a  normal  condition  to  such  a  degree  that  they  were  not  suitable  for 
human  food  according  to  popular  opinion.  This  definition  corres- 
ponds to  that  of  the  term  "  spoiled  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  3677  of  the 
Criminal  Law  Statute,"  which  forbade  the  sale  of  "  spoiled  "  meat 
in  general  and  was,  therefore,  based  on  the  assumption  that  such 
meat  was  not  fit  for  human  food.  Sec.  10,  paragraph  2,  of  the  food 
law,  however,  differs  in  one  important  point  from  Sec.  3677  of  the 
Criminal  Law  Statute,  since  the  former  does  not  prohibit  the  sale 
or  offering  for  sale  absolutely,  but  only  when  these  transactions  are 
made  without  stating  the  real  character  of  the  food  material  or  with 
the  practice  of  deception  concerning  the  same.  Logically,  therefore, 
the  sale  of  meat  which  the  food  law  characterizes  as  "spoiled" 
must  be  permitted  without  punishment  if  the  sale  takes  place  under 
a  statement  of  the  particular  character  of  the  article.  By  far  the 
greater  number  of  the  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Court  has  con- 
sidered as  spoiled  food  materials  those  which  vary  from  the  normal 
condition  and  which  are  less  suitable  and  utilizable  for  a  given 
purpose,  and  also  such  as  in  and  of  themselves  are  not  fit  to  serve 


104:  BEGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

as  food  materials,  but  which,  in  consequence  of  peculiar  properties,, 
were  either  not  to  be  sold  at  all,  if  the  true  character  was  known, 
or,  at  least,  would  not  bring  the  price  which  is  asked  for  material  of 
a  normal  origin.  Accordingly,  the  concept  "  spoiled "  may  be 
defined  as  follows  :  In  the  sense  of  the  food  law  all  meat  is  spoiled 
which,  without  being  dangerous  to  health,  shows  considerable 
alterations  of  its  substance,  or  comes  from  animals  which  were 
affected  with  serious  diseases. 

In  this  explanation  I  believe  I  have  provided  a  positive  basis 
for  the  determination  of  meat  which — and  this  is  the  main  point  in 
question — must  be  excluded  from  free  traffic,  but  which  can  be 
admitted  to  restricted  sale  on  the  freibank.  The  word  "  may"  is  to 
be  emphasized,  since  the  spoiled  condition  may  reach  such  a  degree 
that  the  meat  loses  its  character  as  a  food  material,  becomes  meat 
"  unfit "  for  use,  in  the  sense  of  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law, 
and  is,  therefore,  to  be  excluded  even  from  restricted  sale.  The 
concept  spoiled  meat  is  synonymous  with  that  of  inferior  meat, 
since  all  meat  which  can  be  sold  as  spoiled  is  rendered  of  inferior 
value  on  account  of  the  necessity  of  its  express  characterization  as 
such.  Declared  meat  can  find  purchasers  only  when  sold  at  a  lower 
price. 

Against  my  definition  of  the  concept  "  spoiled  "  objection  may 
perhaps  be  made  that  the  expression  "  serious  disease,"  of  which  I 
make  use,  is  too  poorly  defined  to  furnish  assurances  o!  a  uniform 
action.  This  objection,  however,  does  not  apply.  The  expert  meat 
inspector  must,  by  reason  of  his  scientific  training,  be  able  to  judge 
what,  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitary  police  (not  from  a  therapeutic 
standpoint),  must  be  considered  as  a  serious  disease.  For  example, 
we  may  characterize  as  serious  diseases  of  food  animals,  all  acute 
and  part  of  the  chronic  infectious  diseases.  In  the  majority  of  them 
the  meat  is  not  dangerous  to  health,  but  only  "  spoiled  in  the  sense 
of  the  food  law,"  as,  for  example,  in  pleuro-pneumonia,  hemorrhagic 
septicemia,  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  and  hog  cholera.  The 
conditions  are  similar  in  the  case  of  other  diseases  which  frequently 
give  occasion  for  emergency  slaughter  (for  example,  parturient 
paralysis,  traumatic  pericarditis,  etc.)  In  all  these  cases,  in  addition 
to  the  origin  of  the  meat  from  animals  which  were  seriously  diseased, 
we  must  also  consider  that  the  meat  differs  objectively  from  normal 
meat  which  is  accepted  in  ordinary  business  traffic,  in  so  far  as,  in 
consequence  of  incomplete  bleeding,  it  possesses  poor  keeping 
qualities  and  an  associated  inferior  value.  Such  meat  is  suitable 
neither  for  preservation  nor  for  the  manufacture  of  sausages,  but 


FOOD   INSPECTION   LAW  105 

must  be  eaten  soon  or  it  will  begin  to  decompose.  For  this  reason, 
in  the  sale  of  such  meat,  it  is  desirable  that  the  special  character 
of  the  wares  should  be  made  known  to  the  purchaser.* 

Since  pathological  processes  in  the  animal  body  do  not  take 
place  in  a  schematic  manner,  it  is  evident  that  there  must  be 
cases  upon  the  boundary  line  between  "  serious  "  and  "  not  serious." 
These  cases  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  expert  inspector. 
They  may  be  confidently  intrusted  to  such  persons,  since  they  are 
Tare  and  since  the  chief  problem  consists  in  separating  the  decidedly 
41  serious"  from  the  decidedly  "not  serious,"  and  this,  according  to 
past  experience,  is  not  a  difficult  matter. 

Noteworthy  Decisions  of  the  Imperial  Court  Concerning  "Spoiled"  in 
the  Sense  of  Section  108  of  the  Food  Law. 

According  to  a  decision  of  the  First  Criminal  Senate  of  the 
Imperial  Court,  of  October  5,  1881,  the  variation  from  the  normal  is 
the  decisive  point  in  spoiled  food  materials  in  the  sense  of  the  law 
•of  May  14,  1879 ;  and,  in  determining  the  normal,  the  common 
-condition  which  is  looked  for  by  the  purchasers  or  the  public  with 
reference  to  the  character  of  the  wares  is  decisive.  An  internal 
-chemical  decomposition  is  not  necessary  to  the  concept  "  spoiled." 
The  deterioration  may  consist  in  a  quantitative  change  of  the 
constituents,  as  is  the  case,  for  example,  in  meat  which  is  infested 
-with  harmless  parasites,  or  such  as  have  been  rendered  harmless. 
(Decision  III,  of  October  5,  1881.) 

A  food  material  is  spoiled  also  if  it  is  checked  in  its  normal 
development.  The  normal  condition  in  such  cases  has  never 
existed,  but  it  was  expected  to  occur,  as,  for  example,  in  the  meat  of 
unborn  calves.  (Decision  II,  of  January  3,  1882.) 

The  meat  of  diseased,  or  dead,  as  well  as  of  emaciated  animals 
is  spoiled  if  the  anomalous  character  of  the  meat  was  due  to  a 
<lisease  which  brought  about  a  serious  alteration  of  its  constituents 
with  reference  to  the  fitness  of  the  meat  for  human  food.  (Decisions 
I,  of  January  12,  1882,  and  III,  of  July  9,  1883.) 

An  article  is  spoiled  when  its  consumption  creates  disgust,  not 
in  the  case  of  this  or  that  individual  person,  according  to  their 

*  The  previous  connection  of  meat  with  diseased  parts  is  not  sufficient  in  itself 
to  fulfil  the  conception  of  spoiled  meat.  (Compare  decision  of  the  First  Criminal 
Senate  of  the  Imperial  Court,  page  112,  and  Strose,  Ztschr.  f.  Milch  and  Fleisch 
Hyg.  vol.  4).  In  harmony  with  this  decision  are  the  opinions  contained  in  the  more 
.recent  decrees  concerning  tuberculosis,  that  the  meat  of  animals  aifected  with 
localized  tuberculosis  may  be  admitted  for  sale  without  restriction,  after  the  removal 
of  the  diseased  parts. 


106  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC   IN  MEAT 

particular  taste,  but  according  to  the  general  opinion,  or  according 
to  the  opinion  of  that  class  of  the  population  to  which  the  intending 
purchasers  belong.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is  not  considered 
legally  erroneous  to  look  upon  the  fat  of  a  measly  hog  as  spoiled, 
even  if  it  is  not  established  that  cysticerci  have  existed  in  the  manipu- 
lated portions  of  the  fat.  In  such  cases  we  proceed  on  the  theory 
that  such  fat,  even  if  in  and  of  itself  it  is  not  unfit  for  food,  is,  never- 
theless, in  consequence  of  the  antipathy  or  disgust  experienced  with 
regard  to  such  material  by  the  public,  either  never  bought  with  a 
knowledge  of  its  true  condition  or  at  least  does  not  bring  a  price 
which  would  be  offered  for  meat  of  a  normal  origin  (Decision  II, 
of  March  25,  1884). 

Disgust  which  exists  merely  in  the  imagination  of  the  con- 
sumers without  any  objective  foundation  deserves  no  consideration. 
Only  the  quality  of  a  food  material  which  occasions  objective 
disgust  is  sufficient  to  fulfil  the  conception  of  a  spoiled  condition* 
The  previous  connection  of  meat  with  disgusting  parts  does  not  in 
itself  constitute  the  required  objective  foundation.  "  Some  account 
is  to  be  taken  of  the  views  of  the  public.  The  Court  of  Justice, 
however,  was  of  the  opinion  that  in  a  concrete  case,  dealing  with 
persons  who  obtain  their  meat  from  the  knackers,  the  assumption 
of  disgust  on  the  part  of  these  buyers,  who  could  not  expect  to 
receive  a  perfect  quality  of  meat,  is  not  justified.  It  is,  therefore, 
not  justifiable,  in  cases  where  mere  previous  connection  of  the 
meat  with  disgusting  meat  has  been  sufficiently  considered  accord- 
ing to  the  facts  in  the  case,  to  look  upon  the  parts  which  have 
lately  been  separated  and  sold  as  disgusting  or  even  as  spoiled " 
(Decision  I,  1894). 

The  simple  opinion  of  the  public  that  a  food  material  is  of 
inferior  value  or  less  fit  for  food,  while  it  remains  possible  that 
such  material  in  reality  possesses  the  same  food  value  and  the  same 
fitness  for  food  as  normal  meat,  is  not  sufficient  for  the  assumption 
of  a  "spoiled"  quality.  So  far  as  the  opinion  of  the  public  is 
to  be  considered  at  all,  it  may  be  decided  only  in  connection  with 
the  objective  quality  of  the  food  material,  whereby  an  effect  is 
actually  produced  which  is  calculated  to  influence  badly  its  utili- 
zation as  food  (Decision  III.,  of  September  28,  1885). 

The  same  decision  contained  also  the  opinion  that  it  is  neces- 
sary for  satisfying  the  required  conditions  that  the  spoiled  character 
be  present  at  the  time  of  the  sale.  A  spoiled  character  of  meat  in 
the  sense  of  Section  102  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  is  also  to  be 
assumed  when  the  variations  from  the  normal  character  are  due  to> 


FOOD  INSPECTION  LAW  107 

a  disease  which  was  present  before  slaughter  and  which  was 
associated  with  the  diminution  of  the  value  of  the  meat  and  the 
production  of  the  feeling  of  disgust  in  the  general  public  (Decision 
IV,  of  November  2,  1886).  This  was  a  case  of  the  sale  of  a  cow 
which  had  been  slaughtered  while  diseased.  The  internal  organs 
and  interior  surface  of  the  ribs,  but  not  the  meat,  were  found 
to  be  full  of  tubercles.  It  was  sold  as  wholesome,  non-spoiled 
meat,  after  the  removal  of  the  "  disgusting  ulcers  ". 

A  decision  of  the  Imperial  Court  of  October  5,  1889,  held  that 
the  positive  factor  in  determining  the  spoiled  condition  consists  in 
an  alteration  of  the  original  or  normal  condition  of  the  food  or 
condiment  to  an  inferior  and  consequently  less  fit  condition  for 
utilization  for  a  certain  purpose. 

Finally,  it  should  be  remembered  that  only  an  actual  violation 
of  Sec.  10  is  punishable.  The  attempt  at  violation  is  not  punish- 
able. Furthermore,  the  utilization  of  spoiled  meat  in  one's  own 
household  and  its  donation  to  others  is  not  subject  to  legal 
restrictions. 

Section  12. 

Imprisonment,  together  with  .the  possible  loss  of  civil  rights,  is  p.ovided  for  (1) 
all  persons  who  purposely  prepare  articles  which  are  intended  to  serve  as  food  or 
condiment  for  others  in  such  a  manner  that  they  maj  be  injurious  to  human  health, 
and  all  persons  who  knowingly  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  otherwise  traffic  in  as  food  or 
condiment,  articles  the  consumption  of  which  would  be  injurious  to  human  health ;. 
(2)  all  persons  who  purposely  prepare  clothing  materials,  playthings,  tapestry, 
eating,  drinking,  and  cooking  utensils,  or  petroleum  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
intended  or  future  use  of  these  articles  is  likely  to  be  injurious  to  human  health;  and 
also  all  persons  who  knowingly  sell,  offer  for  sale,  or  otherwise  have  traffic  in  such 
articles. 

Attempted  evasions  are  punishable. 

If  on  account  of  these  forbidden  actions  a  serious  bodily  injury  or  death  of  a 
human  being  is  caused,  the  punishment  is  confinement  in  the  workhouse  for  five 
years. 

Section  13. 

If  in  cases  mentioned  in  Sec.  12  the  consumption  or  use  of  the  article  was 
likely  to  injure  human  health,  arid  if  this  fact  was  known  to  the  vendor,  the  punish- 
ment is  confinement  in  the  workhouse  for  ten  years;  and  if  by  the  action  in  question 
the  death  of  a  human  being  is  caused,  confinement  in  the  workhouse  for  not  less  than 
ten  years  or  for  life.  In  addition  to  the  punishment,  police  supervision  must  be 
permitted. 

The  law  of  May  14,  1879,  makes  a  fundamental  difference 
between  spoiled  and  dangerous  or  injurious  food  materials.  Every 
case  of  the  sale  of  injurious  food  materials,  or  even  the  attempt  to 


108  EEGULATION   OF  TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

sell  them,  is  punishable.  If  carelessness  is  not  shown  and  at  the 
same  time  harm  is  done  to  human  health  (Sec.  14),  the  punishment 
consists  of  imprisonment  at  least,  but  may  involve  confinement  in 
the  workhouse  in  the  case  of  the  death  of  a  human  being.  The 
penalty  for  the  violation  of  Sec.  12  can  not  be  paid  by  a  money  fine. 
In  legal  cases  the  wording  of  Sec.  12  must  be  observed,  for, 
according  to  this  section,  it  is  not  necessary  for  fulfilling  the 
requirements  of  Sec.  12  that  the  food  material  should  always 
produce  an  injurious  effect.  It  is  sufficient  that  the  consumption  of 
the  food  material  should  be,  as  a  rule,  calculated  to  injure  human 
health  (compare  p.  110).  On  the  other  hand,  according  to  a 
decision  of  Criminal  Senate  No.  2  of  the  Imperial  Court,  May  5, 
1882,  "the  dangerousness  is  an  objective  quality  which  must 
attach  to  the  article."  Furthermore,  the  dangerousness  must  be 
present  at  the  moment  of  sale  or  offering  for  sale.  The  bare 
possibility  that  meat  may  rapidly  pass  into  decomposition  and  may 
•..thereby  become  dangerous  is  not  sufficient  (Decision  II,  of  May  5, 
1882).  Likewise,  the  actual  conditions  of  Sec.  12  do  not  exist  in 
Ceases  where  the  dangerousness  of  the  food  material  was  removed  at 
the  time  of  sale  by  the  method  of  preparation,  as,  for  example, 
by  cooking  (Decision  I,  of  January  8,  1883).  Neither  is  a  person 
punishable  for  selling  dangerous  meat,  not  as  a  food  material,  but 
for  some  other  purpose  (Decision  II,  of  March  11,  1881) ;  nor  is  he 
.punishable  if,  before  selling  the  article  which  loses  its  dangerous 
•  character  by  cooking  (for  example,  measly  meat),  he  expressly 
declares  that  it  can  be  eaten  only  in  a  cooked  condition  (Decisions 
IV,  of  August  11,  1884,  and  I,  of  January  15,  1885).  The  attempt 
to  offer  for  sale  is  also  punishable  according  to  Sec.  12. 

Decrees  of  the  Imperial  Court  as  a  Commentary  on  Sees.  12  and  13. 

A  public  sale,  offering  for  sale,  or  bringing  into  traffic  is  not 
required;  bringing  into  traffic  signifies  making*  the  article  acces- 
sible as  food  for  another  person.  The  sale  of  meat  to  middlemen, 
therefore,  and  the  gratuitous  disposal  of  the  meat  are  also  to  be 
considered  as  bringing  into  traffic  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  12  (Decisions 
I,  of  December  13,  1880,  and  III,  of  February  10,  1887) ;  similarly, 
ior  the  utilization  of  the  material  in  one's  private  household,  or 
giving  it  to  wife,  children,  servants,  associates,  etc.  (Decision  II.,  of 
October  27,  1882). 

Intentional  bringing  into  traffic  of  injurious  food  materials 
presupposes :  (1)  that  the  dangerous  character  of  the  material  is 
known  to  the  vendor,  and  (2)  that  he  understands  that  the  person 


FOOD  INSPECTION  LAW  10& 

to  whom  the  injurious  article  is  given  will  eat  it  himself  or  give 
it  to  others  as  a  food  material  (Decision  IV,  of  March  21,  1888). 

An  attempt  to  offer  for  sale  was  found  in  a  case  in  which  a- 
butcher  obtained  injurious  meat  with  full  knowledge  of  its  quality, 
brought  it  to  his  store,  and  there  had  it  rinsed  with  water  in  order 
to  remove  the  disagreeable  odor  (Decision  III,  of  February  15, 
1882).  An  attempt  at  sale  was  also  found  in  another  case,  in 
consequence  of  preparing  the  meat  for  sale  (cutting  it  into  small 
pieces)  (Decision  I,  of  November  1,  1881),  in  sending  the  cut  meat 
to  another  butcher  shop  (Decision  II,  of  May  2,  1884) ;  in  trans- 
porting meat  which  was  cut  up  and  given  gratis  by  a  country 
butcher  to  a  city  inspection  office  (Decision  of  May  26,  1898) ;  and, . 
finally,  in  a  case  in  which  a  beginning  had  been  made  in  the  use  of 
the  meat  in  material  which  had  already  been  ordered  (Decision  II,. 
of  May  6, 1890).  The  mere  possession  of  injurious  wares  is,  on  the- 
other  hand,  no  attempt  to  offer  for  sale  (Decision  III,  of  November 
10,  1884).  Laying  the  injurious  meat  out  for  the  purpose  of  selling 
it  is  offering  it  for  sale  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  12  of  the  food  law" 
(Decision  II.,  of  December  23,  1887). 

The  attempt  to  sell  presupposes  that  a  beginning  has  been 
made  in  performing  at  least  one  of  the  actions  which  belong  to  the 
fact  of  an  intended  sale.  The  attempt  to  offer  for  sale  exists  if  a 
beginning  has  been  made  in  preparing  the  wares  for  sale  to  the 
public  (Decision  of  June  5,  1890).  An  actual  bringing  into  traffic 
can  not  be  found  in  the  transportation  of  food  material,  in  and  of 
itself,  to  a  selling  point  (Decision  of  November  1,  1888). 

Farther  Findings  of  the  Imperial  Court  with  Reference  to 
Sections  12  and  IB. 

If  a  purchaser  returns  injurious  food  material  to  the  vendor, 
the  former  may,  according  to  Sec.  12,  paragraph  1,  of  the  food  law, 
become  guilty  of  a  punishable  bringing  into  traffic  (Decision  of 
September  27,  1887).  Schmidt-Miilheiin  remarked  in  this  connec- 
tion that  the  consumer  would  do  well,  after  he  had  become  convinced 
of  the  injurious  character  of  the  meat  he  has  bought,  to  destroy  it 
or  to  call  for  the  assistance  of  the  sanitary  police.  The  permission 
for  the  removal  of  a  dangerous  article  for  the  purpose  of  utilization 
as  food  material  (the  case  was  one  of  trichinous  meat  which  required 
boiling  in  a  kettle)  may  also  be  considered  as  bringing  into  traffic  in 
the  sense  of  Sec.  12  of  the  food  law  (Decision  of  June  7,  1887). 

Sec.  12  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  does  not  require  that  the 
consumption  of  the  article  in  question  (in  this  case  it  was  measly 


110  BEGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

meat)  shall  in  every  case  and  under  all  conditions  injure  human 
health  ;  or  that  for  fulfilling  the  condition  of  fact  an  injury  to  health 
shall  already  have  occurred.  It  is  sufficient  that  the  injury  to 
health  may  occur  under  ordinary  conditions  and  that,  as  a  rule,  it 
will  occur  (Decision  IV,  of  September  29, 1885). 

Injury  to  health  takes  place  when  by  the  action  of  a  food 
material  upon  the  body  of  the  human  being  the  organism  suffers  at 
least  a  partial  disturbance  of  the  ordinary  vital  functions.  The 
health  may  also  be  injured  by  the  aggravation  of  a  disease  (Decision 
III,  of  February  6,  1890). 

The  production  ofillness  without  an  actual  outbreak  of  vomiting 
is  an  injury  to  health  in  the  sense  of  the  food  law.  The  imperial 
Court  has  handed  down  an  opinion  that  not  everything  which  is 
disgusting  must  necessarily  be  regarded  as  injurious  to  health.  It 
was  held,  however,  that  it  is  legally  unthinkable  that  a  pathogenic 
influence  upon  the  health  could  be  found  in  a  corporeal  condition 
which  in  ordinary  life  is  characterized  as  illness  and  which  consists 
in  an  anomalous  tendency  toward  the  outbreak  of  vomiting.  It 
follows  therefrom  that  when  a  food  material,  according  to  its  objec- 
tive character  is  calculated  to  produce  illness  and  vomiting  in  the 
person  who  eats  it,  it  may  also  be  considered  as  calculated  to  injure 
health  (Decision  IV,  of  December  8, 1893). 

An  injury  to  health  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  a 
disturbance  of  the  health.  According  to  Meyer  and  Finkelnburg, 
the  technical  criterion  of  an  injury  to  health  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  transitory,  without  serious  or  permanent  disturbance 
of  the  bodily  or  mental  functions,  while  we  may  ascribe  the  pro- 
perty of  disturbing  health  to  an  article  when  the  consumption  of  it 
may  lead  to  death  or  to  such  other  consequences  as  are  mentioned 
in  Sec.  224  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statutes,  which  characterizes 
certain  cases  of  bodily  injury  as  "  serious"  when  the  injured  person 
loses  an  important  member  of  the  body,  sight  in  one  or  both  eyes, 
hearing,  speech,  or  reproductive  power,  or  when  these  members  or 
functions  are  permanently  injured  to  a  serious  extent ;  or  in  cases 
where  long  illness,  paralysis,  or  mental  disease  results. 

Under  the  term  lingering  illness  is  understood  any  chronic 
disease  which  by  attacking  the  organism  produces  a  serious  effect 
upon  the  general  condition,  even  if  the  possibility  of  recovery  exists 
(Decision  II,  of  April  9, 1885). 

The  express  declaration  of  the  vendor  that  meat  which  loses  its 
injurious  character  in  cooking  can  be  eaten  only  in  a  cooked  con- 
dition protects  him  from  punishment  (Decision  IV,  of  July  11, 1884). 


FOOD   INSPECTION  LAW  111 

The  mere  statement  of  the  injurious  character  by  the  vendor  to 
the  purchaser  does  not  entirely  free  the  former  from  punishment, 
for  the  dangerousness  of  the  transaction  is  not  thereby  removed 
(Decisions  of  January  15  and  September  29,  1885).  Disposiug  of 
food  materials  the  injurious  character  of  which  may  be  removed  by 
special  treatment  is  non-punishable  only  in  cases  in  which  the 
vendor  has  made  the  necessary  provisions  for  preventing  its  use  in 
a  dangerous  condition  (Decision  IV,  of  March  21,  1888). 

The  subjective  incrimination  of  the  vendor  according  to  Sec.  12 
of  the  food  law  also  disappears  if  he  is  convinced  that  the  purchaser 
will  remove  the  dangerous  quality  of  the  food  material  by  suitable 
processes  before  it  is  eaten  (Decision  IV,  of  September  29,  1885). 

Section  14. 

If  any  one  of  the  actions  characterized  in  Sees.  12  or  13  are  performed  through 
carelessness,  the  punishment  is  a  fine  not  exceeding  1,000  marks  or  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  six  months;  and  if  through  the  action  in  question  an  injury  is  caused  to 
the  health  of  a  human  being,  the  punishment  is  imprisonment  for  one  year,  or,  if  the 
death  of  a  human  being  was  caused,  imprisonment  for  from  one  month  to  three  years. 

Meyer  and  Finkelnburg  state  that  carelessness  in  the  majority 
of  instances  is  to  be  found  in  case  the  property  of  endangering  or 
disturbing  health  was  not  known  to  the  defendant  and  in  case  this 
was  due  to  not  giving  it  the  attention  which  was  required  of  him  by 
the  facts  in  the  case.  The  degree  of  attention  which  must  be  given 
in  this  regard  is  considered  purely  a  question  of  fact. 

The  Imperial  Court  (Decision  III,  of  February  15, 1882)  handed 
down  the  opinion  that  to  establish  carelessness  it  was  immaterial 
whether  a  transaction  was  ordered  by  law  or  by  regulation.  The 
decision  in  question  concerned  the  omission  of  trichina  inspection 
in  a  locality  in  which  trichina  inspection  had  not  been  introduced 
by  police  ordinance. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  butcher  to  convince  himself  before  selling 
the  meat  that  it  is  not  of  a  dangerous  character  (Decision  IV,  of 
June  1,  1886).  The  case  was  one  of  trafficking  in  measly  meat. 
The  Imperial  Court  rightly  decided  that  the  defendant  had  acted  in 
a  careless  manner,  inasmuch  as  he  had  neglected  to  exercise  the 
necessary  care  and  attention  in  the  sale  of  the  meat.  It  was  held 
that  if  he  had  exercised  care,  even  to  the  slightest  extent,  the 
injurious  character  of  the  meat  could  not  have  escaped  his  attention. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  remembered  that  living  animals  are 
also  reckoned  among  food  materials  and  condiments  in  the  sense 
of  Sec.  12  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  if  the  vendor  knows  that  the 


112  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

animals  are  to  be  used  as  human  food  (Decision  III,  of  December 
2,  1886,  and  Decision  I,  of  October  6,  1892).  This  decision  is 
applicable  to  cases  of  animals  manifestly  affected  with  an  infectious 
disease  (for  example,  tuberculous  animals,  hogs  with  tongue 
bladder- worms,  etc.) 

Decision  III,  of  April  16, 1888,  stated  furthermore  that  the  sale 
of  atdiseased  animal  with  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  it  was  to  be 
killed  immediately  and  eaten  by  human  beings  was  punishable 
according  to  Sees.  10  and  11  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  if  it  was- 
established  that  the  meat  of  the  animal  at  the  time  of  sale  and  at 
the  slaughter  which  followed  immediately  after,  was  spoiled  in  the 
sense  of  the  law  of  May  14,  1879. 

(o)  SCIENTIFIC  DEFINITION  OF  THE  TEEM  "INJURIOUS  TO  HEALTH."' 
(Section  12  of  the  Food  Law.) 

From  a  legal  standpoint,  meat  must  be  considered  as  injurious 
to  health  if  it  has  been  shown  that  it  has  already  injured  the  health 
of  consumers  or  if  there  is  a  scientific  basis  for  the  suspicion  that 
such  may  be  the  result.  Such  meat,  according  to  the  text  and 
intent  of  Sec.  12  of  the  food  law,  is  "  calculated  to  injure  human 
health."  In  practice,  however,  the  term  "  injurious  to  health " 
must  be  given  a  broader  interpretation.  According  to  the  prin- 
ciples which  determine  the  action  of  the  sanitary  police,  in  case  of 
doubt  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  more  unfavorable  assumption 
and  to  consider  that  meat  is  injurious  to  health  if  its  harmless 
character  is  not  established.  Samples  of  meat  known  by  experience- 
to  be  injurious  to  health,  are  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  septic 
and  pyemic  diseases  (meat  poisoning),  meat  containing  trichina 
and  cysticerci,  meat  of  animals  affected  with  anthrax  and  glanders, 
as  well  as  decaying  and  otherwise  decomposed  meat  (sausage  and 
mince-meat  poisoning).  Samples  of  meat  which,  on  the  basis 
of  scientific  demonstration,  must  be  regarded  as  injurious  to- 
health,  are  tuberculous  organs  and  the  meat  of  animals  which 
are  affected  with  certain  forms  of  tuberculosis. 

Concerning  the  connection  between  injury  to  health  and  the- 
consumption  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals,  the  materials  worked 
over  in  the  Imperial  Health  Office  for  the  technical  foundation  of 
the  draft  of  the  food  law  contain  the  following  considerations  : 

Conclusive  proof  that  certain  diseases  in  man  are  caused 
by  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  animals  slaughtered  while  in  a 
certain  diseased  condition  is  often  very  difficult  to  procure.  On  the 


FOOD   INSPECTION   LAW 

one  hand,  the  diseases  do  not  appear  immediately  after  eating  the 
meat.  At  times,  in  fact,  they  may  appear  only  after  the  lapse  of  a 
considerable  time  after  the  persons  concerned  have  eaten  the  meat 
of  various  other  animals.  Moreover,  meat  dealers,  especially  the 
so-called  "  cold  butchers,"  understand,  as  a  rule,  how  to  arrange  the 
slaughtering  of  diseased  animals  and  the  sale  of  the  meat  so  that 
the  causal  connection  between  possible  diseases  in  man  and  the 
slaughter  of  diseased  animals  performed  by  the  butchers  is 
obscured  as  much  as  possible.  This  purpose  is  well  served  by  the 
method  of  secretly  transporting  the  affected  animals  to  a  distant 
locality  and  slaughtering  them  there  as  quickly  as  possible,  or  by 
bringing  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  which  were  slaughtered 
in  one  place  to  another  distant  locality,  commonly  to  a  larger  city. 
[Not  infrequently  the  diseased  meat  is  first  disposed  of  to  middle- 
men, or  it  is  sold  with  the  meat  of  other  animals  slaughtered  in  a 
demonstrably  healthy  condition  and  under  the  pretence  of  coming 
from  the  latter.  Frequently,  diseased  meat  is  utilized  in  the 

.manufacture  of  sausages  in  order  to  prevent  the  discovery  that  it  is 
pathologically  altered.  The  frequency  of  this  experience  is  ap- 
parent from  the  fact  that  meat  dealers  who  slaughter  diseased  meat 
in  a  wholesale  manner  are  in  many  regions  called  sausage  butchers. 
With  regard  to  the  method  of  determining  the  injurious, 
character  of  food  materials,  we  are  subject  to  a  serious  limitation. 
Only  in  a  few  instances  are  we  in  a  position  by  exact,  unexception- 
able experiments  on  man  to  answer  the  question  whether  the  meat 
possesses  harmful  properties  or  not.  Previously,  experiments  of 
this  sort  with  measly  meat  and  with  the  milk  of  aphthous  animals 
have  been  made  by  self-sacrificing  investigators  (Perroncito  and 
Hertwig),  on  themselves  and  partly  on  criminals  condemned  to 
death  (Kiicheumeister's  experiments  with  measly  pork).  Quite 
heroic  experiments  were  made  by  the  General  Veterinarian  of  the 
French  army,  Decroix,  upon  himself  with  the  meat  of  animals  which 
had  been  affected  with  various  diseases  and  part  of  which  had  died 

.  in  consequence.      Decroix  ventured  to  eat  the  meat  even  from  cases 
of  acute  glanders,  rabies,  trichinosis,  pyemia,  and  perforated  peri- 
tonitis, and,  fortunately,  did  not  suffer  any  injury  to  his  health.* 
In  the  majority  of  cases  we  are  limited  to  experiments  upon 

.  animals  and  to  ordinary  experience.     Experiments  upon  animals 
serve  only  to  give  a  basis  to  the  suspicion  that  the  conditions  are 

.  similar  in  man  to  those  in  the  experimental  animals,  and  this  has 

*  Decroix,  ' '  Recherches  Experimental  sur  la  Viande  <le  Cheval  et  sur  le* 
Viandes  insalubres."    Paris,  1885. 


114  REGULATION   OF   TRAFFIC   IN   MEAT 

reference  only  to  such  diseases  of  domesticated  animals  as  ara 
generally  known  to  occur  in  man  (for  example,  tuberculosis, 
glanders  and  anthrax).  The  transmissibility  of  a  disease  of  a 
domesticated  animal  to  an  experimental  animal  proves  nothing  in 
itself  regarding  the  possibility  of  transmission  to  man,  for  there  are 
many  diseases  of  domesticated  animals  which  are  transmissible  to 
experimental  animals  but  which,  according  to  experience,  are  not 
transmissible  to  man;  as,  for  example,  hemorrhagic  septicemia, 
black  leg,  swine  erysipelas,  etc.  In  applying  to  man  the  results 
which  are  obtained  with  animals,  the  manner  of  transferring  the 
virus  must  also  be  considered.  Intraperitoneal  or  subcutaneous 
inoculation  is  no  proof  of  injurious  action  in  the  case  of  introduction 
into  the  alimentary  tract.  In  the  latter  case  the  harmful  effect  of 
the  digestive  juices  upon  the  bacteria  and  also  the  unfavorable 
conditions  for  anaerobic  bacteria  in  the  stomach  and  alimentary 
tract  enter  into  the  problem.  Anthrax  bacilli,  for  example,  in  the 
majority  of  warm-blooded  animals,  produce  anthrax  after  a  sub- 
cutaneous injection,  while  after  feeding,  on  the  contrary,  infection, 
does  not  take  place  in  a  number  of  animals  including  man.  With, 
regard  to  tuberculous  sputum,  Bellinger  demonstrated  that  it  would 
produce  an  infection  in  case  of  subcutaneous  or  intraperitoneal 
Injection  when  diluted  to  the  extent  of  1:100,000,  while  it  lost  its 
virulence  in  case  of  administration  through  the  alimentary  tract 
even  in  a  dilution  of  1:8.  Nocard  injected  the  muscle  serum  of  21 
cows  into  guinea  pigs.  In  these  experiments  it  was  shown  that  the 
muscle  serurn  of  a  cow  was  virulent.  The  meat  of  the  same  cow, 
however,  was  eaten  in  considerable  quantities  (about  500  grams)  by 
four  cats  without  any  injurious  effects.  Finally,  Sormani  demon- 
strated that  a  10,000  times  greater  quantity  of  tetanus  virus  was 
endured  in  the  alimentary  canal  than  in  the  subcutaneous  connec- 
tive tissue. 

With  regard  to  the  majority  of  the  diseases  of  domesticated 
animals,  we  know  by  experience  that  they  are  not  communicable  to 
man.  This  fact  of  experience  is  both  of  a  negative  and  of  a  positive 
character ;  negative  in  so  far  as  it  has  been  shown  by  clinical 
observation  and  numerous  post  mortem  examinations  of  man  that 
diseases  which  are  common  in  domesticated  animals  do  not  occur 
in  man ;  of  a  positive  nature,  on  the  other  hand,  in  so  far  as  the 
meat  of  diseased  animals  has  been  eaten  in  innumerable  cases 
without  harm.  For  example,  this  has  been  proved  by  hundreds 
and  thousands  of  experiences  with  the  meat  of  animals  which  wera 
affected  with  rinderpest,  pleuro-pneumonia,  or  swine  erysipelas. 


FOOD  INSPECTION  LAW  115 

-"Feeding  experiments  with  the  meat  of  such  animals  have  been  on  a 
very  large  scale  in  man,  aiid  it  requires  no  further  proof  that,  as 
against  this  tremendous  mass  of  experience,  one  isolated  contra- 
dictory observation  has  no  weight,  especially  if  the  latter  can  not 
be  considered  entirely  unexceptionable.  I  emphasize  this  point  with 
regard  to  the  isolated  observations  contained  in  the  literature  of  the 
subject  concerning  the  alleged  injurious  character  of  meat  contain- 
ing psorosperms,  the  meat  of  hogs  affected  with  swine  plague,  of 
cattle  suffering  from  rinderpest,  and  of  chickens  affected  with  fowl 
cholera,  observations  which  thus  far  have  not  been  substantiated 
by  other  authors  and  which  are  much  more  easily  explained  by  the 
assumption  of  the  development  of  a  cadaveric  injurious  property. 

•(D)  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND  OF  MEAT  PRODUCTS,  ACCORDING 
TO  THE  KEGULATIONS  OF  THE  FOOD  LAW. 

According  to  the  law  of  May  14,  1879,  we  must  distinguish  in 
the  practice  of  meat  inspection,  andproforo,  the  following  classes: 

1.  Good  products,  or  those  which  are  fit  to  eat  and  which  may 
be  freely  admitted  to  the  market. 

2.  Meat  which  is  to  be  considered  "spoiled  in  the  sense  of 
the  food  law."  *     This  meat  corresponds  to  the  inferior  meat  of  the 
meat  inspection  law  ("  meat  which  is  really  fit  for  consumption  by 
man  but  which  is   considerably  depreciated  in  its  nutritive  and 
<jondimental  value  ").     Such  meat  can  be  offered  for  sale  and  sold 
only  under  declaration  and  upon  the  freibank. 

The  Imperial  Prussian  Administrative  Court  declared  (Decision 
I,  of  February  20,  1900)  that  a  police  ordinance  according  to  which 
"  spoiled "  or  inferior  meat  was  ordered  upon  the  freibank  was 
binding.  It  was  held  that  the  police  had  the  right  to  take  action 
against  the  criminal  sale  or  offering  for  sale  of  "  spoiled  "  or  inferior 
meat  and  that  the  transfer  of  this  meat  to  the  freibank  protected 
ihe  producer  against  violation  of  the  criminal  law. 

Other  methods  of  bringing  into  traffic  (use  in  one's  own  house- 
hold and  the  giving  gratis  to  others)  are  not  subject  to  legal 
restrictions.  In  the  older  ordinances,  spoiled  meat  was  charac- 
terized as  non-marketable. 

3.  Unconditionally  dangerous  or  injurious  meat,  in  the  case  of 
-which  any  method  of  trafficking  in  as  human  food  material,  its  use 
in  one's  own  household,  giving  gratis  to  others,  permission  for  its 

*  In  the  following  discussion,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  this  will  be  referred  to 
simply  as  spoiled. 


116  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

removal,  etc.,  is  forbidden  (see  pages  108,  109).  With  this  meat, 
which  constitutes  a  part  of  the  meat  unfit  for  food  in  the  sense  of 
the  meat  inspection  law,  procedure  should  take  place  according  to 
Sec.  9  of  the  meat  inspection  law. 

4.  Conditionally  injurious  meat  which  can  be  made  fit  for  food 
by  proper  measures,  such  as  cooking,  roasting,  steaming,  pickling, 
or  preservation  in  cold  storage. 

The  conditionally  injurious  meat  forms  a  part  of  the  meat 
which  is  conditionally  fit  for  food  in  the  sense  of  the  meat  inspec- 
tion law.  The  other  part  of  the  meat  which  is  conditionally  fit  for 
food  is  that  which  for  veterinary  police  reasons  must  be  rendered 
utilizable  before  it  is  admitted  to  the  market  (compare  page  83). 
Such  meat  after  the  required  conditions  have  been  fulfilled  is  to  be 
treated  as  spoiled  meat  in  the  sense  of  the  food  law  and  to  be 
admitted  to  market  only  after  declaration  (Sec.  11  of  the  meat 
inspection  law). 

5.  Finally,  we  have  to  distinguish  meat  which  is  spoiled  in  a 
high  degree  and  which,  without  being  injurious  to  health,  has  lost 
the  quality  of  human  food  material  on  account  of  extensive,  substan- 
tial deterioration ;  for  example,  watery  and  ill-smelling  meat,  meat 
and  organs  which  are  extensively  infested  with  harmless  or  dead 
parasites,  etc.).    This  meat  is  unfit  for  food  in  the  sense  of  the  meat 
inspection  law  and  is  subject  to  the  regulations  of  Sec.  9  of  the 
meat  inspection  law  in  the  same  manner  as  that  mentioned  above 
under  paragraph  3. 

Among  meat  products  we  distinguish,  moreover,  imitations  and 
adulterations. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  expert  meat  inspector  should 
use  the  word  "spoiled"  only  in  the  sense  of  the  law  and  not  as 
indicating  meat  in  process  of  decomposition  ;  for  decomposing  mejit 
is  an  injurious  food  material. 

The  meaning  of  "unclean"  meat.  Attention  has  already  been 
called  (page  40)  to  the  fact  that  in  one  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia  privileged  knackers,  according  to  the  decree  of  April  29, 
1772,  received  the  rejected  animals  which  were  found  unclean  afc 
the  time  of  slaughter,  in  their  immediate  neighborhood  (sheep 
excepted).  The  concept  "rejected  "  was  explained  by  a  ministerial 
decree  of  May  11,  1887,  to  the  Kurmark  Chamber  of  War  and 
Public  Domains  with  the  statement  that  by  this  term  was  to  be 
understood  "all  animals  which  are  unfit  for  further  use  by  man". 
An  official  interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  "unclean"  does  not 
exist.  The  term  in  question  is  a  relic  of  the  oldest  German* 


LAW   CONCERNING  ANIMAL   PLAGUES  117 

ordinances  concerning  meat  inspection,  in  which  it  was  incorporated 
through  the  medium  of  the  Christian  Church  from  the  food  laws  of 
the  Jews  and  Egyptians.  Dieckerhoff  suggests,  as  an  explanation  of 
this  historical  term,  that  it  is  to  be  understood  as  including  injurious 
meat,  an  explanation  which  agrees  closely  with  legal  decisions. 
Thus,  the  Official  Court  at  Eberwalde,  in  an  opinion  handed  down 
August  11,  1890,  declared  that  for  the  determination  of  the  concept 
"unclean"  the  same  characterization  must  be  considered  decisive 
as  is  mentioned  in  the  ministerial  decree  of  May  11,  1787,  with 
regard  to  the  term  rejected.  It  was  held  that  animals  are  to  be 
considered  as  unclean  if  the  meat  can  not  be  eaten,  on  account  of 
its  diseased  condition,  or  if  it  should  not  be  eaten,  on  account  of 
being  dangerous  to  health. 

In  this  sense  the  term  unclean  may  be  applied  also  to  tuber- 
culosis of  cattle,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  by  the  decree  of  July  26, 
1785,  it  was  declared  with  reference  to  the  "  French  disease,"  that 
butchers  would  no  longer,  under  any  circumstances,  be  permitted 
to  declare  slaughtered  animals  as  unclean  and  infected  with  this 
disease,  for  this  decree  is  not  a  general  regulation,  but  an  instruc- 
tion based  upon  the  opinion  of  the  chief  sanitary  officer,  and  one 
which,  therefore,  may  lose  its  foundation  by  the  alteration  of  the 
views  of  the  sanitary  veterinarians  on  this  point  (decision  of  the 
Government  Court  at  Stolp,  February  22,  1892). 

;3.— Imperial  Law  Concerning  the  Prevention  and  Suppression 
of  Animal  Plagues  of  June  23,  1880,  and  May  1,  1894. 

According  to  Sec.  17  of  this  law,  public  abattoirs  are  subject  to 
the  inspection  of  official  veterinarians,  and  the  same  measures  may 
be  adopted  with  reference  to  private  slaughterhouses.  Section  17 
reads,  "  all  stock  and  horse  markets,  as  well  as  all  public  abattoirs, 
shall  be  inspected  by  official  veterinarians.  These  regulations  may 
also  be  extended  so  as  to  apply  to  herds  of  stock  brought  together 
in  public  or  private  quarters  for  the  purpose  of  public  sale,  male 
animals  used  for  breeding  purposes  in  a  public  manner,  public 
stock  shows  and  collections  of  horses  and  herds  of  stock  brought 
together  by  regulation  of  the  authorities,  as  well  as  feeding  stalls, 
private  slaughterhouses,  and  the  stalls  of  stock  dealers.  The 
veterinarian  is  required  to  make  known  immediately  to  the  police 
authority  all  cases  of  infectious  plagues  or  all  symptoms  which 
arouse  suspicion  of  disease  which  are  observed  in  the  market  or 
•among  the  above  mentioned  herds  of  horses  and  cattle.  He  shall 


118  REGULATION  OF  TRAFFIC  IN  MEAT 

make  an  immediate  investigation  of  the  case  and  enforce 
required  police  protective  regulations.  If  there  is  danger  of  the- 
spreading  of  the  disease,  the  veterinarian  is  authorized,  before 
police  interference,  to  order  the  isolation  and  observation  of  the 
diseased  and  suspected  animals." 

For  the  execution  of  Sec.  17  of  the  Imperial  law  concerning 
animal  plagues,  the  following  orders  of  the  Imperial  Government 
President  at  Merseburg  are  worthy  of  notice  as  model  regulations : 

I. — POLICE    REGULATION    CONCERNING    THE    SUPERVISION    OF    PRIVATE    SLAUGHTER 
HOUSES,  ETC,,  FEBRUARY  29,  1896. 

On  the  basis  of  Sec.  17  of  the  Imperial  law  concerning  animal  plagues,  according1 
to  an  interpretation  of  May  1,  1894,  and  also  on  the  basis  of  Sec.  7  of  the  Prussian 
enacting  clause  of  March  12,  1881,  I  prescribe  the  following  regulations  for  the- 
territory  of  the  government  district  of  Merseburg: 

Sec.  1.  Herds  of  animals  brought  together  by  dealers  in  public  or  private  places 
for  the  purpose  of  public  sale,  public  animal  shows,  private  slaughterhouses,  together 
with  the  apartments  which  belong  to  them,  as  well  as  the  stalls  of  cattle  dealers, 
whether  used  for  private  purposes  or  rented,  are  to  be  inspected  by  the  local  official. 
Teterinarians. 

Sec.  2.  The  term  "herds  of  animals,"  in  the  sense  of  this  regulation,  is  to  be 
understood  as  including  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs,  irrespective  of  number  or  age. 

Sec.  3.  Access  to  the  places  characterized  in  Sec.  1  is  to  be  at  all  times  per- 
mitted to  official  veterinarians  for  the  purpose  of  making  inspections. 

Sec.  4.  The  costs  of  this  supervision,  according  to  Sec.  7  of  the  Prussian  decree- 
of  enforcement  of  June  18,  1894,  and  Sec.  24  of  the  above  mentioned  enacting  clause, 
must  be  borne  by  the  dealers,  and  in  case  an  agreement  can  not  be  reached  concerning- 
them,  they  will  be  fixed  by  me.     If  the  costs  are  not  paid  punctually,  legal  prosecu- 
tion will  be  begun. 

Sec.  5.    This  regulation  becomes  operative   on  the  day  of  its  promulgation. 
Prom  this  day  the  governmental  police  regulation  of  August  15,  1893,  concerning  the- 
inspection  of  slaughterhouses,  etc.,  is  repealed* 

II. — STATE  POLICE  REGULATION  CONCERNING  THE  SUPERVISION  OF  PUBLIC 
SLAUGHTERHOUSES,  FEBRUARY  29,  1896. 

In  connection  with  the  state  police  regulation  decreed  by  me  to-day  and  pro- 
mulgated in  the  Official  Circular  concerning  the  inspection  of  herds  of  animal? 
brought  together  for  the  purpose  of  public  sale,  public  animal  shows,  etc.,  by  official 
Teterinarians,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  amendment  and  extension  of  my  circular 
3etter  of  August  15,  of  the  previous  year,  I  hereby  decree  as  follows: 

1.  The  veterinary  police  supervision  of  public  slaughterhouses  prescribed  in 
Sec.  17  of  the  Imperial  law  concerning  animal  plagues  in  the  interpretation  of  May  1, 
1894,  shall  be  carried  out  in  Halle  by  the  department  veterinarian  at  least  once  per 
month,  and  in  other  localities  of  this  district  by  the  local  district  veterinarians  with 
the  frequency  which  has  already  been  ordered  in  the  above  mentioned  circular  letter.. 
Inspection  ^hall  be  unannounced  and  thorough. 

2.  The  district  veterinarians  shall  perform  this  veterinary  police  inspection  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  direct  their  attention  entirely  to  the  field  of  action  whicht 
concerns  the  veterinary  police.     Thus  they  shall  have  regard  to  all  regulations  decreed- 


LAW   CONCERNING   ANIMAL  PLAGUES  119 

«oncerning  the  prevention  and  suppression  of  animal  diseases  and  shall  also  give 
attention  to  the  detection  of  animal  plagues  and  the  prevention  of  the  dissemination 
of  such  plagues. 

The  department  veterinarian,  on  the  other  hand,  shall  direct  his  supervisory 
activity  to  the  organization  and  the  management  of  the  slaughterhouses  as  a  whole, 
to  the  technical  work  of  the  slaughterhouse  experts,  especially  to  the  manner  of  the 
inspection  of  animals  before  slaughter,  the  procedure  in  slaughter,  the  management 
of  meat  inspection,  including  trichina  inspection,  keeping  the  books  containing 
records  of  inspection,  the  cleansing  of  slaughtering  rooms  and  other  communicating 
rooms,  cold  storage,  lard  rendering  stalls,  platforms  for  animals,  utensils,  etc.,  as 
well  as  to  the  disposition  of  meat  unfit  for  human  food,  the  treatment  and  sale  of 
mferior  meat,  and  the  treatment  and  removal  of  manure,  etc. 

3.  In  the  same  manner  the  department  veterinarian  shall  make  a  thorough 
inspection,  at  least  once  during  each  calendar  year,  of  the  other  public  slaughter- 
houses within  his  district.     This  may  be  done  incidentally  upon  his  official  trips. 

4.  In  case  improper  conduct  or  violations  of  existing  regulations  are  discovered 
during  these  inspection  tours,  the  director  of  the  slaughterhouse  shall  have  his  atten- 
tion immediately  called  to  the  same  and  an  announcement  shall  be  made  to  the  police 
officials  or  to  the  proper  magistrate.     If  such  abuses  are  not  quickly  corrected,  or  if 
the  discoveries  and  observations  are  of  special  importance,  a  report  shall  be  rendered 
to  me  without  delay. 

5.  The  directors  of  slaughterhouses  are  instructed  to  further  the  execution  of 
this  supervision  so  far  as  they  are  able  and  upon  request  to  furnish  all  possible 
information  concerning  the  organization,  management,  etc.,  of  the  slaughterhouses 
subject  to  their  inspection. 

6.  The  costs  of  the  veterinary  police  supervision,  according  to  Sec.  7  of  the 
Prussian  decree  of  enforcement  of  June  18,  1894,  and  Sec.  24  of  the  Prussian  decree 
of  enforcement  of  March  12,  1881,  with  reference  to  the  above  mentioned  Imperial 
law  concerning  animal  plagues,  shall  be  borne  by  the  dealers,  and,  in  case  no  agree- 
ment is  reached,  shall  be  determined  by  me.     On  the  other  hand,  the  expenses  of 
other  inspections  are  to  be  borne  by  the  State  Treasurer.     In  calculating  the  fees  for 
the  prescribed  services,  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  March  9,  1872,  concerning  the 
fees  of  medical  officials,  shall  be  authoritative. 

IMPERIAL  GOVERNMENT  PRESIDENT, 
Merseburg,  February  29,  1896.  Graf  zu  Stolberg. 

In  addition  to  compulsory  notification  for  all  plagues  men- 
tioned in  the  Imperial  law  concerning  animal  plagues  of  May  1, 
1894  (especially  anthrax,  rabies,  glanders,  foot-and-mouth  disease, 
pleuro-pneumonia,  sheep  pox,  mange  of  horses  and  sheep),  the 
following  provisions  concerning  the  procedure  with  meat  of  animals 
suffering  from  an  infectious  disease  should  be  considered  :* 


*  On  the  basis  of  Sec.  10,  sentence  2,  of  the  Imperial  law  concerning  animal 
plagues,  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  and  hog  cholera,  as  well  as  fowl  cholera,  are 
subject  to  compulsory  notification.  Moreover,  in  the  Prussian  Province  of  Saxony 
and  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  this  requirement  extends  to  the  so-called  Borna  horse 
disease,  and  in  the  Province  of  East  Prussia  to  horse  distemper  and  pneumonia  of 
iorses. 


120  REGULATION   OF   TIUFFIC   IN   MEAT 

> 

Sec.  31.  "No  animals  which  are  affected  or  suspected  of  being, 
affected  with  anthrax  shall  be  slaughtered."  Sec.  33.  "  The  car- 
casses of  dead  or  slaughtered  animals  affected  or  suspected  of  being 
affected  with  anthrax  must  be  immediately  destroyed.  The  removal 
of  the  hide  of  such  animals  is  forbidden." 

Sec.  36.  "  The  slaughter  of  rabid  animals  or  those  suspected  of 
rabies,  and  all  sale  or  use  of  individual  parts,  milk,  or  other 
products  of  the  same  are  forbidden." 

Sec.  39.  "  The  carcasses  of  slaughtered  rabid  animals  or  animals 
suspected  of  rabies  must  be  immediately  destroyed.  The  removal 
of  the  hide  is  forbidden." 

Sec.  43.  "  The  carcasses  of  dead  or  slaughtered  glanderous 
animals  must  be  immediately  destroyed.  The  removal  of  the  hide 
of  the  same  is  forbidden." 

Sees.  53  to  56  contain  special  provisions  concerning  the  pro- 
cedure in  the  reduction  of  plagues  in  stock  yards  and  public 
slaughterhouses  : 

Sec.  53.  "  The  aforementioned  regulations  of  this  law,  with 
such  alterations  as  appear  in  the  following  special  provisions,  are 
applicable  to  stock  yards  and  public  abattoirs  which  are  subject 
to  a  regular  veterinary  police  control,  and  to  the  food  animals 
which  are  brought  to  such  places." 

Sec.  54.  "  If,  among  the  food  animals  brought  to  such  places,' 
the  outbreak  of  an  infectious  disease  is  discovered,  or  if  symptoms 
appear  which,  according  to  the  opinion  of  the  official  veterinarian, 
justify  the  fear  of  an  outbreak  of  such  a  plague,  the  diseased 
and  all  suspected  animals  are  to  be  immediately  taken  under  police 
supervision  and  prevented  from  coming  into  contact  with  other 
animals." 

Sec.  55.  "  So  far  as  the  nature  of  the  disease  permits  (compare 
Sees.  31,  36  and  43),  the  owner,  or  the  representative  of  the  owner, 
of  the  diseased  or  suspected  food  animal  may  be  required  to 
slaughter  the  animal  immediately  under  the  supervision  of  the 
official  veterinarian  and  in  the  rooms  intended  for  that  purpose." 

"  This  regulation  may  in  urgent  cases  be  extended  to  include 
all  other  animals  which  are  susceptible  to  the  disease  and  which 
are  in  the  place  in  question." 

Sec.  56.  "  After  the  discovery  of  an  outbreak  of  a  plague,  and 
as  long  as  there  is  danger  from  the  plague,  the  stock  yards  or 
public  slaughterhouses  may  be  closed  to  prevent  the  removal 
of  animals  which  are  susceptible  to  the  plague.  More  stringent 
quarantine  measures  may  be  applied  only  in  urgent  cases." 


LAW  CONCERNING  ANIMAL  PLAGUES  12 L 

From  the  instruction  of  the  Federal  Council  of  June  27,  1895, 

reference  to  the  execution  of  Sees.  19  to  29  of  the  Imperial  law 
concerning  animal  plagues,  the  following  paragraphs  are  of  import- 
ance for  meat  inspection  : 

General. — Sec.  2.  "  To  stock  yards,  public  slaughterhouses,  and 
food  animals  brought  to  such  places,  subject  to  a  regulated, 
veterinary  police  control,  the  provisions  of  these  instructions  are 
applicable  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  in  harmony  with  the  regula- 
tions of  Sees.  53  to  56  of  the  law  (see  above).  In  particular,  the 
provisions  of  these  instructions  concerning  public  notification  of  an 
outbreak  of  a  plague  and  concerning  restrictions  in  traffic  with 
reference  to  the  animals  and  persons  which  come  in  contact  with 
them  are  not  applicable  to  the  institutions  mentioned  above." 

Foot-and-mouth  disease. — Sec.  62.  "  Hides  of  dead  or  slaughtered 
diseased  animals  may  be  removed  from  quarantine  only  in  a 
completely  dried  condition,  except  in  case  they  are  delivered 
directly  to  the  tannery." 

Pleuro-pneumonia. — Sec.  89.  "  Lungs  of  animals  slaughtered  on 
account  of  pleuro- pneumonia  or  dead  of  this  disease  must  be  buried 
at  least  one  meter  deep  in  order  to  render  them  harmless.  The 
meat  of  such  animals  shall  not  be  removed  from  the  premises 
in  question  until  it  has  been  thoroughly  frozen.  The  skins  of 
animals  dead  of  pleuro-pneumonia  shall  not  be  removed  from  the 
premises  in  question  or  from  the  slaughterhouse  unless  in  a  com- 
pletely dried  condition,  except  in  case  they  are  delivered  imme- 
diately to  the  tanner." 

Sheep  pox. — Sec.  9710.  "Skins  of  dead  or  slaughtered  sheep 
affected  with  sheep  pox  shall  be  removed  from  quarantine  only  in 
a  completely  dried  condition,  except  in  case  they  are  delivered 
directly  to  the  tanner." 

Mange. — In  case  of  mange  in  horses  and  sheep  the  skins  are 
subject  to  the  same  restrictions  in  traffic  as  in  the  case  of  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  and  sheep  pox." 

4.— Imperial  Law  Concerning  Measures  Against  Rinderpest, 

April  7,  1869. 

This  law,  which  originally  was  operative  only  for  the  region  of 
the  North  German  Federation,  but  which  in  1870  and  1871  was  also 
introduced  into  Baden,  Hessen,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemburg  and  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  prescribes  incineration  of  animals  slaughtered  on  account 
of  infection  from  rinderpest  or  dead  of  this  disease. 


III. 

THE  AKT  OF  BUTCHERING,  INCLUDING  THE  INSPEC- 
TION OF  ANIMALS  BEFORE  SLAUGHTERING. 


1.— Food  Animals. 

To  the  food  animals  belong,  in  the  first  place,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
hogs,  then  goats  and  horses ;  moreover,  in  southern  and  southeastern 
European  countries,  the  buffalo  is  slaughtered,  and,  in  a  portion  oF 
the  Scandinavian  countries,  the  reindeer.*  Lately  dogs  have  also- 
been  slaughtered  for  use  as  human  food  (Italy  and  Saxony). 

Of  the  domestic  food  animals  just  mentioned,  the  hog,  at  least 
so  far  as  Germany  is  concerned,  furnishes  the  greatest  amount  of 
meat  for  human  food.  With  us  pork  is  the  most  important  food 
material  of  the  people,  and  this  is  the  case  for  the  reason  that  it 
may  be  prepared  without  the  addition  of  any  other  fat,  and  can  be 
preserved,  by  pickling  and  smoking,  to  a  greater  extent  than  any 
other  kind  of  meat,  without  losing  its  food  value.  The  annual 
consumption  of  meat  in  the  year  1896-7  in  Magdeburg  amounted  to 
60.52  kg.  per  capita.  This  amount  was  distributed  as  follows  :  29  kg. 
of  pork,  25  kg.  of  beef,  3.8  kg.  of  veal,  2.5  kg.  of  mutton,  and  1.4  kg. 
of  horse  meat. 

In  Konigsberg,  in  Prussia,  the  excess  of  pork  in  the  year  1895-(> 
was  still  greater.  Of  the  4066  kg.  of  meat  consumed  per  capita 
during  that  year,  23  32  kg.  was  pork,  11.65  beef,  2.85  veal,  2.2,0 
mutton,  and  0.64  horse  meat. 

Similar  conditions  prevail  throughout  the  German  Empire 
(compare  page  4).  In  southern  Germany,  beef  in  former  years 
occupied  the  first  place  as  an  animal  food  material.  During  the 
last  ten  years,  however,  the  consumption  of  pork  has  increased 
considerably,  while  the  amount  of  beef  eaten  has  simultaneously 
decreased.  As  a  mere  curiosity,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in 

*  In  Irlernarken,  in  eastern  Norway,  a  company  is  engaged  in  breeding  reindeer 
for  slaughter.  The  company  expects  to  be  able  to  slaughter  1,000  reindeer  a  year, 
the  meat  of  which  is  to  be  exported. 

122 


FOOD  ANIMALS 

southern  France,  Italy,  and  Spain  regulations  exist,  according  to 
which  the  slaughtering  of  hogs  is  forbidden  during  the  summer 
months.  The  reason  for  this  prohibition  is  found  in  the  wide-spread 
assumption  among  the  common  people  that  pork  is  unwholesome* 
during  the  hot  season.  Apparently  we  have  here  a  case  of  a* 
blindly-accepted  tradition,  the  beginning  of  which  is  to  be  referred 
to  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  pork  in  Oriental  food  laws. 

Hippophagy. — The  broken  bones  of  horses  in  all  the  historical 
caves  of  Europe  leave  no  doubt,  according  to  William  Boyd  Dawkins, 
that  horse  meat  was  in  use  as  a  food  material  in  ancient  times.  The 
Christian  Church  issued  a  prohibitive  decree  against  it  for  the 
reason  that  horse  meat  was  sacrificed  and  eaten  by  the  Germans  in 
honor  of  OJin  and  Freya.  The  present  prejudice  against  the  con- 
sumption of  horse  meat  is  a  remarkable  example  of  the  change  of 
taste  brought  about  by  a  church  order  against  a  belief  which  has 
been  forgotten.  Among  the  nomadic  people,  for  example,  the 
Tartars,  Kirghis,  and  Kalmucks,  hippophagy  has  continued  to  the 
present  day  without  interruption.  Likewise  in  China  the  consump- 
tion of  horse  meat  is  an  old  custom.  For  many  centuries  in  that 
country  a  special  "  fat  horse  "  has  been  bred  for  this  particular 
purpose,  a  breed  which  is  characterized  by  delicate  bone  structure^ 
savory  meat,  and  great  fattening  powers. 

The  first  of  the  civilized  peoples  to  return  to  the  consumption 
of  horse  meat  were  the  Danes.  The  Danish  government,  during  the 
siege  of  Copenhagen,  in  1807,  permitted  the  sale  of  horse  meat,  and 
from  Denmark  hippophagy  gradually  spread  to  its  present  extent. 
In  Germany  during  the  years  of  high  prices,  1816-17,  much  horse 
meat  w;is  eaten.  Horses,  however,  were  for  the  most  part 
slaughtered  surreptitiously.  It  was  the  h;ird  times  of  1817  that 
induced  Prof.  Spinobi,  then  connected  with  the  Berlin  Veterinary 
School,  and  Blume,  the  Court  opera  singer,  to  establish  a  slaughter- 
house for  horses  in  Berlin.  As  a  result,  after  a  year's  time,  eleven 
such  establishments  had  been  erected  in  Berlin,  in  which  a  total 
number  of  3,000  horses  were  slaughtered.  Morot  presents  figures  to 
show  that  the  consumption  of  horse  meat  dur'ug  the  List  thirty 
years  has  considerably  increased  in  nearly  all  countries.  In  France 
there  exists  a  "Cornite  de  la  viande  de  Cheval,"  which  deserves 
great  credit  for  the  extension  of  the  consumption  of  horse  meat. 
The  first  slaughterhouse  for  horses  was  opened  in  Paris  under  the 
management  of  the  army  veterinarian,  Decroix,  July  9, 1866.  During 
the  following  half-year  902  horses  were  slaughtered.  The  number 


]24  THE   ART   OF  BUTCHERING 

of  horses  slaughtered  increased,  however,  in  1869  to  2,7£>3  ;  in  1872 
to  5,732 ;  and  reached,  in  1887,  the  large  number  of  16,446.  During 
the  siege  and  regime  of  the  Commune  in  Paris,  not  less  than  65,000 
horses  were  eaten.  Morot  emphatically  recommends  a  further 
extension  of  hippophagy  and  lays  stress  upon  the  fact  that  thereby 
an  immense  sum  which  at  present  is  partly  expended  for  American 
beef  would  remain  in  the  country.  In  1894,  23,186  horses,  383 
asses,  and  33  mules  were  slaughtered,  which  together  yielded 
5,129,530  kg.  of  meat.  More  than  100,000  of  the  600,000  to  700,000 
families  in  Paris  eat  horse  meat,  "  la  bidoche  "  (from  bidet,  a  mare), 
as  it  is  technically  called.  Moreover,  horse  meat  in  Paris,  as  with 
us,  has  more  secret  buyers  than  open  admirers.  At  any  rate,  Yillain 
says  that  two-thirds  of  all  the  solipeds  slaughtered  are  utilized  in 
the  manufacture  of  sausage. 

The  number  of  horses  which  were  slaughtered  in  public 
abattoirs  and  in  the  several  horse  abattoirs  of  Prussia  in  the  year 
1899  amounted  to  63,801.  The  number  of  horse  abattoirs  was  365 
and  the  great  number  of  horses,  10,037,  were  slaughtered  in  Berlin. 
More  than  5,000  were  slaughtered  in  the  governmental  districts, 
Breslau  and  Diisseldorf ;  more  than  3,000  in  the  governmental 
districts,  Liegnitz,  Magdeburg,  Merseburg,  Schleswig,  and  Arnsberg, 
or  in  the  more  thickly  populated  districts  ;  while  in  the  less  thickly 
populated  eastern  provinces  only  a  few  horses  were  utilized  as  food 
by  the  people.  A  strikingly  small  number  of  horses  were  slaughtered 
in  the  governmental  districts  of  Posen  and  Bromberg.*  In  1890-91, 
the  number  of  horses  slaughtered  in  Prussia  was  53,281 ;  in  1893-4, 
58,306.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  in  1885,  3,313  horses  were 
slaughtered ;  in  1890,  4,249 ;  in  1896,  5,091 ;  and  in  1899,  5,187.  In 
Jjeipsic  the  number  of  horses  slaughtered  in  1895  was  961  and  in 
1900,  1,839.  In  Dresden  during  the  year  1899,  1,478  horses  were 
slaughtered ;  in  Munich  the  consumption  of  horses  was  doubled 
during  the  80's.  Nevertheless,  the  number  of  horses  slaughtered  in 
1890  was  only  1,728.  In  Vienna,  during  1892,  18;209  horses  were 
slaughtered. 

During  the  exclusive  consumption  of  horse  meat,  as  shown  by 
the  recent  experience  of  beleaguered  cities  in  China  and  the  Trans- 
vaal, cases  of  diarrhea  may  appear.  This  was  observed  also  in 
consequence  of  eating  dogs.  According  to  Pfliiger,  a  substance 
soluble  in  alcohol  is  contained  in  horse  meat  and  passes  over  into 
the  meat  broth.  This  substance  may  produce  diarrhea.  It  consists 

» This  is  due  to  the  unconquerable  antipathy  of  the  Polish  population  against 
4;he  consumption  of  horse  meat. 


FOOD   ANIMALS  125 

of  three-fourths  lecithin  and  one-fourth  neutral  fat  and  cholesterin. 
The  injurious  effect  of  horse  meat  is  not  produced  if  it  is  prepared 
with  beef  or  mutton  tallow  or  if  the  meat  broth  is  poured  off. 

The  slaughter  of  dogs  appears,  according  to  an  official  document 
of  a  magistrate  in  Munich,  to  have  become  so  extensive  that  the 
authorities  wish  to  establish  measures  which  will  regulate  the  traffic 
in  dog  meat  and  protect  the  owners  of  dogs  from  the  thieving 
tendencies  of  commercial  dog  butchers.  A  portion  of  the  dogs 
which  were  slaughtered  were  shown  to  have  been  stolen.  It  is 
believed  that  dog  meat  is  not  only  used  for  the  adulteration  of 
sausage,  but  is  also  eaten  as  a  delicacy  by  the  thousands  of  Italian 
workmen  in  Munich. 

Dogs  are  regularly  slaughtered  in  certain  abattoirs  in  Saxony. 
Thus,  in  1889,  233  dogs  were  slaughtered  in  Chemnitz,  102  in 
Leipsic  and  Zittau;  while  in  1890,  312  were  slaughtered  in 
Chemnitz  and  103  in  Leipsic.  In  the  latter  city  the  number  of 
dogs  has  considerably  decreased  and  in  1900  amounted  to  only 
15.  In  the  whole  Kingdom  of  Saxony  in  1899  there  were  468  dogs 
slaughtered. 

According  to  Villain,  the  dog  is  a  highly  esteemed  food  animal 
among  the  Chinese  as  well  as  among  the  Tartars  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Kamchatka.  In  Senegal  also  and  in  the  Society  Islands,  dog  meat 
is  readily  consumed  and  is  even  preferred  to  pork.  For  a  long  time 
experiments  have  been  made  in  Germany  to  introduce  the  consump- 
tion of  rabbit  meat,  which  in  England,  France  and  Italy  furnishes  a 
favorite  article  of  food.  These  efforts,  however,  have  been  without 
result.  According  to  Boutel,  the  daily  consumption  of  rabbits  in 
Paris  amounts  to  10,000  and  in  London  to  75,000.  In  France  as  a 
whole,  100,000,000  rabbits  are  raised  annually  and  have  a  value  of 
300,000,000  francs.  The  rabbit  is  the  most  productive  of  the 
domestic  animals.  For  example,  one  female  weighing  4J  kg.  may, 
in  the  course  of  a  year,  produce  50  young,  which  at  the  age  of  four 
months  furnish  150  kg.  of  meat. 

In  addition  to  the  mammals  already  mentioned,  fowls  also 
belong  to  domestic  food  animals.  There  is  no  system  of  meat 
inspection  for  fowls  or  for  rabbits  slaughtered  for  home  consump- 
tion. In  the  case  of  fowls  and  rabbits  there  is  simply  a  supervision 
of  the  offering  for  sale  and  sale,  a  control  of  the  market,  like  that 
exercised  in  the  case  of  game,  fish,  crustaceans  and  mollusks 
intended  for  human  food.  (Compare  Drechsler,  "Selection,  Pur- 
chase and  Judgment  of  our  Animal  Food,  Together  with  Food. 
Materials  of  Animal  Origin."  Munich,  1897.) 


126  THE  ART  OF  BUTCHERING 

The  last  named  animals,  rabbits,  fowls,  game,  fish,  Crustacea 
and  mollusks,  will  be  considered  only  so  far  as  they  show  an 
anomalous  condition.  Moreover,  in  judging  of  the  meat  of  domestic 
iowl  and  game,  the  same  principles  should  apply  as  for  the  more 
important  domestic  food  animals,  cattle,  sheep,  hrgs  and  horses. 
"With  regard  to  goats,  the  same  statement,  in  general,  may  be  made 
•as  for  sheep. 

2.— Inspection  of  Animals  Before  Slaughter. 

Purpose. — The  inspection  of  animals  before  slaughter  may  be- 
omitted  only  in  cases  in  which  tbere  is  danger  of  natural  death  by 
postponing  the  slaughter  (in  urgent  cases  of  emergency  slaughter).* 
In  all  other  cases  inspection  must  be  made,  and  for  the  following 
xeasons : 

1.  For  the  purpose  of  the  immediate  detection  and  isolation  of 
animals  suffering  from  an  infectious  disease.t 

2.  In  order   to   prevent  the  infection    of    the    employees  of 
.slaughterhouses  with  diseases  which  are  communicable  to  man; 
for  example,  glanders,  anthrax  and  rabies. 

3.  For  the  purpose  of  the  certain  detection  of  intoxications 
and  septic  diseases,  in  which  the  internal  organs  and  meat  may 
chow  only  slight  alterations. 

Finally,  in  localities  where  a  system  of  insurance  of  food  animals 
exists,  the  inspection  of  animals  before  slaughter  is  made  in  the 
interest  of  this  insurance,  since  thereby  animals  which  are  evidently 
or  presumably  diseased  are  excluded  from  insurance. 

Practice. — In  this  place  we  may  omit  a  description  of  the 
pathological  symptoms  to  which  attention  should  be  given  in  the 
inspection  of  living  food  animals,  for  the  reason  that  these  must  be 
perfectly  familiar  to  every  veterinary  expert.  Only  the  following 
points  need  be  emphasized  : 

The  transportation  of  animals  mny  produce  symptoms  which. 
<;ould  be  interpreted  as  the  expression  of  a  disease.  In  this  con- 
nection we  should  mention  especially  the  exhaustion  of  animals 
which  in  consequence  of  continual  confinement  in  stalls  are  unused 

*  In  such  cases,  however,  the  meat  can  not  be  admitted  for  utilization  as  a 
human  food  material  unless  the  conditions  found  upon  slaughter  leave  no  doubt  as  to 
its  harmlessness.  (See  under  "Emergency  Slaughter.") 

|  For  this  purpose  a  so-called  police  or  sanitary  slaughterhouse  must  be  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  every  abattoir. 


INSPECTION   OF  ANIMALS   BEFORE   SLAUGHTER  127 

io  all  exercise  (bulls,  milch  cows,  fat  hogs).  Eefusal  of  food  and 
dulness  of  the  sensorium  may  occur;  these  symptoms,  however, 
usually  disappear  after  several  hours'  rest.  Furthermore,  we  may 
observe,  in  consequence  of  long  transportation,  lameness  as  a  result 
of  injuries  to  the  hoof  (confusion  with  foot-and-mouth  disease), 
bruises  and  injuries  of  the  hkin,  especially  in  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
consequent  hemorrhages  and  accumulations  of  air  under  the  skin 
(confusion  with  anthrax  and  black  leg). 

Transportation  and  period  of  rest  before  slaughter. — It  is  the 
general  practice  not  to  permit  the  immediate  slaughter  of  animals 
which  are  exhausted  by  a  long  journey,  but  only  after  a  period 
of  rest.  The  meat  inspection  regulation  in  Dessau  provides,  for 
example,  that  food  animals  shall  be  allowed  a  resting  period  before 
slaughter,  eight  hours  in  winter  after  being  driven  on  the  hoof,  and 
four  hours  after  transportation  by  rail ;  in  summer,  on  the  other 
hand,  twelve  and  six  hours  respectively. 

This  provision  is  in  accordance  with  the  fact  that  exhausted 
animals  bleed  imperfectly,  and  the  meat  consequently  shows  a 
poorer  keeping  quality  than  that  of  rested  animals.  The  meat 
naturally  begins  to  decompose  more  rapidly,  but,  if  properly  treated 
immediately  after  slaughter,  undergoes  a  chemical  decomposition 
which  among  butchers  goes  by  the  name  "smothering." 

Provisions  concerning  the  transportation  of  food  animals  by  rail. — 
In  consequence  of  the  improper  loading  of  food  animals  in  cars, 
quite  frequently  serious  injuries  and  even  death  may  be  occasioned. 
Fat  hogs  during  the  summer  are  most  subject  to  these  accidents. 
As  is  the  case  in  forced  driving  on  the  hoof,  they  may  die  of 
suffocation  in  railroad  cars  if  they  are  loaded  too  closely  in  poorly 
ventilated  cars.  Even  cattle  may  die  in  crowded  cars  if  the  latter 
are  so  overloaded  that  animals  which  fall  down  during  transporta- 
tion are  unable  to  get  up.  Cattle  frequently  die  during  transporta- 
tion from  suffocation  or  in  consequence  of  trampling  by  animals 
which  stand  next  to  them.  The.  Agricultural  Union  at  Braunsberg, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  such  accidents  during  transportation 
by  rail,  made  a  request  for  the  introduction  of  ventilating  devices  in 
the  roofs  of  cars  and  in  the  doors  so  that  a  space  for  one  beet' 
animal  or  one  medium  sized  horse  of  1.5  square  meters,  or  for 
three  calves  or  two  hogs  of  100  kg.  weight,  or  for  nine  young  pigs, 
or  three  sheep,  one  square  meter  of  floor  surface  be  provided.  ±a 
Bussia,  special  animal  transportation  cars  are  used,  which  are 


128  THE  ART   OF  BUTCHERING 

provided  with  arrangements  for  ventilation,  suitable  heating,  feed 
racks,  pipes  for  introducing  water,  trap  doors  for  the  removal  of 
the  feces,  and  suitable  quarters  for  the  attendants. 

"  Railroad  disease  "  of  cattle. — Eoder  frequently  observed  cattle 
which  were  affected  with  a  peculiar  condition  characterized  by 
cattle  dealers  as  "  railroad  disease ".  After  being  unloaded  the 
animals  exhibited  a  wavering  gait  and  passed  into  a  condition 
which  resembled  parturient  paresis.  The  pulse  was  accelerated 
to  100  without  an  elevation  of  temperature.  Respiration  was 
spasmodic ;  appetite  and  rumination  were  suspended  and  the  attack 
terminated  unfavorably. 

Horses  must  in  every  individual  case  be  examined  for  glanders 
(nasal  cavity,  larynx,  general  integument,  etc.).  In  other  domesti- 
cated animals  the  inspection  in  general  may  be  a  cursory  one  and 
may  be  confined  to  an  observation  of  the  general  appearance  and 
the  more  important  vegetative  and  sensory  functions.  The  best 
time  for  inspecting  animals  is  during  feeding.  Animals  which  are 
lying  down  should  be  made  to  get  up.  Lame  animals  are  to  be 
driven  back  and  forth,  and  animals  which  are  evidently  exhausted 
should  be  again  examined  after  a  period  of  rest.  Animals  which  are 
suspected  of  being  diseased  must  be  subject  to  inspection  lege  artist 

The  most  important  diseases. — The  chief  interest  in  the  inspection 
before  slaughter  attaches  to  the  typical  infectious  diseases,  the 

FIG.  1. 


Nasal  septum  of  horse  with  glanderous  ulcers  and  a  cicatrix. 

intoxications  and  septic  diseases  of  food  animals.  The  infectious 
diseases  most  frequently  observed  in  stock-yards  are  glanders  in  the 
horse,  foot-and-mouth  disease  in  cattle  and  hogs,  anthrax  in  cattle 
and  sheep,  swine  erysipelas  and  urticaria  in  hogs.  The  latter  disease 
is  the  only  one  in  which  treatment  is  indicated  (laxatives),  and 
slaughter  should  be  postponed  until  recovery  takes  place,  since  the 


INSPECTION   OF  ANIMALS   BEFORE   SLAUGHTER 


129 


disease,  as  a  rule,  runs  a  favorable  course,  but  the  meat  after 
recovery  shows  only  unimportant  alterations,  as  compared  with! 
those  which  are  present  at  the  crisis  of  the  disease. 

By  far  the  most  frequent  disease  in  stock-yards  and  abattoirs  is 
aphtha.  With  reference  to  this  disease,  since  it  frequently  happens, 
especially  in  the  case  of  hogs,  that  veterinarians  first  become  well 
acquainted  with  it  in  abattoirs,  it  should  be  remembered  that  in 
hogs,  as  a  rule,  the  hoofs  are  affected  and  rarely  the  mouth,  and 
that  the  first  form  of  the  disease  is  made  apparent,  when'  the 

FIG.   2. 


Aphtha.    Tip  of  beef  tongue;  a,  aphtha;  b,  epithelial  erosion  after  bursting  ofthe 

aphtha. 

animals  are  driven  out  of  the  stalls,  by  lameness  and  by  the 
aphthous  patches  or  slightly  bleeding  surfaces  on  the  hoofs. 

Among  septic  diseases,  especial  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
so-called  lameness  and  dysenterial  looseness  of  the  bowels  in  calves, 
to  sepsis  in  connection  with  retention  of  the  after-birth  and  septic 
mastitis  in  cows,  to  septic  enteritis  in  cattle  in  general,  and,  finally, 
to  septic  diseases  as  a  result  of  wounds  in  all  animals. 

Furthermore,  it  is  desirable  in  inspecting  animals  which  are 
intended  for  slaughter  to  giv£  close  attention  to  alterations  of  the 


130  THE   ART   OF  BUTCHERING 

skin  (parasitic  eruptions,  especially  scabies  in  horses  and  sheep, 
actinomycotic  tumors  in  the  case  of  cattle),  to  discharges  from  the 
nose,  rustling  sounds  in  inspiration,  disturbances  of  the  brain 
functions,  dulness  of  the  sensorium,  involuntary  movements,  and  to 
motor  disturbances  (lameness  and  paralysis).  In  this  way  the 
expert  simplifies,  to  a  considerable  extent,  inspection  after  slaughter. 
It  is  then  not  necessary  to  make  an  inspection  of  the  skin  of  the 
slaughtered  animals,  which,  with  the  exception  of  hogs,  is  more 
difficult  in  all  food  animals  after  death  than  during  life.  It  is  also 
unnecessary  to  make  a  special  inspection  of  the  nasal  cavities,  brain 
and  motor  apparatus  in  cases  of  complete  integrity  of  the  upper  res- 
piratory passages  and  the  absence  of  cerebral  or  motor  disturbances. 
The  expert  inspector  saves  himself  the  anatomical  investigation  of 
the  hoofs,  bones,  and  joints,  by  an  inspection  of  animals  before 
slaughter.  These  parts  are  to  be  subjected  to  a  more  detailed 
examination  after  slaughter  in  cases  in  which  pathological  processes 
during  life  caused  a  suspicion  of  alterations  in  them. 

Before  we  proceed  to  discuss  the  inspection  of  the  internal 
organs  and  the  meat  of  slaughtered  animals,  it  appears  desirable  to 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  most  important  methods  of  slaughter  and 
the  order  of  procedure  in  practical  slaughtering. 


3. — Methods  of  Slaughter. 

In  slaughtering,  death  must  be  brought  about  quickly  and  with 
tlie  avoidance  of  unnecessary  pain.*  The  methods  of  slaughter  in 
common  use  with  us  serve  also  the  purpose  of  securing  the  greatest 
possible  keeping  quality  for  the  meat.  This  purpose  is  fulfilled  by- 
opening  the  large  cervical  vessels  or  anterior  thoracic  vessels  of  the 
animals  and  removing  as  much  blood  as  possible.  Blood  passes 
Tery  quickly  into  decomposition.  Only  one  method,  the  so-called 
English  patent  method,  is  operated  without  bleeding.  By  this 
method  the  animals  are  suffocated  (compression  of  the  lungs  by 
forcing  in  air  by  means  of  a  bellows  and  a  sharp  canula  inserted  into 
the  pleural  cavity). 

Meat  obtained  by  this  method  possesses  a  higher  food  value  in 
consequence  of  its  containing  all  of  the  blood,  but  for  the  same 
reason  has  a  diminished  keeping  property  and  does  not  exhibit  the 

*  Sec.  36013  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statute  of  the  German  Empire  provides  a  find 
of  150  marks  or  imprisonment  for  any  person  who  publicly  or  in  anger  causes  sever* 
pain  to  animals,  or  grossly  maltreats  them. 


METHODS   OF   SLAUGHTER  131 

Beautiful  bright-red  appetizing  appearance  of  the  meat  of  completely* 
Lied  animals. 

Quantity  of  blood  and  bleeding. — The  total  quantity  of  blood  of 
animals  amounts  on  an  average  to  one-thirteenth  of  the  body  weight. 
This  quantity,  however,  is  not  completely  removed  even  by  those 
methods  of  slaughter  in  which  bleeding  is  most  thorough.  For  all 
of  the  blood  is  removed  only  when  the  animals  are  not  merely 
allowed  to  bleed,  but  when  the  individual  parts  of  the  body  are 
deprived  of  the  residual  quantity  of  blood  present  in  them,  by  the 
use  of  alkalies.  The  residual  blood  remains  in  the  organs  and  in 
the  flesh  after  ordinary  commercial  slaughter.  This  quantity, 
however,  is  so  small  that  it  is  difficult  on  section  through  the 
organs  or  the  musculature  to  obtain  blood,  even  in  drops,  by 
pressure  on  the  cut  surfaces.  Only  occasionally  it  is  possible  to 
press  out  blood  from  the  smaller  veins.  In  cases  of  incomplete 
bleeding,  such  as  occurs  after  previously  mutilating  the  medulla 
oblongata,  this  is  more  easily  accomplished. 

With  reference  to  the  quantity  of  blood  obtained  in  slaughtering, 
Heissler  found  quite  considerable  variations.  Age  was  without  any 
special  influence.  Male  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  yielded  some- 
what more  blood  than  females.  Furthermore,  a  fat  condition, 
especially  in  hogs,  was  associated  with  a  striking  diminution 
in  the  quantity  of  blood.  In  horses  the  blood  amounted  to 
from  3.93  to  9  per  cent,  of  the  body  weight;  in  cows,  from  4.2 
to  5.75  per  cent.;  in  calves,  from  4.4  to  6.67  per  cent.;  in  sheep, 
from  4.37  to  7.56  per  cent.;  and  in  hogs,  from  1.45  per  cent.,  in 
the  case  of  Hungarian  hogs,  to  5.75  per  cent,  in  a  yearling 
boar.  In  the  abattoir  at  Bremen,  the  average  weights  of  blood 
were  found  as  follows:  In  the  horse,  25  kg.;  in  cattle,  17.5;  in 
colts,  7;  in  hogs,  3.5;  in  calves,  4.5;  in  sheep,  3;  and  in 
goats,  3  kg. 

The  average  dressed  weight  of  slaughtered  animals  was  238.6 
kg.  in  horses,  254  in  cattle,  100  in  colts,  60  in  calves,  77  in  hogs,  21 
in  sheep,  and  12.5  in  goats. 

All  animals,  with  the  exception  of  those  which  ewe  slaughtered 
according  to  Jewish  rites,  are  rendered  unconscious  before  the 
blood  is  drawn.  The  number  of  animals  slaughtered  according  to 
Jewish  custom  is,  however,  very  small. 

In  contrast  to  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  been  bled,  that 
of  animals  which  have  died  is  characterized  by  the  high  blood 
content  which  appears  in  the  darker  coloration  of  all  parts,  espe- 


132  THE   ART  OF  BUTCHERING 

cially,  however,  by  the  distended  veins  of  the  internal  organs 
(particularly  the  liver)  and  of  the  subcutis. 

By  the  term  "cold  butchering"  is  understood  the  subsequent 
sticking  of  dead  animals.  This  manipulation,  in  which,  in  favorable 
cases,  the  non-coagulated  contents  of  the  severed  vascular  trunks 
are  removed,  is  merely  a  deceptive  operation,  calculated  to  make  a 
dead  animal  appear  as  if  slaughtered  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Incomplete  bleeding  occurs  during  agony  in  case  of  diseased 
animals,  if,  in  consequence  of  the  weakened  cardiac  power,  the  blood 
pressure  is  already  greatly  lowered.  The  organs  and  meat  of  such 
animals  are  more  or  less  rich  in  blood,  according  to  the  degree  of 
bleeding.  The  greatest  content  of  blood  is  usually  found  in  the  liver 
and  subcutis.  In  animals  exhausted  by  transportation  bleeding  is 
also  incomplete. 

The  most  important  methods  of  slaughter. — The  methods  of 
slaughter  in  common  use  with  us  maybe  classified  into  three  groups : 

1.  Simple  bleeding  by  sticking  in  the  thorax  or  cutting  the 
throat.     To  this  group  belongs  the  Jewish  method  of  slaughter. 

2.  Bleeding  after  previous  mutilation  of  the  medulla  oblongata 
by  pithing  or  by  a  blow. 

3.  Bleeding  after  previous  stunning  by  means  of  a  blow  with  a 
club,  the  so-called  killing  ax,  killing  mask,  and  shooting  mask. 

The  procedures  mentioned  under  2  and  3  are  frequently  com- 
bined in  stunning  with  a  killing  ax. 

Practice  of  the  Different  Methods  of  Slaughter. 

1. — SIMPLE  BLEEDING  BY  STICKING  IN  THE  CHEST  OR  CUTTING  THE 

THROAT. 

Thoracic  bleeding  is  performed  in  such  a  manner  that,  without 
any  preliminary  operation,  the  larger  vascular  trunks  (carotids  and 
jugulars)  at  the  entrance  of  the  thorax  are  opened  or  severed  by 
means  of  a  sharp-pointed  knife.  Thoracic  bleeding  finds  application 
with  calves,  sheep,  and  the  larger  domesticated  animals  in  which,  in 
consequence  of  certain  diseases,  an  incipient  paralysis  of  the  brain 
is  present  (for  example,  parturient  paresis). 

Cervical  bleeding,  or  schdc/tten,  is  the  common  method  of  killing 
food  animals  among  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans.  For  practicing 
this  method,  the  animals  must  be  secured  and  thrown.  This  may 
be  accomplished  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  throwing  or  by  means> 


METHODS   OF   SLAUGHTER  133 

of  windlasses  fastened  to  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  room.  The 
head  is  placed  so  that  it  lies  upon  the  horns  and  nose.  Hereupon, 
in  ritual  schachten,  the  neck  is  cut  through  to  the  spinal  column  by 
three  rapidly-executed  strokes  with  a  long,  exceedingly-sharp,  nick- 
less  knife. 

Israelites  consider  themselves  bound  by  their  religious  laws  to 
slaughter  in  this  manner,  or  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  meat.  A 
governmental  prohibition  of  slaughter  by  the  Jewish  method  would 
be  an  attack  on  the  rights  of  the  free  practice  of  religion  granted  by 
tolerant  governments.* 

A  blow  on  the  head  is  declared  by  the  Israelites  as  not 
permissible,  for  the  reason  that  "  perforation  of  the  membranes  of 
the  brain"  belongs  to  the  eight  mutilations  which,  according  to  the 
Mischna  of  the  Talmud,  render  the  meat  terspha  (unfit  for  food). 
Meat  which  is  fit  to  eat  is  called  koscher  (in  order,  proper).  "Let  it 
be  blest  through  me,  O  God,  King  of  the  world,  who  strengthened 
us  in  holiness  by  Thy  commands  and  who  hast  made  schachten  a 
duty,"  murmurs  the  schdchter  (schochet),  while  he  straps  his  knife 
before  the  operation  or  runs  the  hands  over  it  to  test  it.  If  during 
the  operation  of  cutting  the  throat  the  knife  receives  any  nick, 
however  small,  the  "schechita"  is  not  correctly  performed.  The 
animal  is  condemned  (nebelah)  and  its  use  as  food  is  not  permitted. 
Likewise,  it  is  forbidden  to  eat  the  meat  of  animals  which  exhibit 
no  movement  during  the  process  of  slaughter  or  afterwards. 
Animals  which  lie  quiet  and  can  not  be  made  to  get  up  by  striking 
with  a  stick  must  not  be  slaughtered,  according  to  the  Jews. 


*A  rabbinical  expert,  in  consequence  of  the  prosecution  of  schachten  in  the 
governmental  district  of  Danzig,  in  which  this  method  of  slaughter  was  temporarily 
prohibited,  testified  in  court  that  this  method  of  slaughter  was  a  religious  observance 
based  upon  tradition  and  Biblical  commandment  (Moses,  Book  III  and  Book  V, 
chapter  12,  verse  21).  In  the  Mosaic  food  laws,  however,  there  are  no  provisions 
concerning  sclidchten.  The  first  provision  concerning  the  schecJiita  and  the 
subsequent  inspection  (B'dikoh)  are  found  in  the  Fifth  Book  of  Mischna,  Chapters  1 
to  6.  The  six  books  of  Mischna  wore  edited  on  the  basis  of  oral  and  written 
tradition  by  Jehuda  Ha  Xassi.  The  commentaries  to  the  Mischna,  published  later 
and  collected  in  the  fifth  century  A.  D.,  together  with  the  Mischna,  constitute  the 
Talmud.  The  Mischna  declares  that  "if  the  organs  (lungs,  trachea,  stomach,  heart, 
etc.)  are  permeated  with  holes,  or  have  any  defect,  the  use  of  the  animal  as  food  is 
not  permitted."  The  Gamara  of  the  Talmud  prescribes,  "if  tumors  or  vesicles  are 
found  in  the  lungs,  filled  with  air  or  with  pure  water,  or  with  a  material  dry  or  even 
as  hard  as  a  stone,  the  use  of  the  animal  as  food  is  permitted.  If,  however,  there  is  a 
stinking  substance,  or  a  stinking,  cloudy  fluid  therein,  the  use  of  the  meat  of  these 
animals  is  forbidden.  Defects  and  perforative  openings  render  the  consumption  of 
4he  meat  unpermissible  under  all  circumstances." 


134  THE  ART  OF  BUTCHERING 

2. — BLEEDING  AFTER  PREVIOUS  MUTILATION  OF  THE  MEDULLA 
OBLONGATA  BY  PITHING  OR  BY  A  BLOW. 

Pithing. — In  practicing  this  method,  a  dagger-like  knife  i&- 
violently  driven  into  the  space  between  the  occipital  bone  and  th& 
atlas,  and  thereby  the  medulla  oblongata,  the  seat  of  the  more 
important  vital  functions,  especially  the  respiratory  center  and  the 
center  of  the  inhibitory  nerves  of  the  heart,  is  destroyed.  The  same 
result  is  obtained  by  breaking  the  neck,  either  by  means  of  the 
hand  in  small  animals  (rabbits)  or  with  a  killing  ax  in  the  case 
of  larger  animals.  On  account  of  its  more  certain  effect,  the  latter 
method  is  almost  exclusively  used  in  London  in  the  case  of  wild 
range  steers  imported  from  America. 

3. — BLEEDING  AFTER  PREVIOUS  STUNNING  WITH  A  HAMMER,  SLAUGHTER 
Ax,  SLAUGHTER  MASK,  AND  SHOOTING  MASK. 

The  blow  with  the  hammer  is  administered  with  great  violence 
upon  the  middle  of  the  roof  of  the  cranium  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  not  only  a  concussion  of  the  brain,  but  also  a  fracture  of 
the  cranium.  In  this,  as  in  the  following  method,  as  a  result  of 
pressure  or  direct  injury,  a  rapid  paralysis  of  the  sensory  and  motor 
centres  of  the  brain  is  brought  about.  Fick,  in  Wiirzburg,  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  it  has  been  shown  by  extensive  experience 
in  the  case  of  man  that  an  immediate  paralyzing  concussion  of  the 
brain  is  accompanied  with  absolute  unconsciousness.  In  place  of  a 
small  hammer,  the  following  special  apparatus  may  be  used  for 
stunning : 

(a)  The  killing  ax,  which   consists  of  a  wooden  handle  and  a 
wrought   iron   striking   apparatus  fastened  at  right  angles  to  the 
liandle.     One  half  of  the  latter  consists  of  an  iron  cylinder  about 
10  cm.  long  and  1  cm.  in  diameter,  the  end  of  which  forms  a  gouge. 
The  other  half  of  the  striking  portion  is  curved  in  order  to  embrace 
the  horns  of  the  animal  to  be  stunned.     The  gouge-like  end  of  the 
striking  portion  is  driven  into  the  middle  of  the  roof  of  the  cranium 
Ht>y  a  strong  blow,  whereupon  the  animal  falls.     In  order  to  prevent 
the  animal  from  getting  up  again,  it  is  customary  to  introduce  a  rod 
into   the   opening  in  the  cranium  and  to  destroy  the  brain  and 
medulla  oblongata. 

(b)  The  slaughter  mask  consists  of  a  shield-like  iron  portion 
with  an  opening  in  the  middle  and  with  a  leather  attachment  on 
either  side.     Furthermore,  there  are  three  thongs  attached  to  the-- 


METHODS   OF  SLAUGHTER 


135 


slaughter  mask  for  fastening  it  to  the  head.     The  opening  in  the 
shield-shaped  iron  portion  comes  to  lie  upon  the  middle  of  the  roof 


FIG.  3. 


Slaughtermask  as  used  in  the  Stuttgart  Abattoir,    a,  mask ;  5,  striking  bolt. 


FIG.  4. 


of  the  cranium,  while  the  lateral  leather  portion  covers  the  eyes  of 
the  animal.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
iron  cylinder  of  the  killing  ax, 
furnished  with  a  gouge,  a  striking 
bolt,  which  is  inserted  into  the 
opening  of  the  iron  portion,  is 
driven  through  the  roof  of  the 
cranium  by  a  wooden  hammer. 
In  the  practice  of  this  method 
also,  a  subsequent  destruction  of 
the  brain,  such  as  occurs  in  the 
use  of  the  killing  ax,  is  customary. 
(c)  The  shooting  mask  (Sieg- 
inund). — In  this  apparatus,  in 
place  of  the  striking  bolt,  a  short 
pistol  barrel  is  used,  which  is  screwed  into  the  opening  of  the 
shield-like  iron  portion  of  the  slaughter  mask.  In  the  posterior 


Staehl's  shooting  apparatus. 


136 


THE  ART   OF  BUTCHERING 


part  of  the  pistol  barrel,  a  ball  cartridge  is  placed,  and  is  dis- 
charged by  a  light  blow  with  a  wooden  or  iron  hammer.  Subse- 
quent destruction  of  the  brain  is  not  required  in  using  the 
shooting  mask. 

An  alteration  of  Siegmund's  shooting  mask  is  found  in  the 
shooting  apparatus  according  to  Staehl  (system  of  "noiseless 
shooting "),  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Fro.  5. 


Kleinsehmidt's  spring  bolt  apparatus  for  killing  hogs  (half  natural  size). 

(d)  In  using  Kleinsehmidt's  springbolt  apparatus  for  killing 
hogs  (Fig.  5),  death  is  produced  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  with  the 
use  of  the  slaughter  mask.  A  cylindrical  iron  bolt  is  driven  into  the 
roof  of  the  cranium  with  the  blow  of  a  hammer.  After  the  blow  has 
been  delivered,  the  bolt  is  thrown  back  into  its  previous  position  by 
a  spring,  which  does  not  occur  in  the  case  of  the  slaughter  mask. 

Kogler,  in  Chemnitz,  modified  Kleinsehmidt's  springbolfc 
apparatus  in  that  he  left  out  the  spring  and  made  use  of  a  consider- 
ably shorter  cylinder.  The  cylinder  possesses  a  groove  into  which  & 
•  small  set  screw  projects.  According  to  Kogler,  the  spring  of 
Kleinsehmidt's  apparatus  has  the  disadvantage  that  its  use  requires 


METHODS   OF   SLAUGHTER 


137 


a  much  more  powerful  blow,  while  the  length  of  the  cylinder  (19.5 
cm.)  renders  difficult  the  firm  attachment  of  the  apparatus  to  the 
head.  Kogler's  apparatus  is  without  protection  for  the  bolt  and 
without  its  automatic  rebound.  Both  these  features,  however, 
according  to  Kogler,  are  non-essential.  The  modified  apparatus  haa 


FIG. 


Section  of  Kogler's  slaughter  mask,     a,  groove  for  the  bolt ;  &,  screw  for 
preventing  the  bolt  from  springing  out. 

given  good  satisfaction  in  various  abattoirs.  Kogler  makes  use  of 
this  method  of  connecting  the  bolt  with  the  cylinder,  such  as  is  used 
in  the  stunning  apparatus  for  hogs  and  in  slaughter  masks  for  cattle, 


Kiirten's  hog  killer. 

and  avoids  thereby  the  possibility  of  the  bolt  springing  out  in  me 
case  of  a  misdirected  blow  (Fig.  6). 

Kiirten  in  turn  modified  Kogler's  apparatus  in  that  he  divided 
the  cylinder  carrying  the  striking  bolt  into  an  upper  and  lower 
portion,  which  were  held  apart  by  a  long,  strong  spring  (Fig.  7). 


138 


THE  ART  OF  BUTCHERING 


FIG.  8. 


Hereby,  as  in  the  case  of  Kleinsclimidt's  springbolt  apparatus,  the 
bolt  is  thrown  back  into  its  previous  position  after  the  blow  is- 
delivered. 

(e)  For  Hungarian  hogs,  as  well  as  for 
calves  and  sheep,  the  bolt  hammer  accord- 
ing to  Kleinschmidt  (Fig.  8)  is  recomm- 
ended on  account  of  the  arched  roof  of 
the  cranium.  According  to  a  report  from 
Karlsruhe,  however,  the  bolt  hammer  was 
not  satisfactory  for  killing  sheep.  Better 
results  were  obtained  with  an  oval  ham- 
mer 10  cm.  long.  1J  cm.  broad,  flattened 
on  both  ends,  und  furnished  with  a  handle 
70  cm.  long. 

Finally,  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
firm  of  Renger  in  Arnstadt  has  constructed 
a  casting  slaughter  apparatus  for  killing 
hogs.  This  apparatus  serves  the  purpose 
of  holding  the  head  more  securely  for  the 
administration  of  the  blow. 


KU'inschmidt's   bolt -hammer 
for    stunning     calves    and 


Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Different  Methods 

of  Slaughtering. 

1.  Thoracic  bleeding  and  cutting  the  throat  bring  about  a 
complete  bleeding  and  thereby  produce  a  beautiful  appearance  of 
the  meat,  which  is  associated  with  good  keeping  qualities.  The 
Wood  flows  out  so  completely  since  the  central  nervous  organs  are 
intact,  and  consequently  the  blood  pressure  is  not  lowered  at  the 
beginning.  The  discharge  of  the  blood,  however,  toward  the  end  of 

'  the  bleeding  is  greatly  favored  by  the  reflex  muscular  contractions 
(bleeding  or  anemic  spasms). 

Dembo  killed  one  rabbit  by  the  Jewish  method  of  slaughter  and 

1  two  others  by  bleeding  after  a  previous  stunning,  and  obtained  the 

••  following  results:  (1)  The  rabbit  killed  according  to  the  Jewish 
method  weighed  2,000  gm.  and  lost  80  gm.  of  blood  (  =  72  percent.). 

'  The  residual  blood  in  the  body  was  28  per  cent.  (2)  A  stunned 
rabbit,  weighing  1,950  gm.,  lost  50  gm.  of  blood  (=46  per  cent.).: 
The  residual  blood  in  the  body  was  54  per  cent.).  (3)  A  stuuned 
rabbit,  weighing  1,850  gin.,  lost  30  gm.  of  blood  (  =  29  per  cent),  the 
residual  blood  in  the  body  being  71  percent.  The  author  Tailed 
three  rabbits  of  the  same  litter  weighing  2,000  gm.t  by  cutting  the 


METHODS   OF  SLAUGHTER 

throat  and  by  bleeding  after  previous  stunning  or  breaking  the  neck. 
The  quantities  of  blood  obtained  were  as  follows  :  (1)  In  the  rabbit 
killed  by  cutting  the  neck,  81  gm.;  (2)  after  a  previous  blow  on  the 
head,  62  gm.;  (3)  after  previously  breaking  the  neck,  36  gm. 

The  results  of  these  slaughtering  experiments  with  rabbits  can 
not,  however,  be  applied  directly  to  the  large  food  animals,  as  shown, 
by  Goltz  (Ztschr.  f.  Milch  u.  Fleisch  Hyg.,  VIII),  and  corroborated 
by  P.  Fulk.  Goltz  demonstrated  by  careful  weighings  that,  in  the 
large  food  animals,  bleeding  after  stunning  was  not  less  complete 
than  after  cutting  the  throat  without  stunning. 

In  cattle  the  following  average  quantities  of  blood  were 
obtained  :  (a)  In  slaughtering  according  to  the  Jewish  method,  3.24 
per  cent,  of  the  live  weight ;  (b)  in  using  the  shooting  mask,  3.20  per 
cent,  of  the  live  weight ;  (c)  in  using  the  striking  mask,  2.89  per- 
cent, of  the  live  weight. 

In  calves  :  (a)  In  slaughtering  according  to  the  Jewish  method,. 
4.90  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight ;  (b)  by  the  butcher's  method  of 
cutting  the  throat,  490  per  cent;  (c)  by  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  5.07 
per  cent. 

In  sheep  :  (a)  In  slaughtering  according  to  the  Jewish  method,. 
4.15  per  cent.;  (b)  by  cutting  the  throat  or  severing  the  carotids,  431 
per  cent.;  (c)  by  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  435  per  cent. 

Or,  expressed  in  other  words,  a  beef  animal  of  700  kg.  live 
"weight  lost : 

(a)  In  slaughtering  according  to  the  Jewish  ritual,  22.68  kg. 
of  blood ;  (b)  by  use  of  the  shooting  mask,  22.40  kg.;  (c)  by  use  of 
the  striking  mask,  20.23  kg. 

A  calf  of  60  kg.  live  weight  lost : 

(a)  In  slaughtering  according  to  the  Jewish  ritual,  2.95  kg.;. 

(b)  by  the  butcher's  method  of  sticking  without  stunning,  2.94  kg.; 

(c)  by  a  hammer  blow,  3.04  kg. 

A  sheep  of  50  kg.  live  weight  lost : 

(a)  By  the  Jewish  method  of  slaughtering,  2.07  kg.  of  blood ; 

(b)  by  the  butcher's  method  of  killing  without  stunning,  2.15  kg.;. 

(c)  by  a  hammer  blow,  2.17  kg. 

P.  Falk  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  he  found  no  difference 
Tvith  regard  to  the  keeping  qualities  in  meat  preserved  in  cold 
storage  whether  the  animals  had  been  killed  according  to  the  Jewish 
method  or  by  killing  after  a  previous  stunning. 

To  the  thoracic  bleeding  and  slaughter  according  to  the  Jewish 
method,  objection  is  made  that  these  methods  of  slaughter  make  a 
highly  repulsive  and  grewsome  impression,  since  they  are  performed 


140  THE  ART   OF  BUTCHEEING 

on  animals  while  f ully  conscious.  The  act  of  slaughtering,  however, 
is  always  a  repulsive  sight.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  shown  that 
animals  slaughtered  according  to  the  Jewish  method  pass  very 
quickly  into  unconsciousness  (according  to  Zangger,  in  one-half 
minute  ;  according  to  Probstmayr,iu  25  to  30  seconds  ;  according  to 
Esser,  40  seconds).*  The  respiratory  and  general  muscular  spasms 
which  appear  later  are,  therefore,  merely  reflex  contractions.  The 
death  agony  ceases  after  about  four  minutes. 

In  the  case  of  thoracic  bleeding,  as  well  as  in  slaughter 
according  to  Jewish  methods,  the  preparations  for  the  act  are 
repulsive,  especially  the  rough  manner  of  throwing  cattle  to  be 
killed  by  the  Jewish  method  and  the  unnecessarily  long  time  the 
animals  are  kept  down  before  the  act  of  slaughter.  These  crudities, 
however,  may  be  prevented  by  suitable  regulations. 

Legislative  provisions  for  the  practice  of  the  Jewish  method  of 
•slaughter. — A  Meiningen  circular  of  May  29,  1881,  in  harmony  with 
the  Prussian  Ministerial  decree  of  January  14,  1889,  with  reference 
to  the  prevention  of  the  unnecessary  abuse  of  animals,  declares  as 
follows : 

Sec.  5.  With  regard  to  slaughter  according  to  Israelitic  custom,  the  following 
special  provisions,  in  addition  to  the  preceding  sections  2  to  4,  are  in  force  : 

1.  Large  animals  shall  be  thrown  only  by  means  of  pulleys  or  similar  devices. 
The  pulleys  shall  be  firmly  attached  and  the  ropes  used  shall  be  strong  and  flexible. 

2.  While  the  animal  is  down,  the  head  must  be  supported  by  proper  devices,  so 
that  the  battering  of  the  head  and  breaking  of  the  horns  are  prevented. 

3.  When   the  animal  is  thrown,    the  schaehter  must   be  present  and  must 
immediately  perform  the  act  of  slaughter.     This  must  be  carried  out  as  quickly  and 
effectively  as  possible. 

4.  Not  only  during  the  act  of  slaughtering-,  but  also  for  the  whole  period  from 
the  muscular  spasms  which  appear  after  the  throat  is  cut  until  death  takes  place,  the 
head  of  the  animal  must  be  securely  held. 

5.  Slaughter  according  to  the  Jewish  method  shall   be  practiced  only  by  a 
jschachter  who  has  been  approved  by  a  ducal  rabbi. 

Methods  of  throwing. — For  throwing  cattle  to  be  slaughtered 
according  to  the  Jewish  methods,  numerous  more  or  less  complicated 
devices  have  been  recommended.  All  these  apparatus  are  unneces- 
sary, since  the  simplest,  surest,  and  safest  method  of  throwing  cattle 
consists  in  the  so-called  casting,  for  the  practice  of  which  nothing 
but  a  rope  is  required  (a  casting  rope  of  about  20  metres  length) 

*  According  to  more  recent  investigations  which  were  undertaken  by  the  Saxon 
•Commission  for  Veterinary  Service,  the  cornea  reflex  of  steers  and  bulls  slaughtered 
-According  to  Jewish  methods  did  not  cease  until  after  3|,  4  and  5  minutes. 


METHODS   OF  SLAUGHTER  141 

(Fig.  9).  Although  this  method  of  throwing  was  devised  by  German 
veterinarians,  it  was  first  prescribed  for  slaughter  according  to  the 
Jewish  method  in  Eussia  at  the  instigation  of  the  societies  for  the 
prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals.  Animals  which  are  thrown  by  the 
method  of  casting  lie  down  quietly  upon  the  side  and  extend  the  legs 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  easily  tied. 

In  Stuttgart,  the  former  municipal  veterinarian  Sauer  introduced 
an  equally  good  method  of  throwing.  The  animals  nre  secured  by  a 
short  rope  attached  to  the  head  and  brought  through  a  ring  which 
is  fastened  to  the  floor.  A  short  piece  of  rope,  which  is  furnished 
with  a  ring  in  the  end,  is  attached  to  each  metacarpus  and  one  end 
of  the  casting  rope  is  fastened  to  the  hind  leg  above  the  hoof.  The 

FIG.  9. 


-=^~~^'- 
Method  of  throwing  cattle. 

casting  rope  is  run  through  the  rings  of  the  ropes  attached  to  the> 
front  legs  in  such  a  manner  that  the  free  end  appears  on  the  side  of 
the  free  hind  foot.  The  rope  is  tightened  through  a  pulley  and  the 
animal  falls  or,  rather,  lies  down  slowly  upon  the  side.  The  free 
hind  foot,  which  acts  as  a  support,  prevents  violent  falling  and 
floundering. 

A  frequent  repulsive  sight  in  slaughtering  powerful  steers  and 
bulls  according  to  the  Jewish  method  is  caused  by  a  defective 
fastening  of  the  head.  It  may  thus  occur  tnat  the  animals  break 
loose  as  soon  as  the  cutting  of  the  throat  is  begun  and  throw  the 
head  with  the  half-severed  throat  violently  from  side  to  side.  To 
prevent  this  occurrence,  Jakob  has  devised  a  suitable  apparatus. 
This  consists,  as  shown  by  Fig.  10,  of  a  simple  iron  rod  1J  meters 
long  and  forked  at  one  end.  The  ends  of  the  bifurcation  are  bent 
back  in  the  form  of  a  hook.  The  other  end  is  provided  with  a 
handle.  A  moveable  iron  ring,  fastened  by  a  screw,  is  attached  to 


142  THE  ART  OP  BUTCHERING 

the  iron  rod.  The  use  of  the  apparatus  consists  in  grasping  the 
horns  of  the  animal  by  the  curved  ends  of  the  bifurcations,  a.  The 
point,  b,  of  the  apparatus,  therefore,  comes  to  lie  upon  the  forehead. 
Thereupon  the  movable  ring,  c,  on  the  rod  is  pushed  over  the  mouth 
and  nose,  and  fastened  to  the  iron  rod  by  means  of  a  screw,/.  The 
head  of  the  animal  is  thereby  held  fast  in  the  apparatus. 


FIG. 


Apparatus  for  holding  the  head  of  cattle. 

The  apparatus  of  Jakob,  just  described,  has  been  modified  by 
"Thielemann.  Moreover,  Winkler  has  constructed  a  new  and  very 
practical  head  fastener  (Ztschr.  f.  Milch  u.  Fleisch  Hyg.,  IV). 

The  blood  of  animals  slaughtered  according  to  the  Jewish 
method  is  to  be  excluded  from  utilization  as  human  food  for  the 
reason  that  it  is  contaminated  by  the  stomach  contents  which  flow 
out  through  the  severed  esophagus. 

Prohibitions  against  slaughter  ty  the  Jeivish  method. — Slaughtering 
according  to  the  Jewish  method  is  prohibited  in  Switzerland  and  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  A  decree  of  the  Saxon  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  by  which  a  petition  for  the  removal  of  the  prohibition 
against  this  method  of  slaughter  was  denied,  is  of  some  interest.  In 
the  conclusion  of  the  decree  it  is  stated,  "  There  is  no  good  reason 
to  make  an  exception,  as  has  been  requested  by  the  Jews,  in  c;ise  of 
the  provision  concerning  the  moral  status  of  the  matter,  which  is  not 
at  all  concerned  with  religion,  but  simply  with  the  consideration  of 
the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals ;  for,  it  is  apparent  that  any 
ritual  custom,  of  however  long  standing,  and  having  its  origin  in 
variable  human  decrees,  does  not  deserve  any  consideration  if  it  is 
calculated  to  give  moral  offence,  or  if  it  is  at  variance  with  the 
general  laws  of  the  government.  The  Ministry  of  the  Interior  can 
not  decide  to  allow  the  requested  exceptional  treatment  of  Jewish 


METHODS    OF    SLAUGHTER  143 

-slaughtering,  especially  since  it  would  certainly  be  considered  by 
the  great  majority  of  the  people  as  an  unjustifiable  favor  to  an 
isolated  minority." 

The  prohibitions  against  slaughtering  by  the  Jewish  method 
which  were  decreed  in  the  Prussian  governmental  districts  of  Danzig 
and  Marienburg,  were  lately  removed  after  a  decision  of  the  Ministry 
of  the  Interior  and  Education  upon  complaint  of  a  rabbi,  and  it  was 
declared  to  be  impermissible  to  decide  for  particular  local  police 
districts  whether  cruelty  to  animals  was  involved  in  the  Jewish 
method  of  slaughter  and  to  forbid  this  method  of  slaughter  by  police 
regulations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  local  police  authorities  in 
Prussia,  according  to  a  Ministerial  decree  issued  by  the  Imperial 
Government  at  Diisseldorf,  are  authorized  to  prohibit  any  slaughter- 
ing according  to  the  Jewish  method  in  excess  of  that  required  for 
the  Jewish  population.  The  Administrative  Court  decided  that  a 
conditional  prohibition  is  not  permissible,  and  that  this  practice 
was  to  be  forbidden  or  permitted  to  all  schachters.  It  was  farther 
held  that  the  various  communities  were  authorized  to  pass  regula- 
tions concerning  the  manner  in  which  the  abattoirs  were  to  be  used 
and  concerning  the  procedure  to  be  followed  in  slaughtering. 

2.  Pithing  and  breaking  the  neck  furnish  the  least  disagreeable 
sight  for  the  spectator.  The  animals  fall  and  remain  motionless. 
On  the  other  hand,  pithing  has  been  rightly  characterized  by  Gerlach 
as  most  gruesome,  since  by  this  act  consciousness  remains  intact 
until  it  is  destroyed  by  the  cerebral  anemia  in  consequence  of  the 
loss  of  blood.  Moreover,  the  methods  of  pithing  and  breaking  the 
neck  hnve  the  great  disadvantage  that  bleeding  is  incomplete.  In 
the  medulla  oblongata  are  found  the  vital  center,  respiratory  center, 
regulative  center  for  heart  action,  the  dominating  vasomotor  center, 
and  the  center  of  muscular  contractions.  By  mutilating  the  medulla 
oblongata  these  centers  are  destroyed,  and  thus  all  the  important 
factors  in  thorough  bleeding,  respiration,  heart  action,  and  reflex 
muscular  contractions  are  eliminated.  The  animals  bleed  to  some 
extent,  as  Schmidt-Mulheim  states,  into  their  own  blood  vessels. 

In  the  government  districts  of  Gumbinnen  and  Diisseldoif,  the 
killing  of  cattle  by  pithing  is  forbidden,  and  the  same  is  true  for  the 
whole  Russian  Empire,  in  which  it  was  previously  the  exclusive 
method  of  slaughter.  The  abandonment  of  pithing  as  a  method  of 
slaughtering  in  Unssia  was  chiefly  brought  about  by  the  experiments 
of  Dembo,  who  showed  that  pithed  steers  still  ate  salt  and  bread 
which  was  offered  to  them. 


144  THE  ART   OF  BUTCHERING 

3.  As  the  best  and  most  humane  method  of  slaughter,  we  must 
consider  those  methods  in  which  the  animals  are  bled  after  being 
stunned.  The  manner  in  which  the  stunning  shall  be  accomplished 
is  of  no  consequence.  Skilled  butchers  kill  an  animal  by  a  hammer 
blow  as  quickly  and  as  certainly  as  by  means  of  a  killing  ax,  slaughter 
mask,  or  by  any  other  stunning  instrument.  The  use  of  the  hammer, 
especially  in  the  case  of  hogs,  is  simpler  than  that  of  slaughter 
apparatus.  In  Berlin,  for  example,  cattle  and  hogs  are  killed 
exclusively  with  a  hammer  or  with  the  head  of  an  ax.  With  less 
experienced  persons,  the  slaughter  mask  or  the  apparatus  of  Klein- 
schmidt  and  Kogler  render  the  blow  more  certain  than  that  with  a 
hammer.  The  use  of  this  apparatus  requires,  however,  more  time 
and  an  assistant  in  the  slaughter  of  hogs,  which  is  not  necessary  in, 
using  the  hammer.  These  facts  are  to  be  considered  in  slaughter- 
ing on  a  large  scale. 

The  killing  ax  requires  for  its  exclusive  use  considerable  skill. 
The  slaughtering  mask  is  frequently  unsatisfactory  for  killing  bulls. 
The  animals  either  do  not  fall  at  all  or  plunge,  and  spring  up  again 
and  struggle.  The  use  of  the  shooting  mask,  moreover,  is  not 
without  danger.  Thus,  a  few  years  ago  a  butcher's  apprentice  was 
injured  in  an  accident  with  a  shooting  mask  of  the  old  kind,  and 
another  accident  happened  in  the  abbatoir  of  Erfurt  in  the  use  of 
Staehl's  shooting  apparatus.  The  ball  passed  outward  under  the 
left  ear  of  the  animal  and  shattered  the  femur  of  the  assistant  who 
was  standing  by  the  head  of  the  animal.  Moreover,  the  bleeding  of 
the  animals  may  be  incomplete  in  case  the  ballet  injures  the  medulla 
oblongata,  and,  finally,  the  meat  is  injured  if  the  bullet  penetrates 
the  cervical  musculature.  All  these  accidents,  however,  may  be 
avoided  by  the  skilful  use  of  the  apparatus,  as  is  contended  by 
Mittermaier,  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  shooting  apparatus  for  killing  animals,  from  observa- 
tions made  in  Heidelburg  and  Swiss  abbatoirs,  in  which  all  of  the 
larger  food  animals  and,  in  recent  times,  also  hogs,  are  shot.  In 
some  abbatoirs,  as  in  that  alPotsdam,  the  shooting  is  done  by  an 
employee  of  the  abbatoir  (hall  master),  whereby  accidents  have  thus 
far  been  avoided. 

The  methods  which  require  a  previous  stunning,  when  properly 
practiced,  satisfy  completely  humanitarian  sentiments  in  so  far  as 
the  first  violent  assault  is  followed  by  a  paralysis  of  the  sensory 
centres  of  the  nervous  system.  Moreover,  they  serve  the  interests 
of  meat  hygiene,  since,  in  consequence  of  the  integrity  of  the  medulla 
oblongata,  a  thorough  bleeding  is  not  prevented.  Only  when,  after 


ORDER  OF  PROCEDURE   IN   COMMERCIAL   SLAUGHTERING  145 

the  use  of  the  killing  ax  or  slaughter  mask,  not  only  the  cerebrum 
but  also  the  medulla  oblongata  are  destroyed  by  the  introduction  of 
a  rod,  is  bleeding  checked  in  a  manner  like  that  which  occurs  in 
pithing  and  breaking  the  neck.  This  may  also  occur,  as  already 
mentioned,  in  shooting  animals.* 

The  slaughtering  methods  in  which  bleeding  follows  stunning,, 
in  spite  of  their  advantages,  are  not  much  in  vogue.  In  a  large 
proportion  of  the  abbatoirs  in  various  parts  of  Germany,  it  is 
allowable  to  kill  sheep  and  calves  by  thoracic  bleeding  or  cutting 
the  throat  without  previous  stunning.  It  is  difficult  to  understand 
why  these  animals  should  not  be  allowed  the  benefit  of  a  previous 
stunning  in  slaughter.  The  procedure  of  communities  which  make 
obligatory  the  stunning  of  all  food  animals,  including  those  from, 
which  man  has  nothing  to  fear,  deserves  all  recognition. 

Two  notable  regulations  (Dnchy  of  Meiningen,  of  May  23, 1891, 
and  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  on  March  21,  1892)  prescribe  that,  ia 
the  slaughtering  of  all  animals,  stunning  must  precede  the  removal 
of  the  blood.  The  only  exception  is  in  the  case  of  fowls.  The 
Saxon  regulation,  which,  as  shown  on  page  142,  does  not  accept  the 
Jewish  method  of  slaughter,  prescribes  as  follows  concerning  the 
act  of  stunning :  In  the  case  of  cattle,  stunning  shall  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  slaughtering  mask,  except  in  young  ani- 
mals where  the  incomplete  development  of  the  skull  renders  it 
unnecessary.  With  reference  to  the  stunning  of  hogs,  calves  and 
sheep  by  a  blow  upon  the  head  or  neck,  the  choice  of  a  stunning 
apparatus  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  butchers,  although  the 
wooden  hammer  is  recommended  for  calves,  the  bolt  apparatus  for 
togs,  and  the  striking  bolt  hammer  or  a  blunt  ax  for  sheep. 

4. — Order  of  Procedure  in  Commercial  Slaughtering. 

After  the  death  of  the  animal,  skinning  takes  place  in  the  case 
of  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  and  scalding  and  singeingf  in  the  case 
of  hogs,  while  calves  are  immediately  hung  up  for  exenteration.J 

*  According  to  Siegmund,  it  is  desirable  to  bleed  animals  which  have  been  shot, 
not  immediately,  but  after  a  lapse  of  from  one  to  three  minutes,  since  then  bleeding 
will  be  thorough  and  rather  more  so  than  in  slaughtering  by  the  Jewish  method,  in 
which  the  trunks  of  the  carotid  arteries  often  become  closed  rery  quickly. 

f  The  meat  of  singed  hogs  is  said  to  keep  better  than  that  of  scalded  hogs. 
Singeing,  however,  renders  the  inspection  of  the  skin  more  difficult. 

J  Calves,  especially  young  and  poor  specimens,  are  preferably  sold  in  the  skin, 
in  order  to. prevent  the  drying  of  the  meat,  whereby  it  becomes  of  a  lighter  color  and 
of  a  loss  desirable  appearance. 


146  THE  ART   OF  BUTCHERING 

Thereupon,  after  making  a  cut  along  the  middle  of  the  inferior 
abdominal  wall,  the  exenteration  of  the  body  cavity  takes  place  in 
such  a  manner  that  first  the  intestines  and  then  the  stomach  are 
separated  from  their  natural  connections.  The  intestines  are  all 
removed,  together  with  the  mesentery.  The  spleen,  in  the  case  of 
cattle,  is  left  in  connection  with  the  stomach  ;  in  hogs,  with  the  mes- 
entery;  while  in  calves  and  sheep  the  spleen  remains  in  the  body. 
The  liver  in  horses  and  cattle  is  removed  separately.  In  all  other 
kinds  of  food  animals  it  is  taken  out  in  its  natural  connection  with 
the  lungs  and  heart  (the  so-called  sling),  or  is  removed  from  the 
body  cavity  without  splitting  the  sternum,  or  after  a  previous  open- 
ing of  the  thorax.  The  latter  process  is  required  in  the  interest  of 
an  accurate  inspection. 

In  hogs,  after  the  above  described  operations,  the  separation  of 
the  retro-peritoneal  fat  tissue  occurs,  and  with  it  that  of  the  kidneys. 
This  separation  is  necessary  in  order  that  a  thorough  inspection  of 
the  abdominal  musculature  for  cysticerci,  calcareous  concretions, 
hemorrhages,  etc.,  may  take  place.  While  horses,  cattle,  calves  and 
sheep  are  being  skinned,  the  lower  portions  of  the  extremities  are 
also  separated  from  their  connections  below  the  carpal  and  tarsal 
joint.  As  a  rule,  the  exenteration  of  the  bladder,  uterus  and  rectum 
takes  place  immediately  after  the  removal  of  the  intestines. 

With  the  exenteration  of  the  abdominal,  pelvic  and  thoracic 
cavities  are  connected  the  removal  of  the  brain  from  the  cranial 
cavity,  and  the  separation  of  the  tongue  from  its  muscular  connec- 
tions with  the  lower  jaw,  so  that  the  cranial  cavity  and  the  mouth 
and  pharyngeal  cavities  are  laid  open.  Finally,  in  the  case  of 
horses,  cattle  and  hogs,  the  trunk  is  divided  into  two  halves  by 
splitting  the  spinal  column. 

Further  procedure  in  dissection,  according  to  ordinary  methods 
of  butchering,  is  different  in  different  food  animals. 

In  cattle,  after  a  previous  quartering,*  the  more  valuable  cuts 
of  meat  are  sold  separately.  As  the  more  valuable  parts,  we  have 
the  purely  muscular  portions  of  the  body,  which  contain  only  small 
quantities  of  bone  and  sinew.  As  less  valuable  parts,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  have  the  portions  which  are  poor  in  muscle,  but  strongly 
infiltrated  with  fat  tissue  (tallow),  and  which  contain  a  large  propor- 
tion of  bone  and  sinew.  This  distinction  finds  expression  in  the 


*  Quartering  is  not  practiced  in  a  uniform  manner.  In  Northern  Germany  the 
fore  quarter  is  usually  separated  from  the  hind  quarter  between  the  ninth  and  tentk 
ribs,  thus  leaving  three  ribs  on  the  hind  quarter;  while  in  Southern  Germany  lhe> 
separation  takes  place  before  the  next  to  the  last  rib. 


OEDEE   OF  PEOCEDUEE   IN   COMMEECIAL   SLAUGHTEEING 


147 


^different  prices.  The  so-called  fillet  universally  brings  a  higher 
price  than  the  other  muscular  parts;  in  London  and  Paris,  for 
example,  three  to  four  times  as  much  as  the  thin  abdominal  meat. 


FIG.  11. 


Classification  of  beef  in  Berlin. 
I.  Quality:  1,   Rinderbraten ;  2,  Blume;  3,  Eckschwanzstuck ;  4,  Mittelschwan*- 

stiick;  5,  Kugel;  6.  Oberschale. 
II.  Quality:  7,  Unterschwanzstuck ;  8,  Bug*;  9,  Mittelbrust. 

III.  Quality:  10,  Fehlrippe;  11,  Kamm;  12,  Querrippe;  13,  Brustkern. 

IV.  Quality:  14,  Quernierenstiick;  15,  Hessen;  16,  Dunnung. 


FIG.  12. 


Classification  of  beef  in  Vienna. 

I.  Quality:  Lungenbraten  (nicht  eingezeichnet);  1,  Beiried;  2,  Ried  (Rostbraten); 
3,  Hiif erschwanzl ;  4,  Gschnattes  Schwanzl;  5,  Ortschwanzl;  3,  Rieddeckel; 
7,  Zwerchried;  8,  Sehlernmried  (Riedhiifel). 

II.  Quality:  9,  Sehulter;    10,  Dicker  Spitz;    11,  Kruspelspitz;    12,  Mageres  Meisl; 
13  und  14,   Fettes  Meisl;    15,   Kamm;    16,   Brustkern;    17,  Dickes  Kugel; 
18,  Mittleres  Kiigel;  19,  Dunnes  Kiigel;  20,  Tristl;  21,  Bauchfleisch. 
III.  Quality:  22,  Zapfen;  23,  Wadschitiken:  24,  Stich;  25,  Backen. 


148 


THE  AllT  OF  BUTCHERING 


Otherwise,  the  purely  muscular  parts  exhibit  no  noteworthy  differ- 
ences  in  the  protein  content.'  While,  therefore,  in  ordinary  traffic 
various  prices  customarily  prevail  for  these  parts,  this  must  be 
explained,  not  by  the  higher  nutritive  value  of  particular  parts  of 
the  meat — as  a  rule,  the  consumer  does  not  inquire  at  all  concern- 
ing the  nutritive  value — but  by  the  better  flavor  which  is  due  to 
the  tender  character  of  the  fibers  and  the  content  of  extractives  (see 
page  196). 

According  to  Ignatiev,  the  valuation  of  the  meat  corresponds  to 
the  unequal  distribution  of  two  albuminoid  substances  in  the  mus- 
culature, myosin  and  myostromin  (the  essential  components  of  the 


FIG.  13. 


Classification  of  beef  in  London. 

I.  Quality:  1,  loin;  2.  aitchbone;  3  and  4,  silverside;  5,  fore  rib. 
II.  Quality:  0,  topside;  7,  leg;  8,  street;  9,  midrib;  10,  shoulder.  . 

III.  Quality:  11,  thin  flank;  12,  chuck;  13,  fore  quarter  flank. 

IV.  Quality:  14,  brisket;  15,  clod  and  sticking;  16  and  17,  shank;  18,  cheek. 

muscle  mass,  according  to  Danilewski).  The  more  work  which  the 
muscle  has  performed,  the  poorer  it  is  in  the  former  and  the  richer 
in  the  latter.  The  relative  quantity  of  both  substances,  according 
to  Ignatiev's  investigations,  is  so  distributed  according  to  the  region 
of  the  body  that  the  myosin  increases  from  the  head  toward  the 
tail,  while  the  myostromin  decreases.  The  latter  exists  in  large  pro- 
portions in  the  parts  below  the  vertebral  column. 

Classification  of  beef. — The  most  expensive  cuts  of  meat  are  :  The 
lumbar  muscles,  iliopsoas,  quadratus  lumborum  and  diaphragmatic 
columns  ("  lungenbraten,"  "  lummel,"  fillet),  the  dorsal  muscles  with, 
their  bony  foundation,  sacro-lumbalis  and  longissimus  dorsi 


OttDElt    OF   PROCEDURE   IN   COMMERCIAL   SLAUGHTERING 


149 


sirloin,  porterhousp),  the  muscles  of  the  croup  and  thigh  (rump,  hip, 
leg),  the  musculature  of  the  scapula,  together  with  the  humerus 
and  forearm  (shoulder),  the  musculature  above  and  below  the 
shoulder  on  either  side  of  the  withers  (spare  ribs),  the  thicker  parts 
of  the  abdominal  muscles  (cross  ribs),  and  the  sternum  with  the 
connected  soft  parts  ("beef  breast").  The  cheapest  cuts  of  meat 
are  the  thinner  portions  of  the  abdominal  muscles  (flank),  the  cer- 
vical and  cephalic  muscles,  and  also  the  muscles  of  the  elbow  and 
Hock.  The  remaining  groups  of  muscles  receive  different  valuations 
in  different/ regions.  Everywhere,  however,  the  hind  quarters. are 
more  highly  prized  and  bring  a  higher  price  than  the  fore  quarters. 

Fin,  14. 


Classification  of  beef  in  Paris. 
I.  Quality;  1  and  3,  semelle;   5,  culotte;   4,  tende  de  tranche  sous  la  semelle; 

5,  aloyau;  6,  filet  (not  shown). 
II.  Quality:  7,  plats  de  cotes  decou verts  sous  1'epaule;   8.  entre-cotes  et  cotes;  9, 

talon  de  collier;  10,  bavette  d'aloyau;  11,  plats  de  cotes  converts. 
III.  Quality:  12,  collier;  13,  pis;  14,  gites. 
JV    Quality:  16,  surlonges;  17,  plats  de  joues. 

The  latter  serve  especially  in  the  preparation  of  meat  broths  and 
sausages,  and  are,  therefore,  characterized  as  "soup  meat"  and 
"  sausage  meat."  The  Israelites  are  required  by  their  food  laws  ta 
eat  -only  the  fore  quarters  of  food  animals,  and  are  allowed  to  eat 
the  hind  quarters  only  after  they  are  "geporcht,"  that  is,  when  the 
large  vascular  trunks  are  removed.  (According  to  Goltz,  this  cus- 
tom is  based  on  the  32nd  chapter  of  the  first  Book  of  Moses,  in 
which  the  struggle  of  Jacob  with  the  angel  is  described.  The  angel 
dislocated  Jacob's  hip,  "Therefore,  the  children  of  Israel  eat  no 
sinews  in  the  hip  joint  to  the  present  day,  since  the  sinews  in  the 
hip  joint  of  Jacob  were  touched.") 


150 


THE  AET  OF  BUTCHERING 


Classification  in  Berlin. — After  the  removal  of  the  fillet  and  the- 
tongue,  the  remainder  of  the  muscular  trunk,  together  with  the 
extremities,  is  cut  up  according  to  four  principal  qualities  and 
sixteen  sorts  (Fig.  11): 

I. — (1)  Roast,  (2)  prime,  (3)  corner  rump,  (4)  middle  rump,  (5) 
round,  (6)  upper  round. 

II. — (7)  Lower  rump,  (8)  shoulder,  (9)  middle  breast. 

III.— (10)  Spare  rib,  (11)  neck,  (12)  short  ribs,  (13)  fore  breast 

IV. — (14)  Cross  kidney,  (15)  Hessian  (knee  joint),  (16)  flank. 

FIG.  15. 


Classification  of  veal. 
I.  Quality:  1,  leg;  2,  loin  roast. 
II.  Quality:  3,  back;  4,  withers;  5.  shoulder. 

III.  Quality:  6,  neck;  7,  breast;  8,  flank. 

IV.  Quality:  7,  head;  10,  feet. 

Classification  in  Vienna. — According  to  a  private  commuuicatioir 
of  Toscano,  three  chief  qualities  and  twenty-four  sorts  are  distin- 
guished in  Vienna : 

I. — (1)  Lungenbraten,  (2)  side  roast,  (3)  roast,  (4)  Imferschwauzl, 
(5)  gschnattes  schwauzl,  (6)  ortschwanzl,  (7)  rieddeckel,  (8)  zwer- 
chried,  (9)  schlemmried  (riedhufel). 

II.— (10)  Shoulder,  (11)  thick  point,  (12)  crust  point,  (13)  poor 
cut,  (14)  fat  cut,  (15)  neck,  (16)  fore  breast,  (17)  thick  round,  (19) 
thin  round,  (20)  tristl,  (21)  flank. 

III.— (22)  Plug,  (23)  hock  joint,  (24)  stick  piece,  (25>  cheeks.* 

*  In  Vienna,  an  especially  high  value  is  placed  by  certain  admirers  of  the  mus- 
cular part  of  the  diaphragm  upon  the  s»-called  crow  or  crown  meat.  The  crown  meat 
Is  much  prized  also  in  Southern  Germany,  especially  in  Bavaria.  In  Munich  there  is 
a  special  crown  meat  establishment  in  which  this  meat  is  prepared,  as  a  kind  of  deli- 
cacy, by  boiling. 


ORDER  OF  PROCEDURE  IN   COMMERCIAL   SLAUGHTERING  151 

The  classifications  of  meat  in  London  and  Paris  are  apparent 
from  the  accompanying  illustrations.  Calves  are  cut  up  as  required. 

Classification  of  veal. — In  the  calf,  the  greatest  value  is  placed 
upon  the  muscle  mass  of  the  hind  quarter  (leg),  of  the  back  (loin 
roast,  back,  cutlet),  the  withers  (corresponding  to  the  "spare  rib" 
of  cattle),  while  the  shoulder,  neck,  breast  and  flank  produce  a 
smaller  value. 

OQ  the  market  the  thymus  of  calves  (sweetbread)  is  reckoned 
as  meat,  and  is  sold  at  a  comparatively  high  price.  The  thymus  of 
calves  is  a  food  which  is  readily  digested,  on  account  of  the  lactic 
acid  which  it  contains.  It  possesses  also  considerable  nutriment  in 

FIG.  16. 


Classification  of  mutton. 
Duality:  1,  back;  2,  leg. 
)uality:  3,  shoulder, 
[utility :  4,  breast  and  flank ;  5,  neck ;  6,  head. 

the  form  of  albumen  and  fibrin.  Milk  calves  furnish  an  especially 
large  and  valuable  thymus,  while  that  in  calves  which  are  reared 
artificially  are  less  valuable.  The  weight  of  a  thymus  varies  between 
200  and  2,000  gm.  The  thymus  of  adult  cattle  is  worthless.  It 
possesses  a  leathery  consistency,  and  is  often  sandy  in  consequence 
of  a  deposit  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime  in  the  glandular 
substance. 

In  preparing  a  sheep  carcass  for  sale,  a  transverse  cut  is  made 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  fore  quarters  with  the  neck,  thorax  and 
abdominal  muscles  form  one  part,  while  the  juicy  back  with  the  legs 
form  another  part.  No  further  classification  occurs  in  cutting  up  the 
fiheep.  (Fig.  16.) 

Hogs  are  first  separated  into  two  lateral  halves  by  a  dividing 
plane  extending  from  the  head  to  the  tail.  Thereupon  the  legs  or 


152  THE  AttT  OF  BUTCHERING 

haras  (the  most  valuable  part  of  the  hog)  are  separated,  and  then 
the  separation  of  the  halves  of  the  head  (cheeks)  and  the  lower 
portions  takes  place.  The  remaining  part  of  the  halved  trunk, 
together  with  the  anterior  extremities,  is  divided  into  an  upper  and 
lower  portion  by  a  cab  extending  bickward  and  upward  from  the 
shoulder  joint.  Thereby  the  abdominal  musculature  is  left  on  the 
lower  portion.  The  upper  part  furnishes  the  hog  back  (carre),  or 
the  "carbonade  meat,"  the  meat  of  the  roast  ribs  (cutlets),  the 
so-called  spare  rib  and  the  withers,  while  the  under  portion  fur- 
nishes the  shoulder,  the  breast  piece  and  the  flank  ("  sides,  smoked 
meat "). 

FIG.  17. 


Classification  of  pork. 
I.  Quality:  1,  ham;  2,  loin;  8,  cutlet. 
II.  Quality:  4,  withers;  5,  shoulder  and  breast. 
II [.  Quality:  6,  flank. 
IV.  Quality:  7,  head  with  cheeks;  8,  feet.    • 

Z^chokke,  in  a  very  noteworthy  work,  condemns,  as  an  evil 
practice,  the  habit  of  butchers  in  cutting  into  various  kinds  of 
pathological  tissue,  especially  tuberculous  areas  ;  also  the  habit  of 
holding  the  knife  between  the  lips  or  teeth.  In  this  connection  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  butchers  represent  a  considerable  con- 
tingent to  the  number  of  human  beings  who  die  of  tuberculosis. 
The  practice  of  artificial  respiration,  during  whic-h  the  assistant 
stands  upon  the  slaughtered  animal  and  stamps  upon  the  abdomen 
and  thorax,  is  to' be  characterized  as  a  bad  habit  and  should  be  for- 
bidden, since  the  stomach  contents  may  thus  be  forced  through  the 
pharyngeal  cavity  into  the  trachea  and  bronchi.  Likewise,  washing 
the  lungs  in  impure  water,  washing  the  meat,  and,  finally,  "drawing 
out  the  blood"  in  cases  of  incomplete  bleeding,  which  is  really  only 
an  extraction  of  blood  coloring  matter  by  allowing  the  meat  to  lie- 
in  water,  should  be  forbidden  as  highly  improper. 


IV. 

INSPECTION  OF  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS.* 


General  Discussion. — It  is  desirable  that  the  expert  be  present 
in  person  at  the  slaughter,  in  order  to  make  it  impossible  from  the 
beginning  for  the  tradesmen  to  attempt  any  removal  of  pathological 
products,  or  the  presentation  of  healthy  organs  in  the  place  of 
diseased  ones.  A  supervision  of  slaughter  is  also  desirable,  for  the 
reason  that  exudations  and  transudations  into  the  body  cavity  flow 
outdaring  the  process  of  slaughter,  and  thus  escape  the  notice  of 
the  expert  inspector  if  he  does  not  begin  inspection  until  after  the 
slaughter  is  complete.  Moreover,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
butchers  understand  very  well  how  to  conceal  certain  alterations. 
Thus,  one  may  observe  in  abattoirs  how,  by  careful  washing, 
butchers  remove  the  ichorous  contents  of  the  peritoneal  cavity  in 
cases  of  perforative  peritonitis  of  calves,  and  how  they  remove  the 
fibrinous  deposit  by  pulling  or  scraping  it  off,  and  in  this  manner 
render  the  real  condition,  which  was  quite  striking,  very  difficult  to- 
recognize.  The  same  may  be  said  in  cases  of  pleuritis,  pericarditis 
and  metritis. 

The  practice,  which  has  become  especially  prevalent,  of  remov- 
ing abscesses  and  certain  parasites  (echinococci)  in  and  upon  organs, 
tuberculous  masses  on  the  serous  membranes,  exterior  surface  of 
organs  and  in  the  lymph  glands,  should  be  checked  by  severe  pun- 
ishment. Fortunately,  we  are  in  a  position  to  demonstrate  easily- 
such  attempts  to  obscure  the  actual  condition  in  diseased  animals. 
The  removal  of  masses  of  material  from  different  organs  is  evidenced 
by  loss  of  substance.  Thus,  the  frequently  practiced  removal  of  the 
pleura  on  account  of  tuberculosis  or  inflammatory  alterations,  espe- 
cially in  meat  which  is  introduced  from  foreign  countries,  is  to  be 
recognized  by  the  fact  that  the  ribs  and  intercostal  muscles  come  to» 
be  exposed  and  are  not  covered  by  a  glistening  membrane.  In  th& 
place  of  the  smooth,  glistening,  transparent  pleura,  there  appears  & 

*  In  this  chapter  only  macroscopic  meat  inspection  will  be  considered.  Micro- 
scopic inspection  for  trichina  is  discussed  in  connection  with  the  account  of  trichina*. 

153 


154  INSPECTION   OF   SLAUGHTERED   ANIMALS 

more  or  less  conspicuous  sub-pleural  connective  tissue,  which  has 
become  cloudy  and  opaque  on  account  of  the  introduction  of  air 
(artificial  emphysema).  The  nature  of  the  pathological  process  in, 
the  removed  pleura  is,  under  these  conditions,  still  recognizable 
from  the  fact  that  the  lymph  glands,  which  lie  in  the  entrance  to  the 
thorax  and  are  surrounded  by  fat  tissue,  exhibit  alterations. 

Quite  frequently  also  the  uteri  of  cows  filled  with  well  devel- 
oped fetuses  are  laid  aside  in  order  to  make  use  of  the  meat  of 
so-called  unborn  animals  as  a  human  food  material.  To  prevent 
this  underhand  dealing,  all  inspected  uteri  are  to  be  cut  up  and 
condemned.  In  this  way  the  removal  of  pregnant  uteri  becomes 
impossible,  since  for  each  slaughtered  cow  an  intact  uterus  must  be 
presented. 

If  the  inspector  can  not  be  present  at  the  slaughter  of  all  ani- 
mals (as,  for  instance,  in  small  slaughterhouses  where  no  expert 
inspector  is  present,  or  in  very  large  slaughterhouses  with  extensive 
operations),  it  should  be  required  that  all  organs  should  remain  in 
the  slaughtered  animal  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  natural  condi- 
tion. At  any  rate,  the  spleen,  kidneys,  liver,  lungs,  heart  and  udder, 
as  well  as  the  skin  (the  latter  on  account  of  description  for  legal 
purposes)  should  not  be  separated.  In  so  far  as  exenteration  can- 
not be  avoided,  the  organs  must  be  left  in  their  natural  connection 
with  one  another.  In  case  several  animals  are  slaughtered  at  the 
same  time,  the  exenterated  organs  should  be  hung  up  near  the 
animal  body  to  which  they  belong,  in  such  a  manner  that  no  inter- 
change is  possible.  Furthermore,  no  organs  should  be  removed 
before  the  inspection  is  completed.  It  should  also  be  forbidden 
that  any  sort  of  alteration,  such  as  scalding  the  stomach,  mesen- 
tery, hides,  feet,  etc.,  be  undertaken  in  any  of  the  separated  parts 
of  the  animal  before  they  have  been  subjected  to  expert  in- 
spection. 

Finally,  meat  inspection  should  be  performed,  so  far  as  possible, 
by  daylight,  since  by  artificial  illumination  finer  alterations  may 
escape  the  notice  of  the  inspector.  Moreover,  in  illumination  by 
gas  even  the  acute  stages  of  icterus  are  usually  overlooked.  The 
government  president  at  Posen,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  an  accurate 
judgment  of  slaughtered  animals  is,  as  a  rule,  possible  only  in  day- 
light, decreed  on  June  15,  1896,  that  in  future  the  inspection  of 
animals  slaughtered  in  public  slaughterhouses  of  the  governmental 
district  of  Posen  should  be  performed  only  by  daylight.  Excep- 
tions from  this  decree  are  allowed  only  in  case  the  abattoir  is 
lighted  by  electricity  or  by  some  other  artificial  source  of  light 


CHIEF   POINTS   IN   INSPECTION  155> 

which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  official  veterinarian,  is  of  equal 
intensity.  The  official  veterinarians  are  instructed  in  making  their 
regular  inspection  of  public  abattoirs  to  give  special  attention  to 
this  decree. 

Chief  Points  in  Inspection. — The  most  important  character* 
of  the  normal  or  pathological  condition  of  organs  are  size,  color,, 
sheen,  conspicuousness  or  inconspicuousness,  as  well  as  uniformity 
or  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  macroscopic  structure,  blood  content  of 
the  cut  surface  and  consistency.  Attention  should  be  given  to  these 
characteristics  in  each  organ.  All  organs  are  to  be  carefully  in- 
spected and  palpated.  Certain  parts,  as,  for  example,  the  lymphatic 
glands  at  the  points  of  introduction  of  tuberculous  infection,  are 
always  to  be  examined  by  means  of  an  incision,  but  other  parts,  on 
the  contrary,  only  in  case  of  the  suspicion  of  an  alteration. 

Stamping  Inspected  Animals. — All  organs  as  well  as  the 
meat  are  to  be  marked  after  inspection  is  completed  with  an 
indelible  stamp,  in  order  to  exclude  the  possibility  of  presenting; 
organs  which  have  already  been  inspected  in  the  place  of  fresh 
diseased  organs.  Moreover,  the  stamping  of  inspected  organs  and 
cuts  of  meat  render  it  possible  for  consumers  to  buy  only  inspected 
meat,  and  offers  the  sanitary  police  a  means  of  demonstrating 
evasions  of  meat  inspection.  For  stamping  fresh  meat,  non- 
poisonous,  quickly-drying  and  adhesive  colors  are  to  be  used. 
Pickled  and  smoked  meat  should  be  marked  with  a  branding; 
stamp. 

Condemnation. — Diseased  animals  and  parts,  or  those  which 
are  suspected  of  being  diseased,  should  be  condemned  preliminarily 
by  a  formal  act.  In  Berlin  this  is  done  by  pasting  on  a  label  witk 

the  inscription,  "  Preliminarily  rejected  and  condemned,  Dr. ^ 

Municipal  Veterinarian."  In  case  of  final  condemnation  and 
exclusion  from  consumption,  the  animals  or  parts  in  question  must 
be  removed  to  an  official  inclosure  (sanitary  slaughterhouse)  and 
there  be  disinfected  under  official  control.  If,  however,  the  animals- 
or  parts  which  were  preliminarily  condemned  may  be  sold  under 
declaration  as  spoiled  food  material,  in  the  sense  of  the  food  law, 
this  quality  is  to  be  characterized  by  a  special  stamp,  "spoiled,, 
non-marketable,  or  inferior  value,  freibank  meat."  The  sale  of  the- 
last  named  meat  must  take  place  under  official  supervision.  (Com- 
pare page  48.) 


150  INSPECTION   OF   SLAUGHTERED   ANIMALS 

Illegal  Removal.— According  to  Sec.  137  of  the  Criminal  Law- 
Statutes,  imprisonment  not  to  exceed  one  year  is  prescribed  for 
intentional  concealment,  destruction,  or  complete  or  partial  removal 
of  meat  which  has  been  condemned  by  the  competent  authorities  or 
officials.  The  Imperial  Court  (Decision  II,  Criminal  Senates,  May 
30,  1884)  decided  that  the  city  veterinarians  in  Berlin,  according  to 
the  text  of  Sees.  10  and  31  of  the  local  regulations  for  the  enforce- 
of  condemnation,  were  competent  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  137  of  the 
Criminal  Statutes.  According  to  the  meat  inspection  law,  condem- 
nations are  reserved  for  the  police  authorities.  (See  page  84.) 

Inspection  of  Diseased  Organs.— With  regard  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  inspection  of  diseased  organs,  the  statement  of  Zschokke 
deserves  all  commendation.  "By  no  means  should  the  detailed 
inspections  of  pathologically  altered  organs  take  place  in  the  public 
portion  of  the  slaughterhouse,  and  with  the  ordinary  instruments, 
used  for  other  purposes.  For,  by  means  of  such  instruments  and 
by  contaminated  hands  the  contagion  may  be  most  easily  spread- 
Since,  moreover,  meat  may  always  serve  in  turn  as  a  nutrient 
medium,  it  is  not  improbable  that  bacteria  on  it,  even  if  they  do- 
not  develop,  still  remain  alive  and  may  be  disseminated.  The 
danger  of  infection  of  man  by  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals 
consists,  perhaps,  less  in  the  eating  of  it — since  for  the  most  part  ifc 
is  heated  to  such  a  degree  that  bacteria  are  thereby  killed — than  in 
manipulating  it  during  its  preparation  for  consumption.  We  have 
to  consider  especially  the  possibility  that  bacteria  may  float  in  the 
air,  and  in  other  ways  may  gain  entrance  into  the  human  organism. 
Jt  requires  no  special  argument  in  this  connection  to  show  that  the 
subsequent  washing  of  instruments  and  hands,  as  it  is  commonly 
done,  furnishes  no  guaranty  against  infection." 

Course  of  Inspection. — The  inspector  must  make  it  a  rule 
to  follow  a  certain  course  in  the  inspection  of  the  various  parts  of 
slaughtered  animals  in  order  that  no  organ  may  unintentionally  be 
overlooked,  and  that  in  every  case  all  organs  may  be  subjected  to> 
inspection.  The  following  may  serve  as  a  guide  for  the  process; 
of  inspection,  which  obviously  may  be  altered  at  will  with  regard, 
to  the  sequence  of  the  organs.* 


*  Thus,  many  experts  begin  with  the  inspection  of  the  four  quarters,  and  them' 
undertake  the  inspection  of  the  head,  internal  organs  and  skm. 


COUBSE  OF  INSPECTION  157 

(A)  CATTLE. — (For  horses,  the  same  procedure  may  be  adopted 
-with  a  few  variations.) 

1.  Skin.    Wounds,   abscesses,   actinomycomata,   anthrax — car- 
buncles, abnormal  blood  content  of  the  inuer  surface  ;  in  the  horse, 
especially,  glanderous  processes  and  botryomycomata. 

2.  Head. 

(a)  Outer  aspect.     (Actinomycomata.) 

(b)  Alse  nasi;  lips,  hard  gums,  pharyngeal  cavity.     (Foot- 
and-mouth  disease,  rinderpest.) 

(c)  Tongue.       (Foot-and-mouth     disease,    actinomycosis  — 
palpate.) 

(d)  External  and  internal  masticatory  muscles.     (Cysticerci— 
make  an  incision.) 

(e)  Upper  cervical    and    laryngeal  glands.      (Tuberculosis, 
actinomycosis.)* 

For  the  complete  inspection  of  the  head,  the  inspection  of 
the  tongue  with  its  connections  with  the  rami  of  the  jaw  is  re- 
quired. 

If  rustling  respiratory  sounds  were  perceptible  during  life,  the 
nasal  cavities  should  be  inspected  after  a  previous  splitting  of  the 
head  in  the  median  line.  In  horses  the  nasal  cavities  are  always 
to  be  inspected  (glanders). 

3.  Liver.    Examination  by  inspection,  palpation,  and  making 
an  incision  into  the  portal  glands.     (Degenerations,  inflammation, 
parasites,    tumors,   tuberculosis,   etc.)     Furthermore,    an    incision, 
above  in  the  right  lobe  and  on  the  posterior  surface  in  the  middle 
of  the  left  lobe,  and,  finally,  along  the  lobus  spigelii,  as  far  as  the 
large  bile  ducts.     (Liver  flukes.) 

4.  Heart.    Inspection  after  opening  the  pericardium,  opening 
of  the  left  and  right  ventricle  in  the  manner  customary  in  post 
mortems.     (Degenerations,    hemorrhages,  endocarditis,   cysticerci,. 
^chinococci.) 

5.  Lungs.    Palpation,  incision  in  a  transverse  direction ;  incision 
of  the  mediastinal  and  bronchial  glands.     (Tuberculosis,  echino- 
cocci,  Strongylidse,  inflammations,  aspiration  of  blood  and  stomach 
contents.) 

6.  Spleen.    Palpation;  incision  of  the  splenic  lymph  glands. 
(Swelling,  echinococci,  tuberculosis.) 


*  All  lymphatic  glands  lying  on  the  digestive  and  respiratory  apparatus  are 
he  examined  for  the  presence  of  tuberculous  alterations  by  making  an  incision. 


358  INSPECTION  OF  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 

7.  Kidneys.*  Inspection  or  incision  extending  from  the  middle 
of  the  convex  border  to  the  renal  pelvis,  incision  of  the  renal  lymph 
glands.  (Degenerations,  inflammation  of  the  renal  pelvis  and  kidney 
itself,  parasites,  tuberculosis.) 

8.  Stomach.    Internal   and  external  surface.     (Inflammations, 
tumors,  parasites,  actinomycomata,  serous  tuberculosis.) 

9.  Intestines.     (Inflammations,  parasites,  hemorrhages,  gelatin- 
ous infiltrations,  intestinal  anthrax,  tuberculosis.) 

10.  Mesentery.    Incision  of  the  mesenteric  gland  (hemorrhages, 
pentastomes,  tuberculosis.) 

11.  Omentum.     (Hemorrhages,  tuberculosis.) 

12.  Testicle  or  uterus.     Catting  open  the  latter.    (Inflammations, 
tuberculosis.) 

13.  Urinary  bladder.     Inspection,  and   press  out  the  contents. 
In  order  not  to  destroy  the  value  of  the  bladders  unnecessarily,  they 
should  be  cut  only  in  cases  where  disease  is  suspected.  (Erythrism, 
cloudy  contents,  thickening.) 

Hereupon  follows  : 

14.  Inspection  of  the  four  quarters. 

(a)  External  aspect.     (Blood   content,  hemorrhages,  edema, 
tumors,  parasites  [cysticerci]).    All  hemorrhages  observed 
upon  the  surface  should  be  examined  to  determine  whether 
they  extend  deeply  into  the  meat.  Bone  fractures  are  often 
characterized  by  only  slight  suggillations  on  the  surface  of 
the  skinned  carcass.    In  female  animals  the  udder  is  to  be 
examined  while  inspecting  the  hind  quarters,  the  supra- 
mammary  lymph  glands  should  be  incised.    (Tuberculosis, 
actinomycosis,  abscesses.) 

(b)  Inner  aspect,  peritoneum,  pleura.  (Blood  content,  inflam- 
mation, tumors,  tuberculosis.)     The  diaphragm  should  be 
lifted,  since  otherwise  in  the  hanging  animals  the  altera- 
tions which  are  found  underneath  the  diaphragm  might  be 
easily  overlooked. 

(c)  Spinal  column,  pelvis    and    sternum.       (Discolorations, 
fractures,  osteo-myelitis,  tuberculosis.) 

Finally,  in  case  cerebral  or  motor  disturbances  were  observed 
In  inspecting  the  animals  before  slaughter,  the  brain  or  the  ex- 
tremities (hoofs,  bones,  tendons,  joints)  are  to  be  subjected  to  a 
careful  inspection. 

*  The  kidneys  are  best  separated  from  the  fatty  capsule  immediately  after 
daughter,  before  it  has  set,  and,  until  inspected,  should  be  left  in  their  natural  con- 
nection with  the  hind  quarters  by  means  of  the  urethra. 


COURSE  OF  INSPECTION  159 

(B)  CALVES.  —  In  calves,  inspection  takes  place  in  the  same 
manner  as  with  cattle,  with  the  exception  that  the  inspection  of 
the  liver  for  flukes  is  omitted.  Especial  attention  in  calves  should 
be  given  to  the  condition  : 

1.  Of  the  stomach  (ulcus  pepticum.) 

2.  Of  the  small  intestine  (hemorrhagic  enteritis,  dysentery). 

3.  Of  the  mesenteric  and  portal  glands  (congenital  and  incipient 
tuberculosis). 

4.  Of  the  navel  (omphalo-phlebitis). 

6.  Of  the  joints  (septic  and  suppurative  polyarthritis). 

(c)  SHEEP.  —  In  sheep  the  spleen  must  be  carefully  inspected  ia 
every  case  (anthrax)  ;  also  the  brain  (Ccenurus  cerebralis).  Moreover, 
in  sheep,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  frequently  occurriog  lung 
and  stomach  worms,  as  well  as  to  sarcosporidia  in  the  esophagus 

skeletal  musculature. 


(D)  HOGS.  —  The  internal  organs,  spinal  column,  pelvis  and 
sternum  are  in  general  inspected  in  the  same  manner  as  in  cattle. 
The  liver,  lungs,  heart,  trachea  and  tongue  of  hogs  are  to  remain  in 
their  natural  connection.  The  following  variations  from  the  above 
described  course  of  inspection  requires  consideration  in  the  case  of 
hogs  : 

1.  Careful  inspection  of  the  tongue  and  heart  as  well  as  the 
abdominal  muscles,  free  from  retroperitoneal  fatty  tissue  ;  diaphragm; 
intercostal,  cervical,  masticatory  and  laryngeal  muscles  for  the  pres- 
ence of  cysticerci.* 

2.  An  incision  into  the  base  of  the  lungs  on  account  of  the  fre- 
quent occurrence  of  Strongylus  paradoxus. 

3.  Inspection   of  the   skin.      (Erythrism,   granular   eruptions, 
sclerosis  in  boars.) 

4.  Inspection  of  the  udder  (actinomycosis). 

5.  Inspection  of  the  hoofs  (foot-and-mouth  disease). 

i         6.  Inspection  of  all  visible  skeletal  muscles  (hemorrhages,  cys- 
ticerci, calcareous  concretions). 

Inspection  may  proceed  in  this  way  in  ordinary  cases.  If 
pathological  alterations  are  found,  the  findings  of  inspection  are  to 

*  In  order  that  the  cervical  muscles  may  be  inspected  for  cysticerci,  it  is  desir- 
able that  all  hogs  should  be  split  before  inspection  ;  that  is,  separated  into  two  lateral 
halves  by  a  longitudinal  splitting  of  the  spinal  column  and  the  associated  soft  parts. 


160  INSPECTION  OF  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 

be  supplemented  according  to  requirements  by  determining  the 
condition  of  other  organs  aud,  if  necessary,  by  microscopic,  bacteri* 
ologicai  and  chemical  tests.  The  extent  to  which  this  is  indicated 
will  be  especially  discussed  in  connection  with  the  varioua 
diseases. 


Appendix.— Inspection  of  Imported  Meat. 

The  inspection  of  meat  which  is  introduced  in  a  slaughtered 
condition  from  any  locality  inland  or  from  a  foreign  country  is 
always  uncertain,  for  it  must  be  done  by  the  inspector  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  animal  before  slaughter,  and, 
therefore,  can  not  include  all  of  the  internal  organs.  Certain  organs, 
as,  for  instance,  the  stomach  and  intestines,  can  not  be  introduced 
in  connection  with  the  carcasses,  since  they  rapidly  pass  into  decom- 
position and  cause  an  extension  of  this  process  to  other  parts  of  the 
body.  Often,  however,  there  are  pathological  processes  in  the 
stomach  and  intestines  which  may  render  the  meat  injurious  to- 
Leal  th  (septic  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  dysen- 
tery). It  is  easy  to  understand,  therefore,  why  Hartenstein  proposed 
that  imported  meat  should  be  offered  for  sale  only  in  separate 
booths,  as  required  by  the  Prussian  slaughterhouse  law,  and  that 
labels  should  be  attached  to  these  sales  booths  with  the  inscription,. 
"Introduced  from  outside  countries.  No  responsibility  can  be 
assumed  for  the  harmlessness  of  the  meat."  The  same  purpose  is 
served  by  a  special  stamping  of  introduced  meat,  so  as  to  make  it 
apparent  that  the  meat  is  introduced. 

Naturally,  the  inspection  of  meat  introduced  from  foreign  coun- 
tries is  not  entirely  without  value,  as  is  shown  by  the  findings  of 
trichinae  in  pork  introduced  from  America,  and  which  had  been 
already  inspected  in  the  export  country.  Beside  trichinae,  macro- 
scopically-visible  injurious  parasites  (beef  and  pork  measle  worms) 
may  be  demonstrated  if  those  parts  which  serve  as  a  favorite  loca- 
tion for  these  parasites  are  introduced  in  their  natural  connection 
"with  the  animal  bodies.  For  the  detection  of  the  beef  measle  worm, 
the  head  is  of  prime  importance,  and  for  the  demonstration  of  the 
pork  measle  worm,  the  heart  and  tongue.  It  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  have  the  head  with  the  lower  jaw,  together  with  the  masti- 
catory muscles,  along  with  the  imported  meat,  since  more  than  90 
per  cent,  of  all  findings  of  beef  measle  worms  are  possible  only 


INSPECTION   OF  IMPORTED   MEAT  161 

through  an  inspection  of  the  masticatory  muscles.  For  inspection 
for  glanders,  the  head  and  skin  are  indispensable.  For  the  diagnosis 
of  tuberculosis,  pleuro-pneumonia,  cattle  plague  and  swine  plague, 
the  lungs  should  be  imported  along  with  the  meat,  and  for  the  deter- 
mination of  anthrax  and  Texas  fever  the  spleen  should  be  presented. 
For  the  detection  of  septic  and  pyemic  diseases  and  generalized 
tuberculosis,  the  introduction  of  the  heart,  liver  and  kidneys  should 
be  required.  In  female  animals,  in  view  of  the  importance  of  septic 
diseases  of  the  udder  and  uterus  in  forming  a  judgment  of  the  meat, 
the  introduction  of  these  organs  is  desirable.  If  the  introduction  of 
the  uterus  must  be  abandoned  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  trans- 
porting it  when  filled  by  a  fetus,  the  instructions  for  inspection  of 
introduced  meat  are  to  be  so  worded  that  all  carcasses  of  female 
animals  in  which  an  inflammation  of  the  lymph  glands,  which  corre- 
spond to  the  uterus,  is  demonstrated  shall  be  excluded  from  the 
market.  It  is,  moreover,  self-evident  that  individual  parts  of  bodies 
and  organs  to  be  imported  shall  not  be  removed  before  inspection 
is  completed,  and  that  individual  pieces,  sausage,  canned  meat,  and 
other  mixtures  of  minced  meat  which  can  not  be  subjected  to  an 
inspection,  shall  be  absolutely  excluded  from  introduction.  (Com- 
pare Sec.  12  of  the  Meat  Inspection  Law.) 

Since  expert  inspection  and  the  proper  utilization  of  the  findings 
in  the  case  of  meat  introduced  from  outside  countries  belong  to  the 
most  difficult  functions  of  meat  inspection,  this  part  of  the  inspec- 
tion should  be  reserved  for  veterinarians.  Furthermore,  in  cases 
where  a  diseased  condition  is  suspected,  all  means  are  to  be  ex- 
hausted in  making  a  more  accurate  inspection  (histological,  bacteri- 
ological and  chemical  methods  of  testing),  in  order  that,  so  far  as 
possible,  only  unexceptionable  and  actually  marketable  meat  shall 
leave  the  inspection  stations  for  introduced  meat. 

The  quite  generally  practiced  market  control  of  introduced 
meat  in  the  inland,  and  the  thorough  secondary  inspection  of  fresh 
meat  introduced  from  other  localities  which  have  been  reserved  for 
cities  with  public  slaughterhouses,  do  not  possess  as  much  signifi- 
cance since  the  meat  inspection  law  has  come  in  force  as  before,  but 
they  are,  however,  a  very  important  means  of  controlling  govern- 
mental meat  inspection,  as  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  the  Grand 
iDuchy  of  Baden.  (Compare  page  89.) 


162 


INSPECTION   OF   SLAUGHTERED   ANIMALS 


Oeneral  Review  of  the  Traffic  of  Germany  in  Living  Animals,  Fresh  and 
Prepared  Meat,  Sausages,  Lard  and  Similar  Fats  in  the  Year  1897. 


KIND  OF  PRODUCT 

IMPORTS 

EXPORTS 

EXCESS  OP 
IMPORTS 

EXCESS  OF 
EXPORTS 

LIVING  ANIMALS  — 

Number 
73  788 

Number 
2  838 

Number 
70  950 

Number 

Bulls  

5  977 

375 

5  602 

51  282 

3  951 

47  331 

Young  animals  up  to  2£  yrs. 
Calves  under  6  weeks     .     • 
Swine,  young  pigs  excepted 

71,923 
14,597 
89,826 
2  054 

4,966 
455 
4,592 
2298 

66,957 
14,142 
85,234 

244 

Sheep  • 

1  988 

199  295 

197  307 

431 

17,651 

17220' 

(A)  FRESH  MEAT  — 
1.  Beef    

J&. 

4  449,000 

Kg. 
1,119,400 

Kg. 
3  329  600 

iff. 

2.  Pork    ..*.... 

11,213  300 

75,400 

11  137  900 

3.  Mutton     ..».«. 

66,500 

159,000 

92  500 

4.  Other  kinds  of  meat  .    . 

(B)  PREPARED  MEAT  — 
1.  Beef    

8,200 
2  170  500 

11,000 

2  170  500 

2,800 

2.  Pork    

4  249  900 

92,000 

4  157  900 

3  Ham    

3  316  600 

1,314  000 

2  002  600 

17,010,400 

139,300 

16  871  100 

146,300 

13,400 

132  900 

s 

185,900 

737,300 

1  113  600 

7.  Meat  in  cans  and  other- 
wise hermetically  seal'd 

3,454,400 
1,095,500 

88,100 
71,900 

3,336,300 
1  023  600 

— 

Bladders     ) 

17,179  200 

1  719  800 

15  459  400 

Stomachs    ) 

LARD  AND  SIMILAR  FATS  — 
1.  Oleomargarine  .... 
2.  Lard    

20,106,100 
97  280  900 

700 
43  600 

20,105,400 
97  237  300 

8.  Tallow     

16  669  300 

1  204  700 

15  464  600 

4.  Animal  and  refuse  fats  . 

5,447,400 

7,445,600 

1,998,20* 

INSPECTION  OF  IMPORTED   MEAT  163 

Frontier  abattoirs. — The  most  satisfactory  manner  in  which  we 
make  use  of  the  meat  of  our  neighboring  countries,  and  all 
trans-Atlantic  countries  which  are  abundantly  supplied  with  animals, 
consists  in  the  erection  of  frontier  abattoirs.  In  these  the  food 
animals  coming  from  foreign  countries  are  slaughtered,  and  are 
thereupon  sent  in  refrigerator  cars  to  the  thickly-populated  inland 
districts  where  food  animals  are  scarce.  We  possess  such  abattoirs 
on  the  Russian  boundary  in  Myslowitz,  Kattowitz,  Tarlowitz,  Beu- 
then;  on  the  sea  coast,  in  the  abattoirs  at  Hamburg,  Liibeck, 
Bremen,  Kiel,  Rostock,  Stralsund  and  Stettin. 

The  introduction  of  living  food  animals  through  frontier  abat- 
toirs makes  it  possible  to  subject  imported  slaughterhouse  wares  to 
a  careful  sanitary  police  control.  Moreover,  the  introduction  of 
living  animals  in  such  slaughterhouses  may  take  place  under  such 
regulations  that  there  need  be  no  fear  of  introducing  animal  plagues 
Into  the  country. 

Prohibitive  Decrees  Issued  by  the  German  Empire  and  the  Federal  States 

Regarding:  Imports,  According  to  the  Status  of  the  Question 

on  November  1,  1900.* 

1.  Against  Russia  the  following  is  prohibited  :  The  importation 
-of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  other  ruminants,  hogs,  all  parts  of  ruminants 
in  a  fresh  condition,  with  the  exception  of  butter,  milk  and  cheese ; 
fresh  pork  and  all  preparations  of  pork,  pickled  meat,  salted  meat, 
liams,  other  smoked   products,  sausage,  meat  in   brine  (with  the 
-exception  of  cooked  pork  and  rendered  lardf). 

Restricted :  The  importation  of  horses,  animal  parts  and  pro- 
ducts in  a  thoroughly  dried  or  salted  condition. 

2.  Against  Austria-Hungary,  a  prohibition  exists   against  the 
importation  of  sheep  and  hogs,  and  the  importation  of  horses,  asses, 
mules,  ninnies,  cattlej  and  goats  is  restricted. 


*  Annual  Report  on  the  Distribution  of  Animal  Plagues  in  the  German  Empire 
for  the  year  1900.  Berlin,  1901. 

f  The  inhabitants  of  frontier  districts  are  permitted  to  import  pork  in  quantities 
of  not  more  than  2  kg.  in  a  raw  condition,  or  in  any  condition  other  than  cooked,  free 
•of  duty.  In  the  governmental  district  of  Konigsberg,  the  importation  of  thoroughly- 
pickled  pork  is  permitted. 

J  The  importation  of  cattle  is  restricted  to  such  animals  as  come  from  regions 
free  from  pleuro-pneumonia,:  and  which  are  brought  to  slaughterhouses  under  veteri- 
nary police  supervision  for  immediate  slaughter.  Moreover,  breeding  and  work  ani- 
mals may  be  imported  in  the  frontier  regions. 


164  INSPECTION  OP  SLAUGHTERED   ANIMALS 

3.  Against  the  countries  beyond  Austria-Hungary  (Eoumania,, 
Bulgaria,  Servia),  the  importation  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  hogs, 
fresh  meat  and  other  fresh  parts  of  ruminants,  fresh  meat  of  hogs, 
as  well  as  all  preparations  of  pork,  with  the  exception  of  cooked 
pork  and  rendered  lard,  is  prohibited. 

4.  Against  Italy,  the  importation  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and 
hogs  is  prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses,  mules  and  asses 
is  restricted. 

5.  Against  Switzerland,  the  importation  of  sheep  and  hogs  is 
prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses,  mules,  asses,  cattle  and 
goats  is  restricted. 

6.  Against  France,  the  importation  of  cattle,*  sheep,  goats  and 
hogs  is  prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses,  mules  and  asses 
is  restricted. 

7.  Against  Luxemburg,  the  importation  of  horses,  asses,  mules,, 
hinnies,  ruminants  and  hogs  is  restricted. 

8.  Against  Belgium,  the  importation  of   cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
hogs  and  all  fresh  beef  is  prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses, 
asses,  mules  and  hinnies  is  restricted. 

9.  Against  the  Netherlands,  the  importation  of  cattle,  sheep,, 
goats,  hogs,  and  raw  animal  material  in  a  fresh  condition,  as  well  as 
fresh  and  recently  salted  skins  and  horns  and  hoofs,  is  prohibited ; 
and  the  importation   of  horses,  asses,  mules   and  hinnies  is  re- 
stricted. 

10.  Against  Denmark,  the  importation  of  ruminants  and  hogs 
from  the  boundary  line  between  Schleswig  and  Jutlandf,  hogs  and 
fresh    pork    by    land    or    sea,   raw   animal   materials   in   a  fresh 
condition  by  land  or  sea  (with  the  exception  of  the    transporta- 
tion through  the  Empire  of  fresh  and  salted  pelts  and  skins),  is 
prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses  and  ruminants  by  sea  is 
restricted. 

11.  Against  Sweden  and  Norway,  the  importation  of  ruminants,, 
hogs  and  fresh  pork  is  prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses  is 
restricted. 

12.  Against  Great   Britain    and   Ireland,   the   importation    of 


*  Exceptionally,  cattle  may  be  admitted  for  immediate  slaughter  in  the  abat- 
toirs of  the  frontier  localities  of  Hayingen,  Gross-Moyoeuvre  Altmunsterol,  Saales- 
and  Markirch  to  supply  the  demand  of  these  communities,  and  in  the  fortified  towns 
of  Metz  and  Diedenhofen  in  the  interest  of  provisioning  these  localities. 

f  During  the  periods  from  October  1  to  December  31,  and  from  April  1  to- 
May  31,  of  each  year,  poor  animals  may  be  imported  into  the  quarantine  station  at 
Hvidding. 


INSPECTION   OF   IMPORTED   MEAT  165 

ruminants  and  hogs  is  prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses  is 
restricted. 

13.  Against  America,  the  importation  of  cattle  and  fresh  beef  is 
prohibited,  and  the  importation  of  horses,  goats,  sheep  and  hogs, 
as  well  as  pork  and  sausage,*  is  restricted. 

14.  Against  foreign  countries  in   general,  the  importation  of 
horses,  ruminants  and  hogs  by  sea,  and  of  frozen  meat  from  foreign 
countries,  is  restricted.  (Proclamation  of  the  Governmental  District 
of  Konigsberg,  January  29, 1895.) 


*  Animal  products  must  be  provided  with  an  official  certificate  stating  that  th« 
meat  was  inspected  in  the  export  country  according  to  regulations  existing  in  that 
country,  and  was  found  to  be  free  from  dangerous  properties.  (Imperial  Decree  of 
September  3.  1891.) 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF 
MEAT  AND  ORGANS  OF  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS. 


This  subject,  in  the  strict  and  ordinary  sense,*  includes  a  study- 
of  the  normal  condition  of  individual  parts,  the  differential  diag- 
nosis of  the  meat  of  different  animals,  and  the  recognition  of  the 
age  and  sex  of  slaughtered  animals.  In  addition,  the  subject 
includes  the  utilization  of  meat  and  other  parts  of  slaughtered 
animals.  The  latter  phase  of  the  question  will  be  treated,  in  so 
far  as  seems  desirable,  as  an  appendix  to  the  description  of  the 
normal  condition  of  the  different  parts. 

1. — Normal  Appearance  of  Different  Parts  of  Food  Animals. 

(a)  The  Skin. 

In  the  majority  of  animals  which  are  slaughtered  for  meat 
(beef,  calves,  sheep,  goats  and  horses),  the  skin  is  not  used  for 
human  food.  A  knowledge  of  the  normal  condition  of  the  skin  in 
these  animals  possesses,  therefore,  chiefly  a  clinical  significance 
(see  "Inspection  of  Animals  Before  Slaughter").  Only  certain 
parts  of  the  skin  of  the  calf  and  beef  (the  head  and  under  parts  of 
the  face  and  lower  extremities)  are  used  for  human  food.  In  the 
case  of  hogs,  on  the  other  hand,  the  whole  skin  is  considered  as 
41  meat." 

The  skin  of  slaughtered  hogs  is  characterized  by  its  pure  white 
color  and  elastic  consistency.  The  white  color  appears  more  dis- 
tinctly after  scalding.  In  quite  exceptional  cases,  red  spots  are 
observed  on  the  skin  of  hogs  which  are  not  properly  bled,  and 
which,  consequently,  manifest  signs  of  life  after  being  placed  in 
the  scalding  kettle.  In  old  brood  sows  the  skin  possesses  a  uni- 
form hardness,  and  in  old  boars  the  skin  is  modified  on  both  sideas 


*  In  the  broader  sense,  the  pathology  of  meat  belongs  also  to  this  subject. 

166 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  167 

of   the   breast   to   a   cartilaginous  consistency.     The   cartilaginous 
parts  of  the  skin  of  boars  is  commonly  known  as  the  "  shield." 

The  use  of  the  skin  of  beef  animals  for  sausage. — In  former  years 
the  heads  of  young  cattle  from  one  to  one  and  one-half  years  of  age 
were  sometimes  scalded  in  the  same  manner  as  calves'  heads,  and 
used,  together  with  the  fleshy  parts  of  the  head,  in  the  preparation 
of  schwartenmagen.  Recently,  however,  as  stated  by  Henninger  in 
Lahr,  following  the  example  set  in  the  Rhine  district,  it  has  become 
customary  in  the  region  of  Lahr  to  scald  the  whole  skin  of  young 
cattle  and  use  it  for  schwartenmagen.  This  use  of  the  skin  is  very 
profitable,  since  otherwise  it  brings  a  much  smaller  price  than  the 
usual  fleshy  constituents  of  the  above-named  sausage.  According 
to  the  law  regulating  food  materials,  it  is  possible  to  proceed  against 
dealers  in  such  sausage  if  this  unusual  method  of  preparation  is  not 
made  known  to  the  purchasers,  for  skin  sausages  are  an  adulterated 
food  material.  For  other  reasons,  it  would  be  desirable  that  skins 
intended  for  sausages  should  be  investigated  with  reference  to  their 
nutritive  value  in  the  same  manner  as  meat. 

"  Head  meat"  "  leather  meat." — In  Austria,  and  recently  also  in 
Germany  (Magdeburg),  it  has  been  shown  that  dealers  in  skins 
separate  the  meat  which  is  found  on  green  skins,  especially  on  the 
head,  and  place  it  upon  the  market.  This  traffic  should  be  forbid- 
den, except  where  the  meat  is  separated  immediately  after  slaughter 
and  before  the  skin  has  been  soiled ;  and  the  skin  of  condemned 
animals  must  be  absolutely  excluded  from  use  for  this  purpose. 

(b)  The  Blood. 

The  normal  blood  is  scarlet  red  in  the  arteries,  dark  red  in  the 
Veins.  In  contact  with  atmospheric  air,  the  venous  blood  also  takes 
on  a  light  color.  The  blood  possesses  the  character  of  a  body  color ; 
in  thin  layers  it  is  opaque  ;  the  reaction  is  alkaline.  The  blood  of 
different  animals  possesses  a  specific  odor  (volatile  fatty  acids) 
which  becomes  more  evident  on  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 
Shed  blood  is  characterized  by  its  property  of  coagulation.  In 
the  heart  and  larger  vessels  of  dead  animals  the  blood  coagulates 
rapidly,  but  this  does  not  take  place  in  the  capillaries  (Virchow). 

The  blood  of  hogs  and  calves  constitutes  the  raw  material  for 
the  preparation  of  blood  sausage.  Beef  blood  was  formerly  not 
used  for  making  sausage,  because  sausage  prepared  in  that  manner 


168         APPEARANCE   AND    DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

was  rough,  dull,  and  crumbled  on  the  cut  surface.  This  defect  ia 
now  remedied  by  the  addition  of  milk.  The  chief  use  of  beef  and 
sheep  blood  is  for  the  extraction  of  albumen  and  the  preparation  of 
blood  and  molasses  cake  and  pepton  feed.  Where  no  such  profitable 
use  is  possible,  the  blood  of  cattle  and  sheep  (after  coagulation, 
drying  and  grinding)  is  used  as  a  fertilizer.  Scheurer,  Kestner  and 
others  proposed  the  use  of  beef  blood  in  the  form  of  blood-bread  as 
a  food  material  for  animals,  or  occasionally  for  man.  In  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Odessa  blood-bread  bakeries  have  been  established. 
Blood-bread  is  prepared  from  seven  parts  rye  flour  and  three  parts 
beef  blood,  and  is  supposed  to  serve  the  purpose  of  a  highly  nutri- 
tious and  cheap  food  material  for  poor  people.  Whether  this  is 
really  the  case  appears  doubtful,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
Colasanti  and  Sacoangeli.  These  authors,  in  harmony  with  Magen- 
die  and  Pagen,  found  that  dogs  fed  on  an  exclusive  blood  diet  for 
twenty  to  thirty  days  died.  This  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that 
defibrinated  blood  consists  exclusively  of  red  blood  corpuscles, 
which  are  composed  of  nine-tenths  hemoglobin  and  one-tenth 
globulin.  It  is  well  known  that  hemoglobin  is  changed  in  the 
stomach  into  indigestible  hematin  which  is  excreted  with  the  feces. 
The  blood  of  slaughtered  animals  can  not,  according  to  law,  be 
offered  for  sale  as  a  food  material.  It  is  usually  rendered  impure 
by  contact  with  the  stomach  contents  which  pour  out  from  the  sev- 
ered esophagus  during  bleeding. 

(c)  The  Most  Important  Internal  Organs. 

In  the  description  of  the  important  vital  organs,  I  choose  the 
order  in  which  they  are  removed  from  the  body  of  the  animal  after 
slaughter.  The  figures,  which  are  given  on  the  size  and  weight  of 
the  internal  organs,  are  taken  from  Franck's  Anatomy,  revised  by 
Martin,  and  from  the  special  work  of  Schmaltz  on  this  subject. 

THE  ALIMENTARY  CANAL. — The  covering,  smooth  and  glisten- 
ing ;  the  walls  appearing  blue-gray ;  moveable  contents.  Absolute 
absence  of  contents  in  Ihe  posterior  regions  of  the  alimentary  tract 
indicates  a  closure  of  the  lumen,  as  in  incarceration,  invagination, 
involution  and  constriction. 

The  alimentary  canal  of  slaughtered  animals  is  used  almost 
•exclusively  as  casing  material  for  sausage.  The  alimentary  canal  of 
hogs  which  have  been  fed  acorns  is  not  suitable  for  this  purpose,  OR 
account  of  its  liability  to  rupture. 


NOKMAL   APPEARANCE  169 

The  serous  coat  of  the  large  intestine  is  much  sought  after  as 
gold  beaters'  skin  and  as  a  basis  for  animal  plasters. 

STOMACH. — The  stomach  is  of  the  same  external  appearance  as 
the  intestines.  It  is  empty  only  in  animals  which  have  fasted.  The 
paunch  of  ruminants  is,  however,  always  full. 

The  stomach  is  used  partly  as  a  food  material,  partly  as  sausage 
casing,  and  partly  for  technical  purposes.  Thus,  beef  paunch  is 
used  in  making  tripe ;  the  fourth  stomach,  as  an  additional  element 
in  making  liver  sausage ;  and,  in  southern  Germany,  the  stomach  of 
the  hog  is  used  as  a  casing  for  the  so-called  schwartenmagen.  In 
addition  to  these  uses,  pepsin  is  obtained  from  the  stomach  of  hogs, 
and,  from  the  stomach  of  calves,  rennet  is  obtained  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cheese. 

Weight  of  the  contents  of  stomach  and  intestines. — The  weight  of 
the  stomach  contents  is  not  infrequently  the  subject  of  controversy, 
when  animals  are  sold  according  to  live  weight.  The  buyers  pre- 
suppose an  honest  delivery ;  i.e.,  there  is  a  tacit  understanding  that 
animals  which  are  offered  for  sale  shall  receive  fodder  only  up  to  a 
certain  hour,  which  varies  from  3  to  6  P.  M.  of  the  day  preceding 
slaughter.  The  following  figures  may  serve  for  deciding  differences 
of  opinion  which  may  arise. 

According  to  Wolf,  the  relation  between  the  weight  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  as  well  as  that  of  the  empty 
stomach  and  intestines,  and  the  live  weight  in  fasting  animals,  is  as 
follows  : 

(A)  OXEN. 

(a)  Moderately  fat —  Per  cent. 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 18 . 0 

Stomach  without  contents 4.5 

Intestines  without  contents 2.0 

Total 24.5 

(b)  Half  fat— 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 15.0 

Stomach  without  contents 3.0 

Intestines  without  contents 1.5 

Total 19.5 

(c)  ^a^- 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 12. 0 

Stomach  without  contents 2.7 

Intestines  without  contents 1.4 

Total..  .16.1 


170         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

(B)  CALVES. 
Fat— 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 7.0 

Stomach  without  contents 1.2 

Intestines  without  contents 2.4 

Total 10.6 

(c)  HOGS 

(a)  Moderately  well  fattened — 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 7.0 

Stomach  without  contents 1.2 

Intestines  without  contents 3.9 

Total 12  1 

(b)  ^a^- 

Contents  of  stomach  and  intestines 5.0 

Stomach  without  contents 0.7 

Intestines  without  contents 2.2 

Total 7.9 

H-intzen  (Zeit.  f.  Fleisch-u.  Milchhyg,  III.)  found  in  fasting  cows 
the  average  proportion  of  the  weight  of  the  stomach  and  intestines 
with  contents  to  be  18.2  per  cent.  (15.5  to  22.7  per  cent,  the  abso- 
lute weight  varying  between  146  and  244  Ibs.) ;  in  calves,  9.4  per 
cent.  (4.7  to  13.2  per  cent.,  the  absolute  weight  varying  from  7  to  26 
Ibs.)  ;  and  in  hogs,  7.6  per  cent.  (5.2  to  12.2  per  cent,  the  absolute 
weight  varying  from  11.5  to  23  Ibs.). 

A  beef  animal  may  increase  in  weight  from  sixty  to  ninety 
pounds  by  one  meal. 

P.  Falk  determined  the  weight  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  in 
thirty-seven  beef  animals  to  be  16.35  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight 
(varying  from  9.4  to  25.2  per  cent). 

According  to  Dammann,  the  weight  of  the  stomach  contents  in 
heavy  hogs,  which  were  fed  for  the  last  time  between  sixteen  and 
twenty  hours  before  slaughter  with  one  to  two  pounds  of  barley- 
grits  and  bran,  amounted  to  from  350  to  1,600  gm.,  while  in  ani- 
mals coming  from  some  distance,  and  fed  eighteen  hours  before 
slaughter,  the  stomach  contents  amounted  to  from  three  to  five 
pounds  or  more.  In  one  case  (a  hog),  which  WMS  fed  eleven  hours 
before  slaughter,  the  stomach  contents  weighed  somewhat  more 
than  ten  pounds. 

SPLEEN.— This  is  of  different  appearance  in  different  animals. 
The  size  of  the  spleen  is,  however,  subject  to  physiological  varia- 
tions in  the  same  animal.  According  to  Masoin,  the  spleen  attains 
its  greatest  volume  about  five  hours  after  feeding. 


NORMAL   APPEARANCE  .     171 

In  the  horse  the  spleen  is  flat,  sickle-shaped,  and,  when  just 
removed,  of  a  bluish-violet  color,  which  later  becomes  reddish- 
brown  ;  cut  surfaces,  intensive  brownish-red,  with  scattered  white 
spots ;  about  45  cm.  long  and  of  a  flabby  consistency ;  the  borders- 
are  somewhat  rounded;  weight,  500  to  750  gm.  The  weight 
may  increase  considerably  a  short  time  after  the  digestion  of  a 
meal. 

Ox. — Form,  an  extended  oval,  flatly  compressed  ;  length,  50  cm.; 
breadth,  about  13  cm.;  weight,  about  1  kg. 

Schmaltz  found  the  average  weight  of  the  spleen  in  twenty- 
eight  animals  of  more  than  250  kg.,  dressed  weight,  to  be  1  kg. 
(varying  from  750  to  1,750  gm.).  In  thirty-three  animals,  of  from 
200  to  250  kg.,  or  less,  dressed  weight,  the  spleen  weighed,  on  the 
other  hand,  only  0  6  kg.,  varying  between  0.5  and  1  kg. 

The  color  and  thickness  of  the  spleen  are  not  the  same  in  male 
and  female  beef  animals.  In  bulls  and  fattened  steers,  the  spleen, 
is  of  a  reddish-brown  color,  rather  firm  and  thick ;  both  surfaces 
are  convex.  In  the  cow,  on  the  other  hand,  the  spleen  has  a  grayish- 
blue  color,  a  flabby  consistency  and  flat  surfaces.  Furthermore,  in 
the  spleen  of  bulls  and  oxen,  the  follicles  are  more  apparent  and  of 
the  size  of  hemp  seed.  In  bulls  and  steers  the  borders  of  the  spleen 
are  moderately  rounded ;  in  cows,  on  the  contrary,  sharp. 

The  spleen  of  calves  varies  from  reddish-brown  to  bluish-red,, 
and  has  the  same  color  in  both  sexes.  It  possesses  moderately  con- 
vex surfaces  and  rounded  borders,  and  is  of  a  soft,  elastic  consistency. 
The  follicles  do  not  appear  especially  plain. 

Sheep  and  goats. — The  spleen  has  the  same  form  as  that  of  beef 
animals,  is  reddish-brown,  later  becoming  dark  red  in  color.  The 
surfaces  and  borders  are  rather  strongly  convex ;  consistency,  soft 
or  slightly  elastic ;  weight,  about  60  gm. 

Hog.—  The  spleen  is  tongue-shaped  ;  in  color,  a  bright  red,  later 
becoming  dark  red,  and  of  a  flabby  consistency.  The  follicles  appear- 
rather  prominent. 

LIVER. — The  liver  is  also  of  different  form  in  different  domestic 
animals. 

Horse. — Three  lobed ;  the  right  is  the  largest ;  the  left,  inter- 
mediate ;  and  the  middle  lobe,  the  smallest.  The  right  lobe  suffers,, 
with  increasing  age,  a  physiological  atrophy  (pressure  atrophy). 
The  weight  of  the  liver  in  old  horses  is  from  3  to  4  kg.;  in  youn^ 
animals,  which  have  died  during  the  process  of  stomach  digestion,  & 
to  8  kg. 


172         APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

Ox. — Form,  indistinctly  two-lobed.  Near  the  lobus  spigelii 
there  is  the  lobus  quadratus  (tuberculum  papillare).  No  esophageal 
notch;  no  middle  sickle-shaped  band;  gall  bladder  of  a  pear 
shape. 

The  weight  of  the  ox  liver  without  gall  bladder  is,  on  the  aver- 
age, 4.5  kg.  (about  l-85th  of  the  body  weight).  According  to 
Schmaltz,  the  weight  of  the  liver  in  cattle  of  more  than  250  kg., 
<lressed  weight,  averages  5.75  kg.  (varying  between  4.5  and  8  kg.).  In 
cattle  of  250  kg.  or  less,  dressed  weight,  the  liver  weight  is  4.8  kg., 
varying  between  2.75  and  6  kg.  The  average  weight  of  the  liver  in 
sixty-eight  animals  was  l-52nd  of  the  dressed  weight. 

Sheep  and  goats.— Weight,  375  to  875  gm.  (l-53rd  of  the  body 
weight).  On  account  of  these  variations  in  weight,  dealers  distin- 
guish between  large  and  small  sheep  livers. 

Hogs. — The  hog  liver  has  four  lobes,  besides  the  spigelian  and 
quadrate  lobes  and  the  gall  bladder ;  weight,  1  to  2.45  kg.  (l-40th  of 
the  body  weight).  The  liver  of  the  hog  is  distinguished  by  its  large 
lobuli  and  the  strongly  developed  in  terlobular  connective  tissue. 
Hog  livers  are,  therefore,  easily  distinguished  from  calves'  livers  in 
cases  of  attempted  deception. 

The  following  characteristics  are  common  to  the  livers  of  all 
food  animals :  The  bluish-ground  color,  which  later  becomes  decid- 
edly reddish-brown ;  the  glistening  appearance  of  the  parenchyma; 
the  moderately  firm  consistency — while  still  retaining  the  animal 
heat  the  liver  is  considerably  softer— and  the  absence  of  blood  from 
the  numerous  larger  veins  on  cross  section.  The  borders  of  the  liver 
are  somewhat  sharp.  In  calves  and  well-fattened  young  cattle,  from 
one  to  four  years  of  age,  the  liver  is  thick,  the  surfaces  convex,  and 
the  borders  slightly  rounded.  In  young  cattle,  of  from  one-half  to 
one  year  of  age,  and  in  old  cows,  the  liver  is  thinner,  the  surfaces 
more  even,  and  the  borders  sharp.  In  the  latter  cases,  also,  the 
consistency  of  the  liver  is  flabby  and  the  color  a  dark  reddish- 
brown. 

Variations  from  the  reddish-brown  ground  color  (always  appar- 
ent in  bulls,  old  steers,  poorly  fattened  sheep,  and,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  also  in  hogs),  occur  in  sucking  calves,  well-fattened  young 
•  cattle  and  steers,  as  well  as  in  very  fat  wethers  and  hogs.  In  the 
last-named  animals,  the  liver  is  yellowish-brown  and  turbid,  and  of 
increased  volume  (greater  thickness  and  rounded  borders).  The 
yellowish-brown  color  may  appear  upon  the  whole  liver,  as  in  calves 
and  young  steers,  or  may  occur  as  a  band  around  the  periphery  of 
.the  acini — fatty  infiltration  of  fattened  animals.  In  sucking  calves 


N011MAL   APPEAEANCE  17 "fc 

a  so-called  transitory  fatty  infiltration  is  observed  shortly  after  each 
sucking. 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  the  weight  of  the  liver  is  subject 
to  considerable  variation,  according  as  the  animals  are  slaughtered 
during  the  process  of  digestion,  or  after  a  considerable  period  of 
fasting.  For  the  elucidation  of  this  relation  I  have  made  several 
test  weighings,  and  have  found  differences  of  as  much  as  500  gm.  in 
the  livers  of  medium-sized  hogs,  fasting  and  fed  with  bran.  Fur- 
thermore, the  liver  of  fasting  hogs  is  decidedly  reddish-brown  in 
color,  while  in  animals  killed  during  the  process  of  digestion  the 
yellowish  color  of  the  liver  is  never  absent. 

LUNGS. — The  lungs  do  not  require  such  a  detailed  description 
as  the  liver.  The  most  essential  characteristics  of  the  normal  con* 
dition  of  the  lungs  are  the  small  blood  content  and  the  uniform 
elastic  consistency. 

The  healthy  lungs  of  bled  animals  exhibit  a  rose-red  color;  the 
surface  is  smooth  and  glistening.  On  the  cut  surface,  a  foamy  sub- 
stance of  a  light  reddish  tinge  may  be  rubbed  off  (residual  air)^ 
After  their  removal  from  the  thorax,  healthy  lungs  collapse.  Onljr 
in  cases  where  the  lungs  remain  for  several  hours  after  death  in  the 
unopened  thorax  do  they  exhibit  an  incomplete  retraction.  Butch- 
ers, therefore,  in  localities  where  inflation  is  forbidden,  allow  calves' 
lungs  to  remain  as  long  as  possible  in  the  thorax  in  order  to  give 
them  a  more  voluminous  appearance. 

The  distinction  between  the  lungs  of  different  domestic  animals- 
is  of  considerable  importance,  because  deceptive  substitutions,  espe- 
cially of  hog  lungs  for  the  more  valuable  calf  lungs,  are  sometimes* 
made. 

The  lungs  of  horses  possess  a  left,  anterior  and  a  posterior 
primary  lobe,  besides  a  pyramidal  lobe  to  the  right. 

The  lungs  of  ruminants  are  more  lobulated ;  on  the  left,  two  to 
three  ;  on  the  right,  four  to  five  lobes.  It  should  be  remarked  that 
the  anterior  lobe  of  the  right  lung  of  ruminants,  in  contrast  with, 
that  of  the  horse,  receives  its  bronchus  independently  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  trachea. 

In  the  lungs  of  hogs,  two  to  three  lobes  may  be  recognized  on 
the  left,  and  three  to  four  on  the  right.  "With  the  exception 
that  in  ruminants  the  interlobular  tissues  are  more  strongly  de- 
veloped, the  conditions  in  the  lungs  of  hogs  are  similar  to  those  in 
ruminants. 


"174:         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

THE  HEART. — The  heart  of  all  domesticated  animals  exhibits  a 
"brownish-red  color,  a  smooth  glistening  covering  (the  epicardium), 
and  a  similar  lining  within  (the  endocardium).  The  consistency  of 
the  heart  of  healthy  animals  is  firm.  In  the  myocardium,  on  cross 
section,  a  conspicuous  sheen  is  observed  and  an  extremely  small 
blood  content.  In  animals  which  are  thoroughly  bled,  the  right 
and  left  ventricles  contain  only  a  small  quantity  of  coagulated 
blood.  The  coronary  veins  are  empty. 

The  form  of  the  heart  is  nearly  round  or  conical,  according  as 
the  heart  movement  came  to  a  standstill  in  diastole  or  systole. 

In  order  to  avoid  errors,  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that 
the  tissue  underneath  the  endocardium  in  freshly  slaughtered  ani- 
mals is  often  injected,  and  this  condition  should  not  be  confused 
with  hemorrhages  (von  Hofmann).  This  reddened  condition  is 
always  observed  at  the  level  of  the  columnse  carnese,  and  never 
in  the  intervening  depressions.  According  to  Hofmann,  this  is  to 
be  considered  a  vital  phenomenon,  which  occurs  at  every  systole 
and  disappears  again  during  diastole.  The  condition  indicates, 
therefore,  simply  a  cessation  of  heart  action  during  systole.  It 
should  also  be  observed  that  the  injected  condition  rapidly  gives 
way  to  redness,  caused  by  imbibition,  when  the  heart  is  placed  in 
water  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  blood  contained  in  the 
chambers.  True  hemorrhagic  conditions  are  frequently  found  in 
the  cardiac  valves  of  fasting  calves  as  a  normal  condition  (Klager). 

The  beef  heart  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  in  the  fibrous 
ring  of  the  aorta  two  cardiac  bones  are  found  in  the  place  of  a  car- 
diac cartilage.  In  hogs,  the  cardiac  cartilage  may  become  ossified 
in  old  age. 

According  to  Vaerst,  a  small  bone  on  the  right  side  is  formed 
in  sheep  in  old  age ;  in  elk  and  deer  this  formation  is  observed  on 
the  right — not  on  the  left ;  in  the  calf,  up  to  the  fourth  week,  only 
•cartilage  is  found.  From  this  time  on,  however,  the  formation  of 
the  right  cardiac  bone  begins.  Lastly,  in  very  old  horses,  a  partial 
ossification  of  the  cardiac  cartilage  may  occur  (Stoos). 

KIDNEYS. — The  kidneys  in  most  animals  are  concealed  from 
immediate  view  by  a  more  or  less  extensive  fatty  capsule,  known 
as  the  kidney-fat  capsule.  In  earlier  times  this  condition  was, 
strangely  enough,  the  chief  reason  why  the  kidneys,  as  a  rule,  were 
not  studied  in  meat  inspection.  The  color  of  the  kidneys  is  reddish- 
Thrown  ;  the  consistency  firm.  The  surface  is  smooth  and  glistening, 
jmd  discloses  numerous  red  spots  (glomeruli),  which,  on  cross- 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  175 

sectioning  the  kidneys,  appear  more  conspicuously  in  the  cortical 
layer.  The  renal  parenchyma  shows  on  the  cut  surface  the  same 
sheen  as  on  the  exterior  surface. 

The  right  kidney  of  the  horse  is  heart-shaped  ;  the  left  is  bean- 
shaped.  It  possesses  a  renal  papilla.  Both  kidneys  of  the  horse 
weigh  on  an  average  about  1,500  gm.  (1-300  of  the  body  weight). 
Both  kidneys  of  the  beef  are  oval,  but  exhibit  a  lobulated  structure. 
They  consist  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  lobes  of  different  size,  and 
partly  grown  together.  Each  lobe  (renculus)  has  a  renal  papilla, 
and  the  two  kidneys  weigh  on  an  average  952  gm.  (about  1-300  of 
the  body  weight),  but  considerable  variations  occur.  The  kidneys 
of  steers  and  bulls,  as  a  rule,  are  heavier  than  those  of  cows. 

The  kidneys  of  sheep  and  goats  are  bean-shaped,  non-lobulated, 
and  have  one  renal  papilla  each. 

The  kidneys  of  the  hog  are  likewise  bean-shaped  and  non-lobu- 
lated, but  are  characterized  by  from  six  to  eleven  renal  papillae. 
They  weigh  on  an  average  420  gm.  (1-150  of  the  body  weight). 

Physiological  variations  from  the  normal  occur  in  the  fattened 
condition,  especially  in  very  fat  hogs,  more  rarely  in  cattle  and 
sheep.  In  these  animals  the  color  of  the  kidneys,  in  consequence  of 
fatty  infiltration  of  the  convoluted  and  straight  uriniferous  tubules, 
may  become  grayish-brown  and  cloudy.  Upon  microscopical  exam- 
ination, the  epithelial  lining  of  the  tubules  is  found  to  be  densely 
filled  with  large,  fat  globules. 

French  investigators  (Villain  and  Bascou)  have  asserted  that 
the  color  of  calves'  kidneys  undergoes  such  a  typical  change  that 
it  is  possible  to  make  use  of  it  as  a  valuable  aid  in  the  determina* 
tion  of  the  age  of  the  animals.  Yillain  and  Bascou  assert  that  at 
birth  the  kidneys  are  bluish-black  ;  at  one  week,  violet-red ,  at  two 
weeks,  greenish-yellow ;  and  after  three  weeks,  yellowish-red.  Thif 
change  of  color,  however,  is  not  a  regular  occurrence. 

PLEURA.  AND  PERITONEUM. — These  membranes  are  characterized 
in  their  normal  state  by  their  smooth,  glistening,  light-gray  and 
transparent  appearance. 

If,  in  slaughtering  animals,  blood  makes  its  way  into  the  pleural 
cavity,  the  pleura  takes  on  a  reddish  tinge  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence. This  reddening  is  to  be  distinguished  from  inflammatory 
reddening  by  its  superficial  position,  and  by  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
removed  by  washing.  The  peritoneum  may  take  on  a  green  and 
yellow  coloring  in  consequence  of  injuries  to  the  gall  bladder  in 
slaughtering. 


176        APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  AND   ANIMALS 

THE  TONGUE. — In  the  tongue,  the  chief  points  of  interest  which 
concern  us  are  the  differences  of  form  in  the  different  animals,  since 
on  this  basis  we  are  in  a  position  to  detect  substitutions. 

The  beef  tongue  is  distinguished  from  the  horse  tongue  by  its 
strong  dorsal  ridge,  its  more  slender  tip,  and  by  its  spine-like  fili- 
form papillae,  which  are  covered  by  a  horny  sheath,  and  are  inclined 
backward,  as  well  as  by  the  larger  number  of  circumvallate  papil- 
lae (twelve  or  more  on  each  side,  as  against  two  in  the  horse).  Quite 
often  the  beef  tongue  bears  black  spots. 

The  tongue  of  the  sheep  and  goat  is  hollowed  out  in  the  median 
line  at  the  tip.  The  filiform  papillae  are  blunt  and  not  corneous. 
In  dark-colored  sheep,  the  tongue  is  entirely  black  or  spotted  with 
black ;  otherwise  the  conditions  are  similar  to  those  in  cattle. 

In  hogs,  the  dorsal  ridge  is  absent ;  the  filiform  papillae  are  fine 
and  velvet-like,  with  but  two  circumvallate  papillae  on  either  side. 

The  tongue  of  the  dog  is  flat,  without  lateral  surfaces,  but  with 
lateral  borders.  The  filiform  papillae  are  situated  in  the  anterior 
two-thirds,  are  closely  crowded  together,  and  the  points  are  directed 
backwards.  The  dorsal  surface  is  marked  with  a  median  groove. 
On  the  posterior  surface,  in  the  median  line,  is  found  a  spindle- 
shaped  body  of  cartilaginous  consistency  (the  so-called  lyssa). 

The  other  internal  organs  of  slaughtered  animals  require  no 
special  discussion.  A  brief  note,  however,  should  be  made  concern- 
ing the  secondary  sexual  organ,  the  udder.  Jt  has  sometimes  oc- 
curred that  mammary  glands  filled  with  colostrum  have  been  falsely 
declared  to  be  inflamed  or  modified  by  tuberculosis.  A  careful 
investigation  should  protect  one  against  this  error. 

(d)  The  Bones, 

The  most  important  part  of  the  bones,  from  the  standpoint  of 
sanitary  police  work,  is  the  bone  marrow.  A  distinction  is  usually 
made  between  red  blood-forming  marrow  and  the  white,  yellow  or 
fat  marrow.  Bed  marrow  is  found  in  all  bones  of  unborn  or  new- 
born animals.  In  the  tubular  bones  of  the  extremities,  which  pos- 
sess a  marrow  cavity,  the  red  marrow  disappears  after  birth,  and  is- 
replaced  by  a  white  or  yellow,  fat  marrow.  The  red  marrow  re- 
mains, however,  in  all  other  bones,  especially  those  of  the  skull, 
trunk  (spinal  column,  ribs,  sternum,  pelvis),  and  in  the  scapula^ 
Bed-bone  marrow  is  of  a  moderately  firm  consistency;  the  fat 
marrow,  on  the  other  hand,  has  the  soft  consistency  of  fat.  Neither 
red  nor  fat  marrow  exhibits  such  a  fluid  consistency  as  to  flow  out 


NORMAL   APPEARANCE  177 

of  bones  which  have  been  artificially  opened.  This  fact  is  of  im- 
portance in  the  diagnosis  of  osteomyelitis  and  osteomalacia.  This 
fluid  consistency  is  not  observed  even  in  old  animals,  in  which  the 
fat  marrow,  as  well  as  adipose  tissue  in  other  parts  of  the  body, 
has  partly  disappeared  and  has  been  replaced  by  serous,  infiltrated 
tissues. 

The  total  weight  of  the  bones  in  well-fattened  cattle  amounts 
to  from  15.1  to  15.4  per  cent,  of  the  dressed  weight  ('compare  page 
192). 

(e)  The  Lymphatic  Glands. 

A  correct  knowledge  of  the  normal  condition  and  position  of 
the  lymphatic  glands,  as  well  as  of  the  ramifications  of  the  lymph 
vessels,  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  meat  inspectors.  The 
condition  of  lymphatic  glands  varies  in  different  regions  of  the 
body,  and  in  the  same  region  in  the  different  domesticated  animals ; 
especially  the  size  and  color  vary  extremely.  It  is  not  strange  that 
such  sensitive  structures  as  the  lymph  glands  should  be  subject  to 
certain  fluctuations  in  size  and  water  content.  Considerable  changes, 
or  actual  swellings,  occur  only  during  more  intense  irritation. 

The  form  of  the  lymphati'c  glands  is  round  or  oval,  the  size 
varying.  Some  are  as  small  as  a  pea ;  others  are  as  large  or  larger 
than  walnuts.  The  lymph  glands  of  young  animals,  still  in  process 
of  development,  are  uniformly  larger  than  those  of  older  animals. 
As  a  rule,  they  lie  pressed  together.  The  color  of  the  lymph  glands 
is  partly  white,  partly  gray  and  gray-blue.  In  hogs  the  white  color 
is  predominant.  A  moderate  quantity  of  fluid  pours  out  on  the  cut 
surface  of  the  lymph  glands.  The  consistency  is  firm,  rather  than 
soft  In  general,  however,  the  splanchnic  lymph  glands  possess  a 
somewhat  softer  structure  than  the  lymph  glands  of  the  trunk  and1 
extremities. 

Each  lymph  gland  has  a  certain  region  from  which  it  receives 
lymph  through  the  lymphatic  vessels.  This  relationship  of  lymph 
glands  is  expressed  by  the  term  "  corresponding,"  signifying  that 
the  glands  belong  to  a  certain  region.  One  region,  however,  may 
possess  several  corresponding  lymph  glands.  It  should  be  noted, 
that  no  lymphatic  vessel  empties  into  the  thoracic  duct  or  the  right 
: lymphatic  trunk  without  passing  through  at  least  one  lymph. glandi 
Furthermore,  all  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  different  organs  have 
their  ramifications  ini  the  organs  themselves.  Communications 
between  lymphatic  vessels  in  one  and  the  same  region  are  mani- 


178 


APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 


fold.  They  are  absent,  however,  between  the  lymphatic  vessels  of 
two  anatomically  separated  organs.  For  instance,  a  connectiom 
between  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  alimentary  tract  and  the 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


w 


Beef  head,  a,  right,  J,  left  submax- 
illary  glands;  c,  retropharyngeal 
-glands. 


Position  of  the  most  important  lymphatic 
elands  after  removal  of  the  retroperitoneal 
fat  tissue,  a,  lymphatic  glands  above  the 
hoo.k ;  b,  popliteal  glands ;  c,  superficial 
inguinal  glands ;  d,  kneef old  glands ;  e  and 
/,  internal  iliac  glands;  g,  lymphatic  glands 
of  the  lower  thoracic  walls;  h,  lower  cervical 
glands;  i,  upper  cervical  glands;  kt  sub- 
maxillary  glands. 


"spleen  does  not  occur,  notwithstanding  the  widespread  erroneous 
belief  to  the  contrary.  The  lymphatic  trunks,  after  leaving  the 

'  corresponding  lymphatic  glands,  pass  directly  to  the  thoracic  duct? 
without  being  distributed  in  any  other  organ. 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  179 

The  following  are  the  most  important  groups  of  lymphatic 
glands  in  meat  inspection  : 

(A)  Lymphatic  Glands  of  the  Head,  Trunk  and  Extremities. 

1.  The  submaxillary  lymphatic  glands  (Figs.  18,  a  and  b ;  19,  &). — ' 
These  glands,  according  to  Franck,  whose  description  I  have  fol- 
lowed with  reference  to   the   other  groups  of  lymphatic   glands, 
receive  all  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  from  the  lower  half  of  the  head 
(cheeks,  nose,  mucous  layer  of  the  mouth  and  tip  of  the  tongue, 
nasal  mucosa  and  the  hard  gums).     The  efferent  vessels  pass  to  the 
upper  cervical  glands. 

2.  The  lymphatic  glands,  in  the  region  of  the  parotid  gland,  pos- 
terior to  the  articulation  of  the  jaw,  partly  inserted  between  the 
lobes  of  the  parotid  gland.     Lymphatic  vessels  from  the  ear,  the 
parotid  gland,  temporal  region,  and  partly  from  the  base  of  the 
skull.     Efferent  vessels  to  the  upper  cervical  glands. 

3.  Upper  or  cranial  cervical  lymphatic  glands. — These  glands  lie 
on  both  sides  of  the  posterior  wall  of  the  larynx  and  pharynx  in  the 
region  of  the  thyroid  gland  (Fig.  19,  i).     A  larger  and  highly  impor- 
tant group,  from  the  standpoint  of  meat  inspection,  the  so-called 
retro-pharyngeal  lymph  glands  (Fig.  18,  c),  is  found  in  cattle  on  the 
posterior  wall  of  the  pharynx.     Lymphatic  vessels  from  the  cranial 
cavity,  base  of  the  skull,  pharynx,  larynx,  diverticulum  of  the  Eus- 
tachian  tube,  as  well  as  the  efferent  vessels  of  the  lymphatic  glands 
which  have  already  been  mentioned. 

4.  Middle  cervical  lymphatic  glands,  on  the  upper  third  of  the 
trachea. 

5.  Lower  or  caudal  cervical  lymph  glands,  lying  immediately  an- 
terior to  the  entrance  to  the  thorax  on  the  inferior  wall  of  the  trachea 
(Figs.  19,  h ;  21,  h).      They  receive  the  efferent  vessels  of  the  pre- 
scaptilar,  as  well  as  of  the  middle  and  upper  cervical  glands  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  all  of  the  vessels  of  the  neck  and  head.     Efferent  duct 
on  the  right  to  the  right  lymphatic  trunk,  and  on  the  left  to  the 
thoracic  duct. 

6.  Axillary  glands. — A  large  cluster  of  lymph  glands  covered 
by  the  scapula  and  its  musculature  (therefore  accessible  only  after 
removal  of  the  scapula).   Lymphatic  vessels  from  the  outer  thoracic 
wall  and  the  medial  scapula  surface. 

7.  Prescapular  or  superficial  cervical  glands  (Fig.  20,  c),  the  loca- 
tion of  which  must  be  familiar  to  all  who  are  acquainted  with  the 
subject,  since  they  play  a  large  part  in  the  inspection  of  tuberculous 


180 


APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 


animals.  In  the  horse  the  prescapular  glands  form  a  cluster;  in 
cattle  and  hogs  they  are,  on  the  other  hand,  isolated  glands.  Posi- 
tion, in  front  of  the  shoulder  joint,  covered  by  the  origin  of  the 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  21. 


Half  of  beef ,  seen  from  the  outside. 
a,  popliteal  glands;  b,  kneefold 
glands;  c,  prescapular  glands. 


Half  of  beef,  seen  from  the  inside,  a,  super- 
ficial inguinal  glands ;  b,  deep  inguinal 
glands  (of  variable  size  and  not  always  pre- 
sent); c,  internal  iliac  glands;  d,  lumbar 
glands;  e,  renal  glands;  /,  lymphatic  glands 
of  the  inferior  thoracic  wall ;  g,  glands  of 
the  superior  thoracic  wall ;  h,  lower  cervical 
glands. 


brachiocephalic  muscle.     They  receive  the  lymph  vessels  from  the 
superficial  lymph  glands  of  the  neck,  shoulder,  arm  and  fore  arm. 

There  may  be  some  difficulty  in  finding  the  prescapular  glands 
in  very  fat  hogs.  To  expose  them,  it  is  recommended  that  a  deep, 
transverse  incision  be  made  through  the  skin  from  the  inferior 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  181 

border  of  the  neck  to  the  nape,  immediately  in  front  of  the  shoulder 
joint.  The  prescapular  glands  then  appear  nearly  in  the  middle  of 
the  incision  (Lohoff). 

8.  Precrural  or  external  subiliac  glands,  in  the  cutaneous  maxinms 
of  the  abdominal  musculature  (Figs.  19,  d ;  20,  Z>),  at  the  anterior 
border  of  the  tensor  fasciae  latse.     Lymph  vessels  from  the  anterior 
part  of  the  thigh  and  from  the  outer  abdominal  wall.     The  efferent 
vessels  pass  to  the  lumbar  glands. 

In  slaughtered  hogs,  the  precrural  glands,  are  most  easily  found 
if  the  incision  is  made  into  the  abdominal  wall  in  front  of  the  femoro- 
tibial  joint,  perpendicularly  toward  the  spinal  column  (Fig.  19,  d). 

9.  Deep  inguinal  glands  in  the  femoral  canal,  covering  the  femoral 
vessels.     Afferent  vessels  from  the  popliteal  glands,  from  the  penis, 
as  well  as  from  the  thigh.     The  efferent  vessels  pass  to  the  lumbar 
glands,  and  in  part  directly  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

In  the  horse,  the  deep  inguinal  glands,  as  stated  by  Harten- 
stein,  are  always  easily  found ;  not  so,  howe.ver,  in  other  food 
animals.  According  to  Rieck,  they  are  not  wanting  in  other  ani- 
mals, but,  as  a  rule,  are  very  small.  Their  position,  according  to 
the  statement  of  Rieck,  is  at  the  point  at  which  the  external  pudic 
artery  arises  at  right  angles  from  the  femoral  artery. 

10.  The  superficial  inguinal  glands  in  the  male  are  placed  at  the 
neck  of  the  scrotum,  at  the  side  of  the  penis  (Figs.  19,  c ;  21,  a);  in 
female  animals  they  lie  behind  and  above  the  udder  (supramam- 
mary  lymph   glands).      Afferent  vessels  from    the    outer   external 
sexual   organ,    inferior    abdominal   wall,   median   femoral   surface. 
Efferent  vessels  to  the  deep  inguinal  glands  and  immediately  into 
the  receptaculum  chyli  (beginning  of  the  thoracic  duct). 

11.  Popliteal  glands  (Figs.  19,  b;  20,  a)  lie  deep  between  the 
inner  and  outer  sacroischiac  muscles,  immediately  above  the  point 
of  bifurcation  of  the  heads  of  the  gastrocnemius  muscle.      These 
glands  always  become  apparent  by  the  dissection  of  the  joint.     All 
of  the  external  lymph  vessels  of  the  posterior  extremity  empty  into 
them.     The  efferent  vessels  pass  to  the  deep  inguinal  and  pelvic 
glands. 

In  hogs,  besides  the  popliteal  glands,  there  are  other  glands 
varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  hazel  nut,  in  the  panniculus  adipo- 
siis  of  this  region,  but  about  a  hand's  breadth  above  the  tuberosity 
of  the  calcaneum  (Hartenstein).  These  lymph  glands  (Fig  19,  a) 

easily  discovered  only  when  they  are  inflamed  or  tuberculous. 


182        APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEATS   AND   ORGANS 


FIG.  22. 


(B)  The  Lymph  Glands  of  the  Thoracic,  Abdominal  and  Pelvic  Cavities. 

(A)   THORACIC   CAVITY. 

1.  The  lymph  glands  of  the  upper  thoracic  wall  (Fig.  21,  g)f, 
small  and  numerous  ;  lie  partly  at  the  side  of  the  vertebrae,  partly 
in  the  intercostal  spaces.     Afferent  vessels  from  the  dorsal  verte- 
brae, the  exterior  muscles  of  the  back,  the  intercostal  muscles,  and 

partly  from  the  peritoneum  and  dia- 
phragm. Efferent  vessels  to  the  thor- 
acic duct. 

2.  Lymph   glands    of   the   inferior 
thoracic  wall  between  the  articulations 
of  the  costal  cartilages  near  the  ster- 
num, small  and  few  in  number,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  internal  thoracic 
veins  (Fig.  21,/").     Afferent  vessels  from 
the  rectus  abdominis,  the  anterior  sur- 
face of  the  diaphragm,  and  from   the 
intercostal  muscles.*     The  efferent  ves- 
sels pass  in  part  to  the  anterior  media- 
stinal  glands,  in  part  directly  into  the 
thoracic  duct  and  the  right  lymphatic 
trunk. 

3.  Anterior  mediastinal  glands  (Fig. 
22,  &).—  These  lie  between  the  folds  of 
the     anterior     mediastinal    membrane. 
They  receive  lymph   from    the   heart,, 
pericardium  and  diaphragm.     Efferent 
vessels  into  the  thoracic  duct  and  right 
lymphatic  trunk. 

4  Posterior  mediastinal  glands  (Fig. 
22,5).-Lying  under  the  aortic  arch, 
Receive  lymph  vessels  from  the  peri- 
cardium, the  mediastinal  membrane, 

esophagus,  pleura,  diaphragm,  the  anterior  abdominal  region,  and 
from  the  anterior  surface  of  the  liver.  Efferent  vessels  empty  in 
part  into  the  bronchial  glands,  in  part  into  the  anterior  mediastinal 
glands,  in  part  directly  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

*  The  intercostal  muscles  can  not  be  infected  by  translocation  of  tuberculous. 
lymph  from  the  pleura.  Furthermore,  the  lymph  vessels  take  their  origin  in  then- 
intercostal  muscles,  and  pass  thence  toward  the  pleura  or  mediastinal  spaces. 


stinal  glands  ;  c,  portal  glands. 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  183 

5.  Bronchial  glands  (Figs.  22,  a,  a'). — Lying  on  both  sides  of  the 
trachea,  at  its  point  of  bifurcation,  are  covered  by  the  aorta,  and,  in 
fat  animals,  also  by  fat  tissue.  They  may  be  exposed  by  a  deep 
incision  from  above  and  outward  to  the  point  of  bifurcation.  Affer- 
ent vessels  from  the  lungs  and  posterior  mediastinal  glands.  Effer- 
ent vessels  to  the  anterior  mediastinal  glands  and  thoracic  duct. 

(B)   ABDOMINAL   AND   PELVIC   CAVITIES. 

1.  Lumbar  glands  (Fig.  21,  d). — These  lie  near  the  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae, in  part  covered  by  the  lumbar  muscles.  Two  groups  of  them, 

FIG.  23. 


Beef  mesentery  with  tuberculous  lymphatic  glands. 

'which  lie  on  either  side  in  the  angle  between  the  external  iliac 
artery  and  the  deep,  circumflex  iliac  artery,  as  well  as  in  the  angle 
of  both  hypogastric  arteries,  are  especially  designated  as  the  internal 
iliac  glands  (Figs.  19,  e,/;  21,  c).  Afferent  vessels  from  the  pelvic 
organs,  lumbar  muscles  and  upper  parts  of  the  abdominal  wall; 
also  efferent  vessels  of  the  external  iliac  glands.  The  vessels  of  the 
lumbar  glands  empty  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

2.  The  external  iliac  glands  are  located  near  the  lateral  iliac 
angle,  at  the' point  of  bifurcation  of  the  deep,  circumflex  iliac  artery. 
Afferent  vessels  come  from  the  lateral  and  inferior  abdominal  wall 
and  the  lateral  surfaces  of  the  femoral  region,  as  well  as  from  the 


APPEARANCE   AND    DIFFERENTIATION    OF   MEAT   AND    ORGANS 

external  subiliac  glands.     The  efferent  vessels  of  the  external  iliac 
glands  pass  to  the  lumbar  glands. 

3.  The  sacral  glands  on  the  inferior  wall  of  the  sacrum,  near  its 
lateral  borders.     Lymph  from  the  superior  pelvic  wall,  and  in  part 
from  the  rectum.     Efferent  vessels  to  the  lumbar  glands. 

4.  The  ischiatic  glands  in  ruminants  lie  on  the  exterior  portion 
of  the  ischiatic  notch,  outside  of  the  pelvic  cavity.     Afferent  vessels 
chiefly  from  the  popliteal  glands,  and  from  the  muscles  of  the  sacro- 
coccygeal  region.    Efferent  vessels  empty  into  the  sacral  and  lumbar 
glands. 

5.  The  portal  glands  of  the  liver  (Fig.  22,  c)  lie  in  the   porta 
hepatis,  where  they  are  concealed  in  fattened  animals  by  adipose 
tissue. 

6.  The  lymph  glands  of  the  spleen  are  distinguished  by  their  small 
size.     They  lie  in  the  hilus  of  the  spleen,  in  the  gastrosplenic  liga- 
ment, and,  when  the  spleen  is  removed,  usually  remain  upon  the 
stomach. 

7.  The  lymph  glands  of  the  kidneys  (Fig.  21,  e)  lie  in  the  hilus. 

8.  The  mesenteric  glands  (Fig.  23)  lie  between  the  folds  of  the 
mesentery  on  the  concave  arch  of  the  intestines,  and  are  in  part 
small  and  round,  and  in  part  larger  and  somewhat  elongated.     In 
ruminants  and  hogs  a  very  long  mesenteric  gland  is  found  on  the 
small  intestine.     Besides  this,  there  is  in  hogs  still  another  group 
of  small,  round  lymph  glands  on  the  peritoneal  attachments  of  the 
mesentery. 

(f)  The  Adipose  Tissue. 

General  discussion. — Adipose  tissue  is  not  a  special  tissue,  but 
represents  a  modification  of  other  tissues  (connective  tissue,  bone 
marrow,  muscle  fibers)  into  adipose  tissue.  This  modification  plays 
a  very  important  role  in  food  animals.  It  is  a  result  which  is  striven, 
for  in  fattening,  and  the  degree  of  its  development  indicates  in  most 
animals  (cattle,  sheep  and  hogs)  the  so-called  slaughter  maturity. 
The  absence  or  disappearance  of  adipose  tissue  is,  under  certain 
conditions,  an  important  criterion  for  the  sanitary  decision  con- 
cerning existing  pathological  conditions.  Adipose  tissue  develops 
in  the  majority  of  fattened  animals,  as  also  in  man,  especially  in 
certain  locations  (fat  depositories).  The  fat  depositories  include 
the  fatty  capsule  of  the  kidney,  the  mesenteries,  omentum,  sub- 
cutaneous, retroperitoneal  and  inter  muscular  tissues,  liver  and 
bone  marrow. 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  185 

Adipose  tissue  and  fattened  condition. — According  to  the  extent 
and  development  of  adipose  tissue,  distinction  is  made  between 
poor,  fattening,  partly  fattened  and  completely  fattened  animals. 

Poor  animals  show  the  presence  of  fat  only  in  the  renal  cap- 
sules, and  between  the  layers  of  the  mesentery  and  omentum.  In 
fattening  animals,  adipose  tissue  is  also  found  in  the  subcutis,  up  to 
the  dorsal  surface,  from  the  shoulder  girdle  to  the  rump,  and  in  the 
superior  third  of  the  thorax.  In  bulls  there  is  usually  a  deposit  of 
fat  in  the  scrotum,  and  in  young  cows  in  front  of  the  udder  (so-called 
fore  udder). 

In  partly  fattened  animals,  a  greater  quantity  of  adipose  tissue 
is  manifested  in  superficial  area,  as  well  as  in  thickness,  in  those 
parts  of  the  body  which  have  just  been  mentioned. 

In  completely  fattened  animals,  the  renal  capsule  is  distended 
with  fat,  the  adipose  tissue  attaining  a  thickness  of  several  centi- 
meters. Layers  of  the  mesentery  are  forced  apart  by  a  strong 
development  of  adipose  tissue  which  conceals  the  mesenteric  glands 
from  view.  Adipose  tissue  is  found  under  the  peritoneal  covering 
of  the  stomach  and  alimentary  tract.  The  omentum,  like  the  peri- 
cardium, is  no  longer  a  thin  transparent  membrane,  but  an  opaque 
membrane  of  considerable  thickness.  The  liver  loses  its  glistening, 
red-brown  appearance,  and  becomes  cloudy  in  spots  or  over  its 
entire  surface,  while  an  increase  in  size  is  perceptible  in  the  whole 
organ  and  especially  on  the  borders.  The  subcutis  throughout  the 
body  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  extremities  is  filled  with  fat. 
The  development  of  fat  is  especially  noticeable  on  both  sides  of  the 
spinal  column.  The  prominent  parts  of  bones  are  no  longer  to  be 
seen  or  felt,  while  all  hollows  and  depressed  areas  are  filled  out 
with  adipose  tissue.  In  the  interfibrillar  connective  tissue  of  the 
musculature  fat  cells  are  arranged  in  linear  series.  Probably  these 
are  the  cells  which  furnish  the  delicate  taste  of  the  meat  of  fattened 
animals.  In  the  highest  grade  of  fattening,  besides  being  apparent 
in  the  locations  already  mentioned,  fat  also  occurs  in  the  connective 
tissue  under  the  pulmonary  pleura,  in  the  kidneys  (convoluted  uri- 
nary tubules),  and  even  in  the  muscle  fibers  in  the  anatomical  con- 
dition of  fatty  metamorphosis. 

Concerning  histological  changes  during  fattening,  Grawitz  com- 
municated some  very  interesting  facts.  Fattening  produces  in  nor- 
mal adipose  tissue  an  active  cell  proliferation.  For  the  fat  cell, 
according  to  Grawitz,  is  not  simply  a  large  cell,  but  a  "  cell  colony," 
-consisting  of  a  considerable  number  of  flattened,  round,  or  spindle- 
shaped  cells  which  become  united  with  the  membrane  of  the  growing 


186        APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT   AND   ANIMALS 

fat  cell.  The  bone  marrow  is  likewise  transformed  during  fattening 
into  the  status  adiposus.  "  In  the  muscles,  no  invasion  of  fat  between 
the  muscle  fibers  takes  place,  whereby  the  muscle  fibers  disappear; 
but  the  fat  of  red  meat  is  really  muscle  tissue  which  has  lost  its 
contractility,  and,  like  connective  tissue  and  bone  marrow,  has 
become  modified  into  the  form  and  appearance  of  ordinary  adipose 
tissue."  In  several  different  conditions,  in  which  the  muscles  were 
not  used,  Grawitz  observed  that  individual  strands  of  spindle-shaped 
cells  from  muscle  fibers  were  disintegrated,  and  that  from  these  fat 
cells  colonies  arose  in  the  same  manner  as  from  the  cells  of  connec* 
live  tissue  and  bone  marrow. 

Means  of  judging  the  degree  of  fatness. — In  judging  the  degree  of 
fatness  of  food  animals,  butchers  habitually  feel  of  certain  parts. 
These  manipulations  are  known  as  "  feeling." 

In  cattle,  butchers  preferably  test  the  development  of  adipose 
tissue  by  the  " upper  feeling"  in  the  ischiac  region,  the  outer  angles 
of  the  ilium,  false  ribs,  behind  the  scapular  groove  on  the  back,  ir 
the  orbital  groove,  and  also  by  the  "under  feeling"  on  the  shoulder 
joint,  in  the  kneefold,  on  the  scrotum,  on  the  scrotal  raphe  in  cas- 
trated animals,  and  on  the  so-called  fore  udder  in  cows. 

In  calves,  the  butcher  investigates  the  fold  between  the  external 
ear  and  the  processus  rnastoideus  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  development  of  adipose  tissue.  In  older  animals  attention  is 
given  to  the  scrotum  and  udder. 

In  hogs,  the  trachea,  larynx,  back,  the  so-called  shield,  undei 
surface  of  the  abdomen,  external  angles  of  the  ilium,  and  the  root 
of  the  tail  are  inspected. 

In  sheep,  the  fold  between  the  base  of  the  tail  and  the  ischiatic 
tuberosity  is  used  in  judging  the  development  of  adipose  tissue. 

Anatomy  and  physiolagy. — For  the  peculiarities  of  fat  of  various 
origin,  compare  the  section  on  the  differentiation  of  meat  of  differ- 
ent domestic  animals.  In  this  connection  only  the  general  charac- 
teristics of  normal  adipose  tissue  will  be  given.  Normally,  adipose 
tissue  is  opaque,  white,  or  yellow,  poor  in  blood,  and  of  an  acinoug 
structure  on  cross-section.  The  consistency  varies  according  to  the 
melting  point  of  the  different  fats,  and  according  to  the  surrounding 
temperature.  For  instance,  both  beef  and  mutton  tallow  harden 
even  in  summer.  Adipose  tissue,  which  has  become  pathologically 
changed,  loses  its  original  color,  and  especially  its  acinoua 
structure. 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  1ST 

The  adipose  tissue  of  calves  and  of  old  animals  shows  varia- 
tions from  the  normal  condition  just  described.  Calves  have  fat 
only  around  the  kidneys.  The  fat  of  young  calves,  up  to  two  weeks 
of  age,  is  characterized  by  a  light  grayish-red  color.  The  adipose 
tissue  of  fasting  calves  disappears  very  readily,  and  is  replaced  by 
a  gelatinous  tissue.  Pare  white,  hard  fat  appears  in  the  renal  cap- 
sules of  calves  in  a  fat  condition  at  the  age  of  four  to  six  weeks. 
Later,  after  from  five  to  six  months,  the  fat  in  calves  disappears 
again.  In  old  animals,  especially  old  cows,  only  the  remnants  of 
adipose  tissue  are  found  in  the  locations  where  fat  is  ordinarily 
deposited,  and  more  frequently  a  serous,  infiltrated,  yellow,  gelatin- 
ous connective  tissue  takes  its  place. 

Influence  of  feed  on  fat. — The  formation  of  fat,  in  the  first  place, . 
is  dependent  upon  the  nutrition  of  food  animals.  Liberal  quantities 
of  protein,  properly  balanced  with  fats  and  carbohydrates,  greatly 
favor  the  process  of  fattening.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  for- 
mation of  fat  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  method  of  feeding, 
provided  we  overlook  certain  racial  peculiarities  ;  for  example,  those 
of  Hungarian  hogs.  The  adipose  tissue  of  pasture-fattened  cattle  is 
decidedly  yellow — so-called  yellow  feed-coloring.  In  hogs,  also,  a 
slight  coloration  of  the  fat  is  occasionally  observed,  and  is  attributed 
to  liberal  dieting  on  maize.  Furthermore,  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  in  hogs  the  firmness  of  the  adipose  tissue  varies  according  to 
the  kind  of  feed  which  the  animals  receive.  Milk,  potatoes  and 
barley  produce  the  best  bacon.  It  is  thick,  firm,  marbled  and 
palatable.  Maize  can  be  used  for  fattening  hogs  without  any 
injurious  effects.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  animals  attain  the 
weight  of  120  pounds,  feeding  with  maize  should  cease,  because, 
otherwise,  the  bacon  becomes  soft  (results  of  Danish  investigations). 
A  defect  in  the  taste  of  bacon  is  noticed  in  hogs  which  have  been  fed 
oats  and  beans  to  excess ;  in  the  first,  a  slightly  oily,  and  in  the 
second,  a  slightly  bitter  taste,  is  noticeable.  The  fat  of  hogs  which 
have  been  fattened  on  beech  nuts  acquires  an  oily  character  and  a 
slight  taste  of  beech  nuts.  In  fattening  with  rice-meal,  or  distillery 
refuse  of  corn,  the  bacon  becomes  soft,  is  easily  separated,  and  of  a 
disagreeable  taste.  Hogs  raised  on  swill  develop  a  very  bad  quality 
of  bacon.  It  is  soft,  oleaceous,  and  of  a  flat,  disagreeable  taste. 
Swill  contains  a  large  quantity  of  rancid  fat.  Hogs  which  are  fed 
with  herring  or  smelt  develop  a  rank-smelling,  gray-colored  adipose 
tissue  which  hardens  but  slightly.  The  same  modifications  may 
occur  in  the  meat  of  cows  fed  on  herring  cakes.  According  to  all 


188         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

experience,  it  is  the  excess  of  a  particular  kind  of  fat  in  the  feed 
which  exercises  the  above  described  injurious  influence  upon  the 
quality  of  adipose  tissue. 

The  experiments  of  Lebedeff  are  in  agreement  with  this  state- 
ment. This  author  allowed  a  dog  to  fast  for  a  month,  or  until  it 
Lad  completely  lost  all  its  body  fat,  and  then  fed  it  for  three  weeks 
on  meat,  which  was  almost  free  from  fat,  and  linseed  oil.  From  the 
tissues  of  the  dog  more  than  1  kg.  of  a  volatile,  fatty  oil  was  obtained 
which  did  not  become  hard  at  a  temperature  of  0°  C.  In  its  chemi- 
cal properties  it  closely  resembled  linseed  oil.  From  the  muscula- 
ture and  adipose  tissue  of  another  dog,  which  had  been  fed  on 
mutton  tallow,  Lebedeff  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  fat  which  was 
almost  identical  with  mutton  tallow.  Lehmann  demonstrated  that 
even  from  the  feeding  of  small  quantities  of  fat  a  partial  deposition 
of  the  food  fat  took  place  without  change,  provided  a  certain  kind  of 
fat  was  fed  for  several  months.  Lehmann  fed  two  hogs  from  July 
10  to  February  3  on  the  same  basal  ration,  the  second  hog  receiving" 
in  addition  a  quantity  of  olive  oil  not  exceeding  the  fat  content  of  a 
normal  feeding  stuff,  such  as  corn.  In  all,  hog  No.  2  received  15.36 
kg.  olive  oil,  together  with  394.6  kg.  barley,  18,4  kg.  meat  meal  and 
12.8  kg.  bran.  While  the  iodin  number  of  the  fat  of  hog  No.  1 
varied  in  different  parts  of  the  body  between  52.9  and  58,  the  iodin 
number  of  hog  No.  2  varied  from  58.1  to  62.5.  From  these  results 
Lehmann  computed  that  in  all  7.37  kg.  of  olive  oil,  the  iodin  number 
of  which  was  82.65,  passed  over  into  the  fat  of  hog  No.  2. 

Commercial  significance  of  fat  in  slaughtered  animals. — Fat  animals 
bring  better  prices  than  poor  ones  for  two  reasons  :  First,  because 
of  a  better,  closer  relation  between  the  dressed  weight*  and  live 
weight  than  in  poor  animals,  and,  secondly,  because  the  meat  of  fat 
animals  possesses  a  better  flavor  than  that  of  poor  animals. 

Thus,  in  cattle,  the  difference  between  the  live  and  dressed 
weight  varies,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  animal,  between  40 
and  65  per  cent;  in  fat  and  poor  sheep,  between  45  and  65  per  cent.; 
and  in  fattened  and  fattening  hogs,  between  15  and  25  per  cent. 

Thus,  Lawes  and  Gilbert  found  that,  on  an  average,  the  dressed 
weight  constituted  the  following  percentages  of  the  live  weight: 
Fat  steers,  59.8 ;  fat  calves,  63.1 ;  poor  sheep,  53.4 ;  very  fat  sheep, 
64 ;  fat  hogs,  82.6. 

*  By  dressed  weight  in  cattle  is  understood  the  weight  of  the  four  quarters. 
From  the  live  weight  there  is  subtracted  the  weight  of  the  blood,  skin,  head,  feet  and 
•entrails,  with  the  exception  of  the  kidneys.  (Compare  page  190.) 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  189 

Hengst  calculated  the  average  dressed  weight,  from  statistics 
obtained  in  the  cattle  yards  of  Leipsic  during  a  period  of  three 
years  (1889-1891),  as  follows:  Steers,  53.4;  heifers,  55.9;  cows, 
48.4;  bulls,  54.3.  In  the  year  1898:  Steers,  53.6;  heifers,  51.3; 
cows,  50.8 :  calves,  69  ;  sheep,  53  ;  hogs,  86.5  per  cent. 

In  weighings  of  eighty-eight  well-fattened  cattle,  made  by  the 
German  Agricultural  Society  in  the  army  meat  conserve  factories  at 
Mainz  and  Haselhorst,  the  highest  dressed  weight  was  63.3  per 
cent,  of  the  live  weight.  Incidentally,  the  animal  which  showed 
this  high  dressed  weight  was  affected  with  generalized  tuberculosis. 
In  the  meat  markets  of  Berlin,  it  is  customary  to  deduct  20  per 
cent,  of  the  live  weight,  where  hogs  are  sold  according  to  dressed 
weight. 

AVERAGE  ABSOLUTE  DRESSED  WEIGHTS. 

By  taking  the  average  of  dressed  weights  during  the  three  years,  1889-1891, 
Hengst  determined  the  following  absolute  dressed  weights  : 

Kilograms. 

Steers 365 

Bulls 354. 1 

Cows 276.3 

Heifers 263 . 6 

Calves 38 . 8 

S.heep 27.6 

Hogs 88.8 

In  1898  : 

8,984  steers 379. 10 

915  heifers 251 . 38 

6,868  cows 284. 13 

2.227  bulls 374 . 58 

511  calves 42.06 

2, 528  sheep 28.43 

14,991  hogs 90. 72 

The  average  live  weight  in  Leipsic  in  1898  was  : 

983  steers 705.04 

104  heifers 489.52 

485  cows 559 . 42 

530  bulls 645 . 78 

786  calves 61.35 

481  sheep 53 . 88 

490  hogs 104. 5& 

JQeinschmidt,  in  Erfurt,  calculates  dressed  weight  as  follows  : 

Steers  and  bulls 350 

Cows  and  cattle 275 

Calves 28 

Sheep  and  goats „ 25 

Hogs 85 

Horses...  .  200 


190         APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND  ORGANS 

••Goltz,  in  Halle,  as  follows  :  Kilograms 

Steers  and  bulls 404 

Cows  and  heifers 310 

Calves 33 

Sheep  and  goats 28 

Hogs 115 

Horses 305 

;Rieck,  in  Zwickau,  as  follows  : 

Steers 336.9 

Heifers 294.7 

Cows 311.4 

Bulls 375 . 5 

Farm  hogs 89 . 9 

Bakonyi  hogs 98.9 

Calves 34 . 8 

Sheep 26 . 4 

Ruser,  in  Kiel,  as  follows  : 

Cattle 240 

Calves 35  : 

Sheep 21 

Hogs 85 

Horses 230 

Rules  for  the  determination  of  dressed  weight. — For  a  simple  means 
of  estimating  the  value  of  animals  at  slaughterhouses,  the  conference 
of  delegates  of  German  Slaughterhouses  and  representatives  of  the 
German  Agricultural  Commission,  as  well  as  representatives  of  meat 
and  cattle  dealers,  in  session  in  Berlin,  November  6th  and  7th,  1895, 
decided,  essentially  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  of  Hengst, 
to  establish,  as  a  basis,  a  dressed  weight  estimated  according  to 
fixed  principles. 

The  calculations  of  the  dressed  weight  shall  be  made  in  the 
following  manner : 

SEC.  1.  Before  the  calculation  of  the  weight,  the  following  parts  of  animals  are 
to  be  excluded: 

I.— In  cattle  : 

(a)  The  skin,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  no  meat  or  fat  remains  upon  it.   The 
tail  is  to  be  removed,  but  the  so-called  caudal  fat  must  not  be  taken  away. 

(b)  The  head,  between  the  occipital  bone  and  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  per_ 
pendicularly  to  the  vertebral  column. 

(c)  The  feet.     In  the  first  (lower  joint  of  the  carpus  and  tarsus),  above  the 
so-called  shin  bone. 

(d)  The  organs  of  the  thorax,  abdomen  and  pelvis,  with  the  attached  fat 
masses  (heart  fat  and  mediastinal  fat),  with  the  exception  of  the  kidneys 
and  surrounding  fat,  which  must  be  included  in  the  weight. 

(e)  The  blood  vessels  along  the  spinal  column  and  in  the  interior  portion  of 
the  thoracic  cavity,   together  with  the  attached  tissues,   as  well  as  the 
trachea  and  the  tendinous  portion  of  the  diaphragm. 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  191 

(f)  The  spinal  cord. 

(g)  Penis  and  testicles,  excepting,  however,  the  so-called  scrotal  fat  in  bnlJs  ; 
the  udder  and  fore  udder  in  dry  cows,  and  cows  pregnant  beyond  the  half 
term. 

II. — In  calves  : 

(a)  The  skin,  together  with  the  feet,  in  the  lower  joint  of  the  carpus  and 
tarsus. 

(b)  The  head,  between  the  occipital  bone  and  the  first  cervical  vertebra. 

(c)  The  organs  of  the  thoracic,  abdominal  and  pelvic  cavities,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  kidneys. 

(d)  The  naveL  and  the  external  sexual  organs  of  bull  calves. 
III. — In  sheep  : 

(a)  The  pelt,  together  with  the  feet,  in  the  lower  joint  of  the  carpus  and 
tarsus. 

(b)  The  head,  between  the  occipital  bone  and  the  first  cervical  vertebra. 

(c)  The  organs  of  the  thoracic,  abdominal  and  pelvic  cavities,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  kidneys. 

(d)  The  external  sexual  organs  of  bucks  and  wethers,  and  the  udder  of  ewes. 
IV.— In  hogs  : 

(a)  The  organs  of  the  thoracic,  abdominal  and  pelvic  cavities,  together  with, 
the  tongue,  trachea  and  esophagus  ;  with  the  exception,  however,  of  th« 
kidneys  and  peritoneal  fat. 

(b)  The  external  sexual  organs  of  boars. 

SEC.  2.  The  calculation  of  the  weight  shall  be  as  a  whole,  in  halves,  or  in  quar- 
ters in  cattle ;  as  a  whole  in  calves  and  sheep,  and  as  a  whole,  or  in  halves,  in  hogs. 

SEC.  3.  If  the  determination  of  the  dressed  weight  is  made  in  cattle  inside  of 
twelve  hours,  and  in  other  animals  within  three  hours  after  slaughter,  one  pound 
(|  kg.)  is  to  be  subtracted  from  every  50  kg.  as  so-called  warm  weight. 

SEC.  4.  For  every  determination  of  dressed  weight,  a  weight  certificate  is  to  be 
given  on  request,  upon  which  the  words  "  Dressed  weight"  shall  be  written. 

Market  quotations  for  food  animals. — The  Ministries  of  Agriculture, 
Public  Domains,  Forests,  Commerce,  Manufactures  and  Interior,  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  under  date  of  July  9, 1900,  issued  a  general 
decree  concerning  the  quotation  of  prices  for  food  animals  in  the 
larger  meat  markets  for  the  purpose  of  rendering  the  prices  uni- 
form. The  quotations  must  be  made  from  dressed  weight  or  live 
weight,  according  to  local  custom.  If  both  forms  are  in  use,  a 
separate  quotation  must  be  made  for  each.  The  desirability  of 
quotation  according  to  the  live  weight  is  doubted,  since  the  dressed 
weight,  corresponding  to  the  actual  value  of  the  animal,  varies  con- 
siderably, even  in  the  same  stage  of  fattening:  (in  well-fattened 
hogs,  for  example,  between  77.7  and  90.2  per  cent.).  Furthermore, 
the  live  weight  is  very  differently  affected  by  transportation,  and  the 
quality  of  the  meat  can  not  be  judged  in  the  living  animals. 

Nutritive  value  of  the  meat  of  fat  and  poor  animals. — According  to  A 
large  number  of  chemical  analyses  (see  Konig,  "Chemische  Zusam- 


192         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

mensetzung  der  menschlichen  Nahrungs-und  Genussmittel "),  the 
meat  of  fat  animals  is  distinguished  by  a  smaller  water  content  in  com- 
parison with  the  meat  of  poor  animals.  As  maintained  by  Schmidt- 
Miilheim,  however,  the  decrease  in  water  content  is  not  conditioned 
by  a  decrease  of  the  muscle  water  which  would  correspond  to  an 
increase  of  the  muscle  protein,  but  chiefly  through  the  deposition 
of  fat.  The  relative  protein  content  of  meat  is  lessened  by  the 
increase  in  fat,  as  appears  from  the  following  statement  of  Konig. 
The  figures  were  obtained  as  averages  of  a  large  number  of 
analyses  : 

1.  Meat  of  very  fat  steers :    Water,  53.05 ;  protein,  16.75  ;  fat, 
29.28. 

2.  Meat  of  moderately  fat  steers  :  Water,  72.03  ;  protein,  20.96 ; 
fat,  5.31. 

3.  Meat  of  poor  steers  :  Water,  76.37  ;  protein,  20.71 ;  fat,  1.74 
Fat  meat  is  consequently  poor  in  protein,  and,  therefore,  really 

of  less  food  value  than  poor  meat ;  for  fat,  especially  the  fat  of 
cattle,  is  much  cheaper  than  protein.  This  fact,  however,  is  without 
influence  upon  the  market  value  of  meat.  The  meat  of  fat  animals, 
is  preferred  because  it  possesses  more  tender  fibers,  and,  as  stated, 
a  more  agreeable  taste  than  that  of  poor  animals.  The  most  valu- 
able meat,  however,  is  that  of  moderately  fat  animals,  since  it  com- 
bines a  good  taste  with  a  high  protein  content. 

(g)  The  Skeletal  Musculature. 

General  discussion. — The  skeletal  musculature  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  body  of  food  animals.  It  furnishes  the 
meat  of  commerce,  and  with  it  the  fat  tissues,  which  inclose  and 
penetrate  the  muscles,  the  nerves  which  are  connected  with  the 
muscles,  vessels,  lymphatic  glands  and  bones  are  included. 

According  to  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  the  proportion  of  pure  muscle 
meat  is  found  to  be  45.5  per  cent,  in  a  fat  calf ;  47.9  in  a  half-fattened 
steer  ;  40.2  in  a  fat  steer  ;  36.9  in  a  fat  lamb  ;  37.5  in  a  poor  sheep  ;. 
38.4  in  a  half-fattened  sheep  ;  29.8  in  a  fat  sheep  ;  47.6  in  a  poor  hog, 
and  37.3  in  a  fat  hog.  The  remainder  is  to  be  reckoned  as  skin, 
entrails,  fat  and  bones.  The  bones  constitute  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  body  weight,  a  larger  proportion  in  poor  than  in  fattened 
animals.  In  poor  cattle,  for  example,  they  constitute  one-eighth  of 
the  weight ;  in  fat  cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  only  one-fourteenth. 

Concerning  the  weight  of  the  individual  parts  of  well-fattened 
cattle,  careful  investigations  were  made  by  the  German  Agricultural 


NORMAL   APPEARANCE  193 

Society  in  the  army  conserve  factories  at  Mainz  and  Haselhorst, 
near  Spandau.  These  studies  were  made  from  eighty-three  animals 
selected  from  different  races,  and  the  following  results  were  obtained : 
A  racial  difference  in  the  dressed  weight  was  found  only  in  certain 
unimportant  points.  This  was  particularly  true  of  the  skin.  High- 
land breeds  have  a  somewhat  heavier  skin  than  lowland  German 
cattle.  The  average  weight  of  the  skin  in  the  former  was  48.3  kg., 
or  12.7  per  cent,  of  the  dressed  weight;  in  the  latter,  46.4  kg,  or 
11.1  per  cent.  It  also  appeared  that  lowland  cattle  had  a  higher 
percentage  of  intestinal  fat,  kidney  fat  and  tallow  than  highland 
breeds  (intestinal  fat  in  lowland  cattle,  9.6 ;  in  highland  breeds, 
7.02 ;  kidney  fat  and  tallow,  6.95  and  5.2  per  cent.,  respectively). 
It  appears,  however,  that  this  difference  is  due  less  to  racial  pecu- 
liarities than  to  the  method  of  fattening  and  the  different  ages  of 
the  animals.  The  differences  with  reference  to  the  bones  are  quite 
insignificant  (mountain  animals,  15.4;  lowland,  15  1  per  cent.).  In 
the  first  observations,  the  striking  fact  appeared  that  the  fore  quar- 
ters were  heavier  than  the  hind  quarters,  while  in  slaughter  tests, 
which  took  place  during  the  fat-animal  exhibit  in  Berlin,  the  hind 
quarters  were  uniformly  considerably  heavier  than  the  fore  quarters. 
This  is  probably  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  cattle  in  Berlin  were 
in  better  condition  and  showed  a  larger  quantity  of  kidney  fat. 
Heretofore,  opinions  have  been  much  divided  on  the  question 
whether  the  hind  quarters  or  fore  quarters  had  the  greater  weight 
of  bones.  This  question  was,  therefore,  considered,  and  in  one  of 
the  animals  which  was  studied,  and  in  which  the  two  quarters 
weighed  exactly  the  same,  194  kg.,  it  was  found  that  the  loin  roast 
weighed  17.75  kg.;  the  fillet,  9.75;  the  remainder  of  the  meat,  270; 
the  waste  in  meat  and  fat  tissue,  9.30 ;  kidney  fat,  25 ;  the  bones 
of  both  fore  quarters,  31.80;  and  the  bones  of  both  hind  quarters, 
24.50  kg. 

In  meat  furnished  to  troops,  there  .may  be  present  the  following 
weights  of  bone  after  cooking :  In  100  kg.  of  raw  beef,  not  more 
than  11  kg.;  in  100  kg.  of  raw  mutton,  not  more  than  13  kg.;  in  100 
kg.  of  raw  pork,  not  more  than  9  kg.;  in  100  kg.  of  raw  veal,  not 
more  than  18  kg.;  and  in  100  kg.  of  lean  rib  bacon,  not  more  than 
2kg. 

"Meat"  and  animal  materials  in  a  raw  state. — In  a  broader  sense, 
the  entrails  are  also  considered  as  meat.  The  Beichsgericht,  in  a 
decision  of  November  4,  1889,  held  that  under  the  term,  "  meat  in 
general,"  the  stomach,  intestines,  and  all  parts  of  food  animals 


194         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

which  are  in  aiiy  way  used  as  food  in  commerce  should  be  included, 
while  the  term,  "raw  animal  materials,"  should  be  understood  to 
mean  only  such  substances  of  animal  origin  as  are  worked  over  for 
industrial  or  technical  purposes,  but  which  are  not  used  for  food. 

Histology. — The  histological  components  of  skeletal  musculature 
are  the  striated  muscle  fibers,  which  consist  of  sarcolemma  and  the 
contractile  contents,  and  also  the  inter  and  intramuscular  connect- 
ive tissue.  In  the  contractile  content  of  the  muscle  fiber  highly 
characteristic  phenomena  are  observed  after  death,  which  distinctly 
separate  muscle  tissue  in  its  physical  and  chemical  relations  from 
the  other  tissues  of  the  animal  body. 

Physical  characters  of  striated  musculature. — The  muscles  of  freshly 
slaughtered  animals  exhibit  active  contractions.  The  color  is  dark- 
red  (hemoglobin).  There  are,  however,  pale  muscles.*  The  consist- 
ency is  firm,  but  yielding.  Fresh  muscles,  which  are  still  capable 
of  reacting,  are  characterized  by  a  glistening  appearance. 

This  condition  does  not  persist  very  long.  After  a  short  time 
certain  groups  of  muscles,  the  head  and  neck  muscles,  become  stiflf 
(muscle  rigor).  Other  muscles  follow  these,  until  finally  the  whole 
musculature  and  the  joints  become  inflexible,  stiff  arid  firm  (rigor 
mortis).  At  the  same  time,  the  muscles  become  turbid  and  opaque. 
All  these  phenomena  are  produced  by  the  coagulation  of  the  myosin, 
in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the  muscles.  The 
coagulation  of  the  myosin  causes  what  was  not  observable  before, 
namely,  the  appearance  of  muscle  serum  on  sections  of  the  muscles. 

The  beginning  and  duration  of  rigor  mortis  are  subject  to  con- 
siderable variations.  Very  strong  muscle  contraction  before  death 
(for  example,  in  cases  of  tetanus,  strychnine  poisoning,  etc.)  causes 
a  rapid  and  intensive  rigor  (Landois).  Wild  animals,  hunted  to 
death,  pass  into  rigor  mortis  within  a  few  minutes.  Among  drugs, 
veratrin,  alcohol,  ether  and  the  etherial  oils  favor  the  early  appear- 
ance of  rigor  mortis.  In  general,  the  time  for  the  appearance  of 
rigor  mortis  varies  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  to  several  hours 


*  Pale  muscles  are  well  developed  in  mammals,  especially  in  the  rabbit  and  hog. 
The  calf  has  white  meat  up  to  the  sixth  month.  In  grown  cattle,  the  skin  (superficial) 
muscles  are  partly  pale.  Furthermore,  pale  muscles  are  often  found  in  connection 
\rith'  fed*  muscles'  in  fish  and  birds.  The  fibers  of  pale  muscles,  according  to  Ranvier, 
are  thinner  and  more  closely  striated;  but  the  longitudinal  striations  are  less  distinct 
than  in  red  muscle  fibers.  According  to  Griitzner,  there  are  pale  fibers  in  nearly 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  195 

after  death.  Du  Bois-Reymond  demonstrated  that  boiled  muscles 
do  not  pass  into  rigor  mortis.  This  is  to  a  certain  extent  the  case 
in  hyclremic  cachexia;  also  in  septicemia  and  swine  erysipelas 
(Hertwig). 

Rigor  mortis  persists  for  from  one  to  several  days.  As  a  rule, 
the  rigor  passes  off  first  in  those  animals  in  which  it  appeared 
earliest.  Muscles  in  rigor  become  softened  again  in  consequence 
of  an  increased  formation  of  acids  which  dissolve  the  myosin. 

With  reference  to  rigor  mortis  in  fish,  Ewart  stated  that  it 
appears  earlier  and  more  intensively  in  muscles  which  were  more 
vigorous  and  capable  of  stimulation.  Furthermore,  a  close  connec- 
tion is  demonstrated  between  the  cessation  of  rigor  and  the  begin- 
ning of  decomposition.  If  the  contents  of  the  intestines  be  removed 
and  disinfectants  applied,  the  condition  of  rigor  may  be  maintained 
for  almost  any  period.  In  cases  where  the  brain  and  spinal  cord 
are  removed  after  death,  the  rigor  persists  considerably  longer  than 
in  animals  which  are  not  thus  mutilated. 

Of  special  interest  is  the  power  of  muscles  retaining  the  animal 
heat,  and  not  in  rigor  to  "fix"  large  quantities  of  water.  This 
peculiarity  is  especially  noticeable  if  pieces  of  muscle  are  previously 
pounded  or  torn  into  shreds.  In  this  manner  meat  which  is  intended 
for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  sausages  may  be  artificially  increased 
by  70  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  water. 

The  influence  of  feeding  on  the  physical  properties  of  meat. — Butchers 
generally  complain  that  the  firm  character  of  meat,  especially  in  hogs, 
is  becoming  more  and  more  rare  on  account  of  the  extensive  use  of 
the  by-products  of  manufacture  in  fattening.  The  best  results,  with 
regard  to  the  condition  of  the  meat,  are  obtained  when  hogs  are  fed 
with  milk,  barley  aud  potatoes.  Favorable  results  are  also  obtained 
when  maize  is  substituted  for  barley.*  The  use  of  peas  and  other 
legumes  in  the  place  of  barley  is  undesirable,  since  the  meat  takes 
on  a  bitter  taste  when  legumes  are  used  as  the  exclusive  grain  feed. 
Feeding  bran  is  not  to  be  recommended,  for  the  reason  that  the 
meat  becomes  soft  and  of  a  loose  texture.  Very  undesirable  effects 
are  obtained  from  the  use  of  rice-meal.  The  meat  becomes  soft, 
spongy  and  of  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  can  scarcely  be  used  for 
sausages  (on  account  of  its  loose  texture  and  paleness),  or  for  pick- 


*  In  America,  as  well  as  in  Hungary,  maize  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  feeding 
hogs.  The  animals  become  heavier  (fatter)  than  on  a  barley  diet.  The  quality  of  the 
meat,  however,  is  undoubtedly  better  when  the  hogs  are  fed  on  barley. 


196         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND    ORGANS 

ling  (011  account  of  its  oleaginous  character).     The  same  effects  are 
produced  by  feeding  distillery  refuse  of  corn,  and  animal  meal. 

Chemical  peculiarities  of  striated  musculature. — According  to> 
Konig  the  meat  of  poor  steer  beef,  with  a  fat  content  of  1.74  per 
cent.,  contains  about  20.71  protein  and  76.37  per  cent,  water.  For 
muscle  meat  with  a  fat  content  of  1  per  cent.,  Voit  gives  as  an  average 
20  per  cent,  of  proteids  and  gelatinous  substances,  together  with 
75.8  per  cent,  of  water.  Besides  proteids  and  fat,  there  are  other 
important  constituents  of  muscle  meat,  namely,  the  extractives, 
creatin,  creatinin,  sarcin,  zanthin,  and  muscle  salts.  Among  the 
latter,  sarcophosphoric  acid  (Siegfried)  plays  an  important  part. 
This  acid  in  neutral,  slightly  acid,  or  alkaline  solution,  holds  phos- 
phoric acid  in  a  fixed  condition  and,  therefore,  makes  possible  the 
simultaneous  transfer  of  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  magnesium  into 
the  fluids  of  the  body.  According  to  Siegfried,  one  of  the  most 
important  actions  of  meat  broth  and  meat  extracts  depends  upon 
this  fact. 

The  potassium  and  sodium  content  of  meat  vary  in  different 
species  of  animals.  The  largest  quantity  of  potash  salts,  with  which 
the  content  in  phosphate  varies  in  a  parallel  manner,  is  found  in 
fowls,  4.65  per  cent.,  and  the  smallest  in  the  eel,  2.41.  Among  food 
animals,  pork  is  especially  poor  in  potash  salts,  but  rich  in  sodium 
salts. 

According  to  Landois,  with  the  extractives  belong  osinazon,, 
which  gives  meat  its  characteristic  agreeable  taste.  The  odor  of 
meat  depends  on  volatile  fatty  acids  and  differs  with  each  species  of 
animals.  (Compare  "Differentiation  of  Meat  of  Different  Food 
Animals.") 

The  reaction  of  the  musculature  during  life  is  neutral,  but 
becomes  acid  (sarcolactic  acid  and  volatile  fatty  acids)  soon  after 
death,  according  to  Edelmann  and  Noack,  within  three  to  six  hours. 
Jn  animals  slaughtered  for  sanitary  reasons,  the  acid  reaction  may 
Appear  after  two  or  three  days,  or  later,  or  may  entirely  fail  to 
appear,  so  that  the  musculature  may  remain  neutral  even  to  the  time 
of  the  beginning  of  decomposition  (Edelmann  and  Noack).  The 
presence  of  acid  causes  the  beginning  of  rigor  mortis.  The 
increase  of  acid  content,  however,  brings  about  a  cessation  of' 
this  condition  (the  myosin  is  soluble  in  0.5  per  cent,  lactic 
acid).  Under  the  influence  of  putrefactive  bacteria,  the  acid 
reaction  of  the  musculature  gradually  becomes  alkaline  (presence 
of  ammonia). 


NORMAL  APPEARANCE  197 

According  to  Stinzing,  carbonic  acid  constitutes  from  15  to  18 
-per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  the  musculature  ;  oxygen  is  not  present  in 
muscles  (Hermann). 

Rigor  mortis,  or  the  appearance  of  sarcolactic  acid  in  the 
musculature,  is  of  great  culinary  importance.  Meat  prepared  for 
cooking  immediately  after  slaughter  is  unsavory  and  so  tough  that 
it  can  be  masticated  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Meat  in 
rigor,  however,  with  an  acid  reaction,  is  tender  and  of  good  flavor, 
since  comparatively  low  temperatures  (60°  to  70°  C.),  in  connection 
with  the  action  of  lactic  acid,  are  sufficient  to  transform  the  inter- 
fibrillar  connective  tissue  into  gelatine.  The  texture  of  the  meat 
becomes  loose  and  the  individual  fibres  are  readily  separated  in  the 
stomach  (Landois). 

Toughiiess  of  meat. — Lehmann  demonstrated  that  the  variation 
in  the  toughness  of  raw  meat  depends  upon  the  difference  in  its 
content  of  collagen.  In  the  apparatus  used  by  Lehmann  in  his 
experiments,  a  weight  of  1,040  gm.  was  required  for  biting  off 
-collagenous  connective  tissue  (tendon) ;  while  for  elastic  tissue 
(ligamentum  nuchse)  a  weight  of  only  580  gm.  was  required. 
Collagenous  tissue,  however,  loses  almost  all  of  its  firmness  by 
cooking,  while  elastic  tissue  remains  entirely  unchanged.  Therefore, 
meat  which  is  rich  in  connective  tissue  becomes  softer  in  cooking, 
while  meat  which  is  poor  in  connective  tissue  is  not  so  affected. 
Thus,  for  biting  through  a  fillet  of  beef  before  cooking,  a  weight  of 
83.4  gm.  was  required,  and  after  cooking  a  weight  of  84  gm.,  while 
for  biting  through  dermal  muscle  of  cattle,  a  weight  of  236.4  gm.  was 
required  before  cooking  and  88  8  after  cooking. 

Lehmann  also  made  the  interesting  discovery  that  meat  while 
hanging  loses  about  25  per  cent,  of  its  toughness  through  an  acid 
fermentation  in  the  course  of  a  few  days. 

Fitness  of  meat  for  the  table. — True  fitness  of  meat  for  fastidious 
palates  is  obtained  by  allowing  it  to  remain  in  an  ice  chest  or  cold 
storage  for  two  or  three  weeks.  In  this  way,  under  the  influence  of 
sarcolactic  acid,  the  meat  becomes  unusually  tender  and  somewhat 
friable,  without  being  exposed  to  the  danger  of  decomposition. 
Similar  results  are  obtained  by  placing  meat  in  vinegar  or  sour  milk. 

Under  all  circumstances  decomposition  during  the  ripening  of 

meat  for  the  table  is  to  be  avoided.     Decomposing  meat  is  not  only 

-disagreeable,  but   also   an   unhealthful  food  material.      We  must, 

therefore,  characterize  as  very  unappetizing  and  dangerous  the  fad 


198         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

of  certain  gourmands  who,  mistaking  the  nature  of  real  "  hautgout,"* 
regard  decomposition  as  a  necessary  condition  for  palatable  meat. 

"Hautgowt." — According  to  W.  Eber,  genuine  hautgout  is  not  a 
decomposition,  but  a  sort  of  acid  fermentation  which,  possibly  in 
connection  with  hydrogen  sulphid,  leads  to  the  formation  of  a 
desired  flavor.  The  acid  fermentation  finds  favorable  conditions  in 
the  meat  of  game  from  the  fact  that  this  meat,  in  spite  of  its  high 
blood  content,  decomposes  much  less  readily  than  the  meat  of 
domestic  food  animals. 

Of  great  importance  for  meat  inspection  is  the  reducing  power 
which  the  musculature  as  well  as  other  animal  tissues  possess.  The 
experiments  of  Hermann,  Ehrlich,  Griitzner,  and  Gscheidlen,  Hoppe- 
Seyler,  and  Eber  have  demonstrated  the  existence  of  a  reducing 
property  in  the  animal  cell  and  the  surrounding  fluid.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  musculature.  The  reducing  power  of 
animal  tissue  is  manifested  in  intoxications  (transformation  of 
poisonous  into  harmless  substances  during  life),  and  in  slight  and 
serious  cases  of  icterus  (gradual  transformation  of  bilirubin  into 
colorless  compounds  through  the  living  tissue  (Eber). 

Meat  as  a  nutrient  medium  for  bacteria. — Finally,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  muscle  meat,  in  consequence  of  its  chemical 
composition,  offers  not  only  a  very  suitable  nutrient  medium  for 
putrefactive  bacteria,  but  also  for  pathogenic  micro-organisms. 
This  property  plays  an  important  role  in  the  post  mortem  intensifi- 
cation of  the  toxicity  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals,  as  well  as  iu 
the  infection  of  meat  through  contact  with  diseased  meat  or  through 
incidental  carriers  of  contagion.  Bocklart  demonstrated  that  about 
thirty  species  of  the  bacteria  with  which  he  experimented  developed 
very  luxuriantly  on  meat. 

2.— Differentation  of  the  Meat  of  Yarious  Food  Animals. 

The  expert  is  frequently  called  upon  to  give  an  opinion  of  tha 
species  of  animal  from  which  a  given  piece  of  meat  or  meat  product 
originated,  for  the  substitution  of  cheap  meat  for  the  more  expensive 
kinds  frequently  occurs.  Thus,  horse  meat  is  sold  for  beef,  goat 
meat  for  mutton,  mutton  for  venison,  dog  meat  for  pork,  cat  meat 
for  hare.  Furthermore,  it  may  happen  that  the  less  valuable 
buffalo  meat  may  be  marketed  as  beef  and  colt  meat  as  veal. 


DIFFERENTIATION    OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD    ANIMALS  199 

Such  substitutions  are  to  be  considered  as  violations  of  Section 
263  of  the  Statutes  of  Germany  (Deception,  see  page  116).  In  this 
connection  it  is  not  the  nutritive  value  of  the  substituted  meat,  but 
simply  its  market  value  which  determines  the  matter.  (Prussian 
Chamber  of  Justice,  Decision  V,  1810-1886.)  The  most  frequent 
deception  is  the  addition  of  horse  meat  to  sausages. 

As  a  means  of  preventing  the  substitution  of  horse  meat  for 
beef,  all  regulations  for  meat  inspection  prescribe  that  horse  meat 
shall  be  offered  for  sale  'only  in  certain  market  booths  which  are 
properly  designated.  In  the  same  manner,  it  is  required  that 
authority  be  secured  for  a  declaration  of  buffalo,  goat,  and  dog  meat 
for  sale. 

For  the  differentiation  of  the  meat  of  the  various  domestic 
animals,  the  following  points  should  be  considered : 

(a)  Color,  consistency,  and  odor  of  the  meat  and  its  content  of 
adipose  tissue. 

(b)  Color  and  consistency  of  the  adipose  tissue, 

(c)  The  structure  of  such  bones  as  are  present. 

For  the  identification  of  horse  meat,  we  may,  furthermore,  find 
valuable  assistance  in  the  demonstration  of  glycogen  (Niebel),  in,  the 
determination  of  the  iodin  number  of  the  fat  (Hasterlik),  and  of  the 
fatty  acids  (Bremer),  as  well  as  in  the  determination  of  the  refrac- 
tion number  of  the  fat  (Nussberger). 

(a)  Color,  Consistency,  Odor  and  Fat  Content  of  the  Meat 
of  Different  Food  Animals. 

HORSES. — Horse  meat  in  general  has  a  dark-red  color,  which 
takes  on  a  bluish  sheen  on  the  surface  after  lying  for  a  long  time. 
Klein  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  horse  meat  darkens  so  rapidly 
in  the  air  that  its  color,  after  a  short  time,  appears  to  be  almost 
black.  Baranski  noted  the  appearance  of  fasciae  in  horse  meat. 
Furthermore,  it  is  said  that  in  cooking,  and  on  the  addition  of 
sulphuric  acid,  a  decided  odor  of  the  horse  stable  is  developed 
(specific  volatile,  fatty  acids).  According  to  Baranski,  the  specific 
horse  odor  is  given  off  from  horse  kidneys  in  every  method  of 
preparation  for  use.  In  cooking  horse  meat,  moreover,  the  yellow 
oil  globules  which  appear  on  the  meat  juice  are  conspicuous. 

Ziindel,  in  his  day,  mentioned  that,  after  treatment  of  samples 
of  meat  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  specific  odor  of  the  animal  species 
was  developed  so  plainly  that  the  origin  of  the  meat  could  be  deter- 
mined with  certainty  from  this  fact  alone.  Leisering,  however,  was 


200       APPEARANCE   AND    DIFFERENTIATION    OF   MEATS   AND    ORGANS 

unable  to  substantiate  this  assertion  by  experiment.  In  one  case, 
when  Ziindel's  test  was  applied,  buck  meat  was  determined  as  pork. 
According  to  Puntigam  and  Halusa,  however,  the  test  with  sulphuric 
acid  is  applicable  in  differentiating  between  buffalo  meat  and  beef. 
If  samples  of  beef  and  buffalo  meat  are  cooked  in  water  strongly 
acidified  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  odor  of  meat  broth  appears  in  the 
beef,  while,  in  the  buffalo  meat,  a  stronger,  disagreeable  odor,  recall- 
ing that  of  cattle  dung,  becomes  noticeable. 

CATTLE. — The  color  of  beef  varies  according  to  the  age  in  which 
the  cattle  are  killed,  and  also  according  to  sex.  Young  cattle,  of  six 
to  fifteen  mouths  of  age,  have  a  light-red  meat,  with  little  fat,  of  fine 
flavor,  and  of  rather  firm,  elastic  consistency.  Bulls,  one  and  one- 
half  to  four  years  of  age  (they  are  not  commonly  kept  as  bulls  to  a 
greater  age),  are  characterized  by  their  dark-red,  tough,  coarse- 
grained muscle  tissue,  which  is  poor  in  fat.  Steers,  one  and  one- 
half  to  six  years  of  age,  possess  a  light-red  meat  of  moderately  firm 
consistency,  which  becomes  a  brick-red  when  hung  up,  and  which  is 
strongly  interlarded  with  fat  (marbled).  Older  yoke  oxen,  on  the 
other  hand,  which  are  fattened  shortly  before  slaughter,  possess 
darker,  firmer  and  tougher  meat  than  young  steers.  Furthermore, 
the  meat  is  not  interlarded  with  fat,  but  the  fat  is  deposited  for  the 
most  part  under  the  skin,  in  the  omentum  and  mesenteries,  as  well 
as  in  the  region  of  the  kidneys.  The  meat  of  fattened  heifers  and 
young  cows  is  only  slightly  different  from  that  of  young  steers. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  older  cows  which  have  been  milked  one 
finds  a  lighter  and  firmer  meat.  Fat  tissue  in  old  cows  is,  as  a 
rule,  present  in  small  quantities.  In  cases  where  it  is  exceptionally 
well  developed,  it  is  deposited  in  the  same  locations  as  in  old 
steers. 

A  faint,  not  disagreeable,  specific  odor  is  noticed  in  fresh  beef. 
According  to  Baranski,  the  meat  of  cows  is  often  tinted  with  a  faint 
odor  of  milk  or  cow  dung. 

In  a  fresh  condition,  buffalo  meat  is  darker  and  more  reddish- 
brown  than  beef.  After  cooling,  it  exhibits  a  pale-red  color  resem- 
bling that  of  young  beef,  and  possesses  a  violet  sheen  on  the 
freshly  cut  surfaces.  Furthermore,  buffalo  meat  has  a  coarse  grain. 
Its  broad  and  flat  muscle  fibers  are  held  in  contact  by  a  loose  con- 
nective tissue.  The  strictly  muscular  part  of  the  superficial  shoulder 
muscles  in  the  buffalo  forms  a  strip  not  wider  than  four  fingers, 
while  in  cattle  it  is  much  wider.  There  is  also  always  a  striking 
musk-like  odor  in  buffalo  meat,  which  appears  in  cooking.  In  the 


DIFFEUENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD    ANIMALS  201 

cooked  condition,  buffalo  meat  is  tough,  and  less  easily  cut  than  torn 
(Puntigam  and  Halusa). 

CALF. — Veal  is  characterized  by  a  light,  pale  red  color,  a  fine 
but  rather  tough  fiber.  The  meat  of  calves  fattened  on  milk  is 
conspicuously  pale  or  pure  white.  The  consistency  varies  accord- 
ing to  age  and  degree  of  fatness.  The  odor  is  specific,  and  differs 
from  that  of  beef.  If  veal  is  allowed  to  hang  for  a  long  time  in  the 
skin,  as  is  customary  for  protection  against  drying,  the  meat  takes 
on  an  acid  odor  (active  formation  of  sarcolactic  acid).  The  fat 
content  of  the  muscles  is  minimal. 

The  meat  of  immature  calves — that  is,  those  which  are  killed 
during  the  first  week  of  life — is  of  a  lighter  color  than  that  of  older 
calves  of  a  higher  water  content,  and  of  a  softer  consistency.  The 
muscles,  especially  those  of  the  hind  quarters,  are  still  only  slightly 
developed,  and  the  finger  easily  penetrates  them.  Rigor  mortis  is 
very  inconspicuous.  The  adipose  tissue,  which  is  present,  posessses 
a  jelly-like  consistency.  The  so-called  double-loin  calves,  which  are 
characterized  by  the  enormous  width  of  the  chest,  with  an  unusually 
voluminous  development  of  the  ischiac  and  femoral  musculature 
(double  loins),  possess  little  fat  and  a  dry,  dark  flesh  (see  Kaiser, 
Land.  Jahrbiicher).  In  the  older  double-loins,  the  meat  appears 
almost  "  as  black  as  in  an  old  bull." 

SHEEP.— The  meat  of  sheep  has  a  light-red  or  brick-red  color, 
fine  fiber,  and  moderately  firm  consistency.  In  well-fed  animals  an 
abundance  of  fat  is  found  between  individual  muscles,  especially, 
however,  under  the  skin  and  in  the  fatty  capsule  of  the  kidneys. 
Older  breeding  animals  have  a  dark-red  and  firmer  meat,  with 
comparatively  little  fat.  The  odor  of  the  meat  of  sheep  is  specific, 
comparable  frequently  with  that  of  the  rumen  of  those  animals, 
often  also  with  that  of  the  sheep  barn.  The  meat  of  bucks  some- 
times possesses  the  so-called  buck  odor. 

GOATS. — The  meat  of  goats  varies  according  to  age,  and  is  of  a 
lighter  or  darker  red  color.  The  scarcity  of  fat  under  the  skin  and 
the  disagreeable  goat  odor  are  characteristic.  Goats  become,  accord- 
ing to  popular  terminology,  "  secretly  fat  ";  that  is,  they  possess  a 
strongly  developed  fat  capsule  around  the  kidneys,  in  spite  of  the 
-absence  of  the  panniculus  adiposus.  The  peculiar  sticky  character 
of  the  subcutis  of  goats  brings  it  about  that,  in  skinning  these 
animals,  hairs  become  attached  to  the  meat,  and  serve  as  a  certain. 


202         APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

means  of  detecting  the  origin  of  the  meat.  Goat  meat,  as  has 
already  been  mentioned,  is,  like  horse  meat,  to  be  declared  as  suck 
on  the  market. 

Goltz  suggests^  the  following  as  a  criterion  for  distinguishing 
between  the  meat  of  goats  and  sheep.  Goats  are  far  less  disposed 
to  form  deposits  of  fat  than  sheep.  Furthermore,  little  fat  is  found 
under  the  skin  of  the  thorax  and  abdomen  in  well-fed  goats  as  com- 
pared with  well-fed  sheep,  while  the  kidney  capsule,  even  in  poor 
goats,  is  surrounded  by  a  thick  layer  of  fat.  The  meat  of  young 
goats  is  light  in  color  ;  the  dermal  muscles  of  older  goats  are,  how- 
ever, of  a  darker  red  than  those  of  sheep. 

Mutton,  when  killed  at  not  too  great  an  age,  possesses  a  sweet, 
slightly  ammoniacal  odor,  which  can  be  easily  recognized  by  holding 
the  nose  close  to  the  meat.  In  the  meat  of  female  goats  the  buck 
odor  exists  to  but  a  slight  degree,  or  not  at  all. 

HOGS. — The  meat  of  fattened  hogs  is  pale-red  and  rose  color,  in 
part  white  (pale  muscles) ;  strongly  infiltrated  and  surrounded  with 
fat ;  fibers  fine  ;  consistency  soft ;  odor  not  definable.  Old  breeding 
animals,  boars  and  sows,  possess  a  dark-red,  firm  meat,  poor  in  fat. 
In  such  hogs  the  subcutis  is  most  frequently  free  from  fat.  In  older 
boars  a  thickening  and  induration  takes  place  in  that  portion  of  the 
skin  in  connection  with  the  subcutaneous  tissue  which  lies  over  the 
thoracic  region  (formation  of  the  so-called  shield).  In  uncastrated 
animals  and  in  cryptorchids,  in  which  the  testicles  are  not  atro- 
phied, a  highly  repulsive  urinons  boar  odor  is  to  be  noticed  in  the 
meat  in  a  fresh  condition  and  during  cooking. 

In  cooking,  pork  becomes  white  ;  the  meat  of  other  animals, 
gray  (disintegration  of  hemoglobin,  which  takes  place  at  60°-70°  C.).. 

(b)  Color  and  Consistency  of  Adipose  Tissue. 

The  consistency  of  fat  tissue,  and  of  the  fat  content  in  the 
tissue,  is  dependent  upon  its  content  of  stearin  and  olein.  A  high 
stearin  content  gives  fat  a  firm  consistency  and  a  high  melting  point. 
The  character  of  the  fat  depends  on  the  species  of  animal,  and  is 
also  influenced  by  the  kind  of  food  material  chiefly  used.  For 
this  reason,  the  figures  which  are  presented  possess  a  qualified 
reliability. 

HORSE. — The  fat  of  the  horse  is  light  golden-yellow  (subcu- 
taneous fat  and  kidney  fat)  or  brownish-yellow  (mesenteric  fat), 
soft  and  oleaceous  (a  high  content  of  olein).  It  begins  to  melt  at  a 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD   ANIMALS  203 

temperature  of  30°  C.  Rendered  horse  grease  is  white,  and  begins 
to  melt  at  32°  C.  (96  per  cent,  olein).  The  fat  of  the  bone  marrow 
is  waxy  yellow ;  hardens  in  the  air,  and  takes  on  a  greenish  sheen. 
It  melts  at  65°  C.  In  fattened  and  so-called  mine  horses,  the  whole 
adipose  tissue  may  become  of  a  pure  white  color. 

CATTLE. — The  adipose  tissue  of  young,  fattened  cattle  is  distin- 
guished by  its  white  color  and  rather  firm  consistency  after  setting. 
Beef  tallow  sets  very  quickly,  and  is  always  solid  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. It  contains  approximately  one  part  of  liquid  to  three 
parts  of  solid  fat,  and  melts,  according  to  Schulze  and  Reinecke,  at 
from  41°-50°  C.  A  yellow  color  is  observed  in  the  fat  of  young 
cattle  when  fattened  exclusively  on  grass ;  also  in  old  animals, 
especially  in  old  cows.  In  the  latter  the  consistency  of  the  fafc 
becomes  softer  at  the  same  time.  Beef  tallow  may  be  recognized 
by  a  slight,  peculiar,  but  unmistakable  odor. 

Calf  fat  is  at  first  reddish  yellow- white,  but  later  becomes  pure 
white.  It  is  much  softer  than  beef  fat. 

The  fat  tissue  of  the  buffalo  is  of  a  striking  white  color,  posses- 
ses a  musk-like  odor,  and,  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  feels, 
dry  and  somewhat  sticky.  The  fingers  do  not  become  oily  in 
rubbing,  however,  as  is  the  case  in  beef  tallow.  The  kidney  fat  in 
the  buffalo  is  usually  but  little  developed,  has  a  dull  color,  and 
shrinks  very  quickly  on  cooling  (Puntigam  and  Halusa). 

SHEEP. — The  sheep  possesses  a  beautiful  white  fat,  with  a 
melting  point  at  from  31°-52°  C.  (content  of  solid  f  it  variable  ;  ou 
an  average  about  70  per  cent.).  Mutton  fat  is  almost  completely 
odorless. 

GOAT. — Goat  fat  is  similar  in  character  to  that  of  sheep. 

HOGS. — The  fat  tissue  is  white  ;  exceptionally,  it  is  yellow  (iii 
corn-fed  animals),  or  gray  (fattened  on  fish).  The  consistency^ 
varies  according  to  the  food  material  (page  187),  and  according  to 
the  race  of  hogs.  The  Chinese  and  Hungarian  fat  hogs  (so-called 
Bakony,  Szalonta  and  Mangalicza  hogs)  possess  an  oily  fat  which 
sets  with  difficulty,  while  the  pure  English  hogs  and  improved 
breeds  of  native  hogs  possess  a  firmer  fat ;  that  of  the  latter  breeds 
melts  at  from  42.50°-48°  C.  (62  per  cent,  liquid  fat). 

DOG. — Dog  fat  is  characterized  by  its  white  color,  oily  consist- 
ency,  and  a  pronounced  specific  odor.  It  melts  at  22.5°  C. 


"204         APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

It  is  only  in  the  natural  state,  and  before  rendering,  that  the 
peculiarities  of  fat  offer  really  practical  means  for  the  determination 
of  its  origin.  In  the  rendered  condition,  the  color  and  melting 
point  may  be  changed  at  will  by  mixture  with  the  fat  of  other 
•animals.* 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  varying  consistency 
•of  fat  in  cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  horses  is  dependent  upon  the  part 
•of  the  body  in  which  it  is  deposited.  Thus,  for  example,  the  scrotal 
fat  of  oxen  melts  at  43.5° ;  kidney  fat,  on  the  other  hand,  at  50°  C. 

According  to  analyses  by  Schulze  and  Beinecke,  the  subcuta- 
neous fat  possesses  regularly  a  lower  melting  point  than  that  of  the 
mesenteries,  omentum  and  renal  capsules.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
melting  point  of  fat  in  a  well-fattened  Southdown-Merino  wether 
ivas  found  to  be  44.5°  in  the  panniculus  adiposus;  48.5°  in  the 
mesentery;  49°  in  the  omentum;  51.5°  in  the  kidneys;  in  a  well- 
fattened  ox,  41°  in  the  panniculus,  48°  in  the  omentum,  and  50°  in 
the  kidney  fat.  Similar  differences  were  observed  in  the  hog :  pan- 
niculus, 46.5°  ;  kidneys,  47°  ;  intestines,  48°. 

(c)  Character  of  the  Skeleton. 

Concerning  the  differential  characters  of  the  bony  skeleton  of 
the  different  animals  which  come  up  for  consideration  in  substitu- 
tions, we  have  the  comprehensive  work  of  Martin  (Zeit.  f.  Fleisch-u. 
Milchhyg.,  I),  as  well  as  Sussdorf  s  Lehrbuch  der  Anatomie,  which 
gives  especial  attention  to  these  points.  For  details,  reference  is 
here  made  to  these  works.  From  the  first-named  work  we  select 
ihe  following  essential  points  with  reference  to  the  more  important 
bones. 

HORSES  AND  CATTLE. — In  the  first  cervical  vertebra  of  cattle 
the  posterior  foramen  alarium  is  wanting ;  cervical  vertebrae,  S  to  7, 
inclusive,  are  easily  recognized  in  cattle  by  their  shortness.  The 
spinous  processes  of  the  anterior  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the  horse  are 
short  in  comparison  with  those  of  cattle,  and  are  furnished  with 
strongly  developed  summits.  The  spinous  processes  of  the  lumbar 
vertebrae  of  cattle  stand  perpendicularly,  and  are  separated  from  one 
another ;  in  the  horse  they  are  directed  forward,  and  almost  touch 
one  another.  The  transverse  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebras  in 
cattle  are  directed  forward,  and  are  never  connected  as  the  posterior 

*  On  the  identification  of  rendered  fat  by  the  help  of  the  iodin  and  refraction 
numbers,  see  page  219. 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF  FOOD   ANIMALS  205 

ones  are  in  the  horse.  The  sacrum  in  cattle  is  more  decidedly 
arched  than  in  the  horse.  The  coccygeal  vertebrae  are  shorter  than 
those  of  cattle,  and  in  cattle  the  spinal  canal  is  closed  in  the  first 
five ;  in  the  horse,  only  in  the  first  three.  In  cattle  the  ribs  are 
flatter  and  broader  in  the  middle  and  lower  third  than  in  the  horse. 
In  cattle  the  sternum  is  broad  and  flattened,  while  in  the  horse  the 
anterior  portion  is  keel-shaped.  The  scapula  in  cattle  is  decidedly 
triangular,  the  neck  being  thinner  than  in  the  horse.  The  humerus, 
in  cattle  possesses  two  trochanters,  in  contrast  with  three  in  the 
horse.  The  external  tuberosity,  which  is  strong  in  the  horse,  forms 
merely  a  ridge  in  cattle.  The  radius  in  cattle  is  shorter  and  straighter 
than  in  the  horse.  The  ulna  in  cattle  is  a  distinct  bone,  while  in  the 
horse  the  body  has  almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  pelvis  in 
cattle  is  narrower  and  longer  in  its  posterior  portion  than  in  the/ 
horse.  Furthermore,  the  ischiac  tuberosity  has  three  prominences, 
while  in  the  horse  it  has  two.  The  neck  of  the  femur  in  cattle  is 
more  constricted  than  in  the  horse.  The  trochanter  major  in  cattle 
has  grown  together  with  the  middle  trochanter,  while  the  trochanter 
minor  is  entirely  wanting.  In  cattle,  the  head  of  the  fibula  is  pres- 
ent as  a  small  hook  process  on  the  tibia.  In  the  horse,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  separate  from  the  condyle.  The  trochlea  of  the 
astragalus  stands  straight  in  cattle ;  in  the  horse  it  is  turned 
obliquely  outward. 

The  bones  of  the  buffalo  are  smaller  and  more  easily  broken: 
than  those  of  cattle.  The  tubular  bones  are  shorter,  their  compact 
substance  being  thin  and  very  brittle;  the  ribs  are  considerably 
broader  and  less  curved  than  those  of  cattle.  Consequently,  the 
intercostal  spaces  appear  strikingly  narrow.  On  cross-section  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  ribs,  the  lateral  costal  surfaces  in  cattle  appear 
biconcave,  while  in  the  buffalo  they  are  more  parallel  to  one  another. 
While  in  cattle  the  lower  surface  of  the  ischiopubic  symphysis  m 
convex,  and  the  upper  surface  correspondingly  concave,  so  that  on 
cross-section  it  has  the  form  of  an  arch,  the  upper  and  lower  surface 
in  the  buffalo  are  plane,  and  the  cross-section  of  corresponding  form. 
The  superior  flat  portion  of  the  ilium  is  considerably  broader,  the 
exterior  iliac  spines  are  strongly  directed  outward,  and,  therefore, 
the  pelvis  appears  to  be  much  broader.  The  body  of  the  ilium  in 
the  buffalo  cow  is  much  more  strongly  curved  than  in  the  domestic 
cow.  The  entrance  to  the  pelvis,  therefore,  has  more  nearly  the 
form  of  a  circle,  while  in  the  cow  it  is  elliptical  and  comparatively 
narrow. 


'206         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND    ORGANS 

SHEEP  AND  GOATS. — According  to  Martin,  the  bones  of  goats  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  sheep  by  their  slender  form.  Further- 
more, in  the  goat  the  majority  of  the  processes  are  longer  and  with 
sharper  angles  than  in  sheep.  In  the  goat,  the  first  eight  spinous 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  are  bent  backward  rather  decidedly. 
In  the  goat  the  twelfth  vertebra  is  the  diaphragmatic  vertebra,  and 
in  sheep,  the  eleventh.  The  scapula  in  sheep  is  short  as  compared 
with  its  width  ;  the  border  of  the  spina  scapulae  is  slightly  curved 
backward  into  an  arch  in  its  middle,  while  in  the  goat  it  is  straight 
The  pelvis  in  sheep  is  more  compressed  than  that  of  goats. 

With  reference  to  the  difference  between  the  skeletons  of 
sheep  and  goats,  attention  should  also  be  called  to  the  careful 
work  of  Biitzler  ("  Contribution  to  Comparative  Osteology  of  Sheep 
and  Goat."  Inaug.  Diss.:  Leipsic,  1896),  in  which  attention  is  called 
to  the  fact  that  the  lachrymal  fossae,  which  are  characteristic  of 
sheep,  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  goat.  The  atlas  in  the  goat  is 
longer  and  narrower  than  in  the  sheep,  the  anterior  tubercle  being 
higher  and  more  pronounced.  Similarly,  the  alse  are  considerably 
longer  than  in  sheep.  The  axis  is  narrower  and  more  slender,  and 
its  spinal  ridge  is  developed  anteriorly  and  posteriorly  over  the 
bodies  of  the  vertebras.  The  vertebrarterial  foramen  is  wanting ; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  intervertebral  foramen  is  one-half  larger 
than  in  sheep.  The  spinous  processes  of  the  remaining  cervical 
vertebrae  are  long,  pointed  and  provided  with  sharp  edges  ia  the 
goat;  while  in  sheep,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  broad  and  blunt. 
The  transverse  processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  of  goats  are  thin 
and  delicate.  Similarly,  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the  goat  are  narrower 
than  those  of  the  sheep.  Furthermore,  the  lumbar  vertebrae  possess 
a  considerably  longer  and  more  slender  form  than  in  sheep.  The 
spinous  processes  form  a  thickened,  cushion-like  ridge  on  the  upper 
end.  The  number  of  sacral  vertebrae  in  the  goat  is  at  least  four, 
never  three,  as  sometimes  happens  in  the  sheep.  Furthermore,  the 
lateral  borders  of  the  ankylosed  sacral  vertebrae  are  thin  and  sharp, 
while  in  the  sheep  they  are  thickened  like  a  cushion.  The  lower 
surface  of  the  sternum  in  the  goat  is  concave,  while  in  the  sheep  it 
is  flat  and  even.  All  of  the  pelvic  bones  of  the  goat  are  considerably 
slenderer  and  thinner.  The  pelvis  itself  is  narrow  and  long ;  con- 
sequently the  pelvic  opening  is  much  narrower  than  in  the  sheep. 
Important  differences  are  also  observed  in  the  scapula :  that  of  the 
sheep  is  broad  and  short ;  the  spine  is  strongly  developed,  and  bears 
a  cushion-like  thickening  in  the  middle,  which  is  directed  backward 
in  the  form  of  a  bow.  In  the  goat  the  spine  is  flat,  straight  and 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF  FOOD   ANIMALS  207 

considerably  lower.  The  neck  of  the  scapula  is  well  developed. 
The  bones  of  the  extremities  of  goats,  with  the  exception  of  the 
metacarpus  and  metatarsus,  which  are  shorter  than  in  the  sheep, 
are  slenderer  and  thinner.  The  muscle  processes  and  articular  pro- 
cesses are  slenderer  and  less  strongly  developed.  The  posterior 
surface  of  the  fibula  is  concave.  The  tibia  is  decidedly  twisted  in  a 
spiral  manner  in  sheep. 

A  general  comparison  of  the  skeletons  of  both  these  species  of 
animal  shows  that  the  bones  of  the  goat  are  characterized  by  a 
slenderer  form  and  smaller  joints.  In  contrast  with  these  condi- 
tions, the  bones  of  the  sheep  are  shorter,  more  compact  and  massive, 
and  the  articular  connections  are  larger. 

Lohoff  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  bones  of  the  goat 
are  harder  and  more  brittle  than  those  of  the  sheep,  and  that  the 
former  break  like  glass. 

SHEEP,  GOATS  AND  DEER. — Martin  asserts  that  it  is  easier  to 
distinguish  between  deer,  sheep  and.  goats  than  between  sheep  and 
goats.  Especially  in  the  comparison  with  sheep,  the  deer  is  at  once 
distinguished  by  its  graceful,  slender  bones.  The  cervical  vertebras 
of  the  deer,  in  proportion  to  their  thickness,  are  even  longer  than 
in  the  goat ;  the  spinous  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  from  the 
third  to  the  twelfth,  are  bent  forward.  On  the  lumbar  vertebrae  iii 
deer,  the  spinous  processes  are  drawn  out  into  a  sharp  hook,  pointing 
forward.  This  structure  is  decidedly  smaller  in  sheep  and  goats. 
The  angle  of  the  spine  of  the  scapula  in  the  deer  is  prolonged 
downward  into  a  sharp  point,  which  is  either  wanting  in  sheep  and 
goats,  or  is  much  less  strongly  developed.  The  radius,  ulna  and 
humerus  of  the  deer  are  characterized  by  their  slender  form.  The 
radio-ulnar  arch  in  she.ep  and  goats  is  an  oval  space ;  in  the  deer, 
it  is  very  long.  The  pelvis  of  the  deer  is  small,  very  narrow,  and 
its  posterior  portion  is  very  long.  In  the  deer,  the  body  of  the 
femur,  in  proportion  to  its  extremities,  is  much  slenderer  than  iu 
the  sheep  and  goat. 

HOG  AND  DOG. — On  a  careful  examination,  these  animals  present 
many  differences  in  the  skeleton.  The  first  cervical  vertebra  in  the 
hog  possesses  on  its  upper  surface  a  prominent  tuberosity,  which  is 
flattened  in  the  dog.  The  second,  as  well  as  the  third,  cervical 
vertebrae  in  the  hog  are  short  as  compared  with  those  of  the  dog. 
The  dorsal  ridge  of  the  second  vertebra  in  the  hog  is  drawn  out 
into  a  process  directed  backward,  while  in  the  dog  this  process  is. 


208         APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

directed  forward.  The  odontoid  process  in  the  hog  is  short  and 
blunt,  while  in  the  dog  it  is  long  and  pointed.  The  third  cervical 
Tertebra  of  the  hog  possesses  a  long  spinous  process,  which  in  the 
dog  is  only  a  slight  ridge.  The  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the  hog  are 
distinguished  by  their  enormous  blade-like  spinous  processes.  In 
the  dog  they  are  much  smaller,  rougher  and  thicker.  Furthermore, 
the  vertebral  bodies  in  the  hog  are  relatively  broader  than  in  the 
dog.  In  the  lumbar  vertebrae  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  spinous 
processes,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  one,  become  broader  above, 
while  in  the  dog  all  of  them  become  narrower ;  the  spinous  processes 
in  the  hog  stand  almost  perpendicularly  to  the  vertebral  bodies, 
while  in  the  dog  they  are  directed  forward  and  downward.  The 
sacrum  of  the  hog  consists  of  four  ankylosed  vertebras ;  that  of  the 
dog,  of  three.  The  spinous  processes  in  the  hog  are  rudimentary 
and  bifurcated,  while  in  the  dog  they  are  ankylosed  into  a  sharp 
ridge.  The  ribs  of  the  dog  are  more  strongly  curved  and  rounder 
than  those  of  the  hog.  The  sternum  of  the  hog  is  flat  and  broad 
posteriorly,  while  that  of  the  dog  is  long  and  narrow.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  neck  of  the  scapula  in  the  hog  is  considerably  longer 
than  in  the  dog.  Furthermore,  the  spina  scapulas  is  directed  back- 
ward in  the  hog  in  the  middle  third  of  its  length ;  in  the  dog,  in  its 
inferior  third.  The  humerus  of  the  hog  is  distinguished  by  its 
extraordinarily  strong  lateral  muscle  prominences,  as  well  as  by  its 
hook-shaped  lateral  trochanter,  which  is  bent  inwardly.  Further- 
more, both  condyles  in  the  dog  run  in  a  nearly  parallel  direction, 
while  in  the  hog  the  lateral  condyle  is  curved  in  a  slightly  spiral 
manner  outwardly.  The  fore  arm  of  the  hog  is  shorter,  and  bent 
forward  more  decidedly  than  in  the  dog.  The  elbow  of  the  hog  is 
characterized  by  its  length  and  strong  development.  The  pelvis  of 
the  dog  is  distinguished  from  the  very  long  hog  pelvis  by  its  short- 
ness. The  ischium  of  the  dog  is  short  and  broad,  while  in  the  hog 
it  is  greatly  elongated.  The  femur  of  the  dog  is  stronger  than  that 
of  the  hog.  The  tibia  in  the  dog  is  slenderer  than  in  the  hog,  and 
slightly  bent  in  the  form  of  an  S.  The  fibula  in  the  hog  is  distin- 
guished by  its  stronger  development,  and  by  a  groove-like  fossa  ou 
its  exterior  surface. 

HARE  AND  CAT. — On  the  first  cervical  vertebra  of  the  hare,  the 
wings  project  further  laterally  than  in  the  cat.  The  dorsal  ridge  of 
the  axis  in  the  cat  is  drawn  out  into  a  hook-shaped  process  posteri- 
orly and  blunt  in  front.  In  the  hare  these  conditions  are  exactly 
reversed.  The  dorsal  vertebras  of  the  hare  exhibit  spinous  processes* 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD    ANIMALS  209 

•which  are  directed  forward,  while  the  spinous  processes  in  the  cat, 
on  the  other  hand,  as  far  as  the  twelfth  vertebra,  are  slightly  curved 
in  a  backward  direction.  Martin  calls  attention  to  the  striking 
differences  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae.  In  the  hare  it  is  observed  that 
the  large  transverse  processes,  which  are  directed  forwards,  are 
prolonged  into  anterior  and  posterior  lobes.  In  the  cat  the  narrow 
transverse  processes  end  in  a  point.  Furthermore,  in  the  hare  the 
ventral  ridge  of  the  vertebral  body  is  prolonged  into  a  sharp  spine, 
which  is  wanting  in  the  cat.  The  ribs  of  the  hare  are  broad  and  flat ; 
those  of  the  cat  more  nearly  round.  The  scapula  of  the  hare  is 
distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  angle  of  the  spine  is  prolonged 
into  a  long  point  which  is  bent  backwards  at  right  angles.  The 
lower  end  of  the  humerus  in  the  cat  is  almost  twice  as  wide  as  in  the 
hare.  The  fossa  olecrani  in  the  hare  forms  a  broad  opening,  while 
in  the  cat  it  is  not  broken  through.  The  pelvis  of  the  hare  is  stronger 
than  that  of  the  cat.  In  the  hare  there  is  a  strong  trochanter  minor 
below  the  trochanter  major  of  the  femur,  while  the  trochanter  minor 
is  wanting  in  the  cat.  The  tibia  of  the  hare  is  longer,  and  the  spiral 
twist  is  less  strongly  developed  than  in  the  cat. 

HARE  AND  BABBIT. — Martin  found  differences  between  the  hare 
and  rabbit  in  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
rabbit  all  being  bent  slightly  backwards.  The  hook-shaped,  anteri- 
orly-projecting protuberances  are  also  wanting.  In  the  middle 
lumbar  vertebrae,  the  backward-directed  accessory  processes  are 
considerably  longer,  not  spinous,  as  they  are  in  the  cat,  but  lobed. 
The  ventral  spine,  or  hook-shaped  point,  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
hare.  The  ends  of  the  transverse  processes,  however,  are  not  so 
plainly  bilobed  in  the  rabbit  as  in  the  hare.  The  spinous  processes- 
of  the  sacrum  are  ankylosed  into  a  ridge.  The  lateral  portions  are 
more  sharply  marked  off  from  the  wings.  The  ribs  are  similar  to- 
those  of  the  hare,  and  the  same  maybe  said  of  the  scapula, humerus 
and  radius.  The  ulna,  on  the  contrary,  is  relatively  stronger,  espe- 
cially in  the  lower  third.  Furthermore,  in  the  cat  the  olecranon. 
processes  bent  more  decidedly  forward,  so  that  the  posterior  border 
of  the  bone  forms  a  more  sinuous  line  than  in  the  hare.  Martin  was 
unable  to  establish  any  essential  differences  in  the  pelvis,  femur  and 
tibia. 


210         APPEARANCE    AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

The  Differentiation  of  Horse  Meat  and  Beef 
According  to  Niebel. , 

The  differentiation  of  horse  meat  from  beef  possesses  the 
greatest  practical  significance,  since  the  substitution  of  the  former 
for  the  latter  is  very  frequent.  For  this  reason,  meat  inspectors 
for  a  long  time  sought  to  secure  reliable  criteria  for  the  demon- 
stration of  horse  meat.  The  peculiarities  of  horse  meat  already 
described  are  not  sufficient  to  furnish  proof  regularly,  or  even  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  for  those  bones  which  alone  can  furnish  reliable 
distinctions  are  removed  before  the  meat  is  offered  for  sale.  The 
demonstration  of  horse  meat  in  sausage  has  hitherto  been  absolutely 
impossible,  because  other  meat,  and  especially  other  fats  (hog  fat), 
have  commonly  been  added  to  the  sausage.  It  was  thought  possible 
to  discover  peculiarities  in  the  fibers  of  horse  meat  through  micro- 
scopic inspection.  Some  authors  believed  they  had  found  an. 
important  criterion  in  the  crystals  of  hemin.  The  investigations 
which  were  undertaken  in  this  direction  were,  however,  without 
result.  Limpricht  claimed  to  have  demonstrated  dextrin  in  large 
quantities  in  horse  meat.  This  demonstration,  however,  was  not 
confirmed  by  subsequent  investigation.  More  noteworthy  is  the 
discovery  of  Niebel,  that  through  the  demonstration  of  glycogen 
we  are  in  a  position  to  recognize  horse  meat  even  in  mixtures, 
sausages,  etc.  Niebel  observed  the  peculiar  sticky  character  of 
horse  meat,  and  was  at  first  inclined  to  refer  it  to  the  dextrin 
content.  Dextrin,  however,  was  found  to  be  wholly  wanting ;  but 
Niebel  found  large  quantities  of  glycogen  in  horse  meat,  and  from 
his  investigations  drew  the  following  conclusions  :  "  That  in  horse 
meat,  as  compared  with  other  kinds  of  meat,  glycogen  is  found  in 
large  quantities ;  in  such  quantities,  in  fact,  that,  without  reference 
to  the  age  of  the  meat,  the  smallest  amounts  found  in  horse  meat 
exceed  the  greatest  amounts  found  in  other  kinds  of  meat." 

The  conditions  of  the  occurrence  of  glycogen  in  the  meat  of 
various  food  animals  are  illustrated  in  the  following  table,  the 
quality  of  the  meat  at  the  time  of  the  examination  being  good  in 
all  cases : 

Per  cent. 
Kind  of  Meat  Age  of  Meat  Glycogen  content 

Horse  3  hours  0.700 

Horse  3  hours  1.026 

Horse  1  day  .373 

Horse  2  clays  .603 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD    ANIMALS  211 

Per  cent. 
Kind  of  Meat  Age  of  Meat  Olycogen  content 

Horse  3  days  .523 

Horse  4  days  .524 

Horse  5  days  1.072 

Horse  5  days  .460 

Beef  4hours  .204 

Beef  1  day  .000 

Beef  2  days  .000 

Beef  i  hour  trace 

Beef  5  days  .076 

Pork  , 4  hours  .000 

Pork  2  days  .000 

Mutton  .000 

For  the  demonstration  of  glycogen,  Niebel  made  use  of  the 
Hiilz  method.  The  meat  to  be  studied  (50  grams),  together  with 
from  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  caustic  potash  and  four  times  its  volume  of 
water,  is  heated  on  a  water  bath  for  from  six  to  eight  hours,  until  it 
is  completely  disintegrated.  After  the  fluid  has  been  evaporated  to 
half  its  volume,  and  then  cooled,  the  nitrogenous  substances  are 
precipitated  by  the  alternate  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  and 
mercuric  iodid — iodid  of  potash  solution  (Briicke's  reagent).  Then 
the  precipitate  is  placed  in  a  filter,  and  the  filtrate  is  again  tested 
by  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  mercuric  iodid — iodid  of 
potash  solution — to  determine  whether  all  the  nitrogenous  constitu- 
ents have  been  precipitated.  The  residue  is  rubbed  up  in  a  mortar 
to  which  hydrochloric  acid,  mercuric  iodid — iodid  of  potash  solu- 
tion— and  water  are  added,  and  again  filtered.  This  operation  is 
Tepeated  until  the  filtrate  shows  no  cloudiness  on  the  addition  of 
alcohol.  The  filtrate  then  forms  ordinarily  a  clear  fluid  which  is 
opalescent  in  the  presence  of  glycogen.  At  times,  especially  in 
summer,  the  fluid  appears  to  be  somewhat  cloudy.  In  order  to 
avoid  this,  if  the  fluid  does  not  become  clear  after  the  addition  of 
hydrochloric  acid  and  mercuric  iodid — iodid  of  potash  solution — 
sodium  hydrate  is  added  until  the  mixture  is  still  of  a  faint  acid 
reaction,  and  then  again  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
filtered.  The  filtrate  is  then  always  clear. 

For  the  separation  of  glycogen,  the  filtrate  is  diluted  with  two 
and  one-half  times  its  volume  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  the  mix- 
ture stirred.     After  the  glycogen  is  separated  it  is  filtered.     The  , 
glycogen  is  then  washed  with  60  per  cent,  alcohol,  then  with  90  per 
-cent.,  and  finally  with  absolute  alcohol,  ether,  and  again  with  abso- 
lute  alcohol,  and,  after   drying   at   a  temperature  of   110°  G.,  is  \ 
Weighed. 


212         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

Glycogen  exhibits  the  following  characters  :  It  is  an  amorphous 
white  powder,  which  with  water  forms  a  decidedly  white,  opalescent 
solution,  and,  with  the  addition  of  iodiu,  gives  a  Burgundy-red 
color.  Fehiing's  solution,  however,  is  not  reduced  by  it. 

Niebel  also  demonstrated  that  the  glycogen  in  horse  meat 
possesses  an  extraordinary  resistance,  probably  because  horse 
meat  withstands  decomposition  longer  than  other  kinds  of  meat. 
In  individual  horses  it  is  observed  that,  according  to  the  nutritive 
condition,  previous  exercise  and  health  of  the  animals,  considerable 
fluctuations  occur.  Well-fed  horses  at  rest  show  a  higher  content 
of  glycogen  than  poorly  fed,  overworked  or  feverish  animals. 
Overworked  or  feverish  horses  are  not  admitted  for  slaughter. 
In  poorly  nourished  horses  the  amount  of  glycogen  always  consid- 
'erably  exceeds  that  of  other  food  animals. 

After  a  time  a  portion  of  the  glycogen  in  horse  meat  passes 
over,  first,  into  a  dextrin-like  substance,  then  into  maltose,  and 
finally  into  grape  sugar.  For  this  reason,  Niebel  attempted  to 
determine  the  quantity  of  sugar  in  old  meat.  This  was  accom- 
plished, according  to  a  special  method,  by  means  of  Fehiing's 
solution.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  should  be  remembered 
that,  in  addition  to  grape  sugar,  meat  contains  other  reducing 
substances ;  for  example,  creatinin.  This  substance  is  formed  in 
different  domestic  animals  in  the  same  manner  and  in  the  same 
quantity  from  creatin.  Niebel  found  also  that  horse  meat,  especially 
when  not  quite  fresh,  contains  much  reducing  substance  in  addition 
to  glycogen,  while  the  meat  of  other  animals  slaughtered  for  human 
consumption  is  poor  in  glycogen  and  sugar.  The  total  sugar  content 
is  determined  by  computing  glycogen  as  grape  sugar  (162  parts  of 
glycogen  =  180  parts  grape  sugar). 

According  to  Niebel,  the  identification  of  horse  meat  may  be 
considered  as  certain  when  the  quantity  of  carbohydrates  obtained 
(computed  as  grape  sugar)  exceeds  the  highest  content  of  carbohy- 
drates thus  far  fouod  in  other  kinds  of  meat ;  viz.,  about  1  per  cent. 
of  the  dry,  fat-free  substance. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  pickling,  roasting  and  smoking  destroy 
neither  the  glycogen  nor  the  sugar  of  horse  meat ;  nor,  on  the  other 
hand,  does  it  increase  the  sugar  content  of  beef,  at  least  not  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  exceeds  the  maximum  content  of  about  1  per  cent. 

The  identification  of  glycogen,  and  determination  of  the  sugar 
content,  can  also  be  relied  upon  for  the  demonstration  of  horse  meat 
in  sausage.  Niebel  found  no  glycogen  in  sausages  which  were  made 
of  beef  and  pork.  Grape  sugar  was  found  in  these  sausages  only  in, 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD  ANIMALS  213 

the  proportion  of  0.7  per  cent,  of  the  dry,  fat-free  substance.  The 
addition  of  cane  sugar  to  sausage,  which  is  customary  in  Berlin,  did 
not  interfere  with  this  process.  In  horse-meat  sausage,  the  total 
quantity  of  carbohydrates  exceeded  the  maximum  content  of  these 
materials  in  ordinary  sausage  eleven-fold.  With  this  statement,  as 
Niebel  says,  public  opinion  is  in  entire  accord,  since  it  is  commonly 
stated  that  horse-meat  sausage  is  distinguished  by  its  sweet  taste. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  minute 
qiiantities  of  horse  meat  added  to  sausage  can  not  be  demonstrated 
by  Niebel's  excellent  method.  This  consideration,  however,  does 
not  in  the  least  impair  the  great  value  of  the  method  just  de- 
scribed. 

Since,  furthermore,  the  meat  of  fetuses  and  fasting  calves  pos- 
sesses a  high  glycogen  content,  it  is  well  to  note  the  color  of  the 
sausage  in  determining  the  question  whether  horse  meat  is  contained 
in  it.  Sausage  made  of  horse  meat  is  dark-brown.  On  the  other 
hand,  sausage  to  which  the  meat  of  fetuses  or  veal  is  added  in  large 
quantities  is  light-gray.  Moreover,  the  addition  of  the  meat  of 
fetuses  or  fasted  veal  to  sausages  (bratwurst)  is  a  deception,  or  at 
least  an  adulteration. 

Trotter  tested  the  method  of  Niebel,  and  found  in  horse  meat 
two  days  after  slaughter  from  1.4  to  1.85  per  cent,  of  glycogen;  after 
four  days,  1.45  per  cent.;  after  eight  days,  1.375  per  cent.,  and  after 
ten  days,  0.9  per  cent.  In  six  samples  of  beef  and  in  one  sample  of 
mutton,  glycogen  was  not  present.  Of  two  samples  of  pork,  one  had 
no  glycogen,  and  the  other  0.26  per  cent. 

Bujard  obtained  from  fresh  horse  meat  from  0.174  to  1.366  per 
cent,  of  glycogen  (=  0.64  to  4.62  per  cent,  of  the  dry  substance) ;  in 
smoked  horse  meat,  0.108  (=  0.19)  per  cent.;  in  horse-meat  sausage, 
from  0.034  to  1.762  (=  0.05  to  5.34)  per  cent.  The  high  glycogen 
content  was  found  in  leberwurst ;  the  low,  in  fresh  salami  sausage. 
In  old  salami  sausage,  only  mere  traces  of  glycogen  could  be 
demonstrated.  Beef  gave  from  0.018  to  0.206  per  cent,  of  glycogen 
(=  0.073  to  0.74  per  cent,  of  the  dry  substance).  Veal  gave  from 
0.066  to  0.346  (=  0.25  to  1.44)  per  cent.,  and  pork  gave  either  no 
glycogen  or  a  mere  trace. 

According  to  Kemmerich,  South  American  beef  extract  contains 
a  relatively  large  amount  of  glycogen — on  an  average  from  1  to  1.5 
per  cent.  Kemmerich  ascribes  this  previously  unknown  occurrence 
of  glycogen  to  the  fact  that  South  American  beef  is  worked  up  in 
such  a  fresh  condition  that  decomposition  of  the  glycogen  is 
impossible. 


21-i         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  AND   OHGANS 

In  connection  with  Czerny,  Kuppert  demonstrated  that  glycogen: 
constantly  occurs  in  small  quantities  in  blood  and  pus.  The  blood 
of  dogs  and  sucking  calves,  according  to  the  determinations  of 
Ruppert,  contains  a  much  larger  amount  of  glycogen  (1.56  and  1.33 
nig.,  respectively,  in  100  gm.  of  blood)  than  that  of  herbivorous 
animals  (cattle,  0.77;  horses,  .38  to  .72  mg.).  In  cases  of  continued 
suppuration  and  persistent  acute  dyspnea,  an  increase  in  the  glyco- 
gen content  of  the  blood  occurs  up  to  7.33  mg.  in  100  gm.  of  blood. 
The  glycogen  content  of  blood,  however,  never  reaches  the  percentage 
which  Niebel  demonstrated  in  the  musculature  of  the  horse. 


(a)  Modification  of  Niebel's  Method,  According  to  Brauti^ani  and 

Edelmann. 

For  the  determination  of  glycogen,  Brautigam  and  Edelmann 
recommended  the  iodin  reaction  described  by  Claude  Bernard,, 
giving  attention  to  the  following  method  : 

1.  A   small  quantity  (50  gm.)  of   the  meat   to  be   studied  is 
minced  as  finely  as  possible,  boiled  for  one  hour  with  four  times 
its  volume  of  water,  and  the  meat  broth  thus  obtained  treated  in 
the  manner  described  in  Sees.  4  and  5  following.     If  the  reaction, 
therein  described  does  not  appear  at  all,  or  is  doubtful,  then 

2.  Caustic  potash  (3   per  cent,   of   the  volume  of  the   meat), 
dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  -of  water,  is  added,  and  the  whole 
is  heated  upon  a  water  bath  until  the  muscle  fibers  are  entirely 
disintegrated. 

3.  The  meat  decoction  thus  obtained  is  allowed  to  cool,  evap- 
orated to  a  weight  double  that  of  the  meat  originally  used,  and 
filtered. 

4.  The   solution   thus   obtained,   after    completely   cooling,   is 
carefully  diluted  with  nitric  acid,  for  the   purpose  of   separating 
the   majority   of   proteid   bodies   and   to   decolorize   it,  and   again 
filtered. 

5.  This  filtrate  (the  meat  broth  obtained  according  to  Sec.  1, 
and  likewise  acidified  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  filtered)  is  treated 
with   iodin   water,  which  must   be   prepared   hot   and   completely 
saturated.     The  iodin  water  is  carefully  poured  upon  the  filtrate  in, 
the  test  tube,  whereupon,  at  the  point  of  contact  of  both  fluids  in 
the    presence   of  horse   meat,  a   Burgundy-red   or   violet    ring    is 
immediately  formed,  the  extent,  strength  and  intensity  of  which 
depend  upon  the  quantity  of  horse  meat  present  in  the  sample- 
under  investigation,  or  upon  the  richness  of  the  latter  in  glycogen., 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  OF  FOOD   ANIMALS  215 

This  color  reaction  must  certainly  and  unquestionably  be 
present.  The  investigation,  therefore,  should  be  undertaken  only 
in  daylight.  Before  carrying  out  the  iodin  reaction,  the  material 
which  is  being  studied  must  be  tested  for  the  presence  of  starch- 
flour  (dilution  of  a  decoction  with  tincture  of  iodin  or  Lugol's 
solution).  If  starch  is  present,  the  method  is  to  be  modified  in  the 
following  manner : 

1.  The  sample  to  be  studied,  together  with  a  suitable  quantity 
of  water,  is  heated  in  a  porcelain  vessel  on  a  water  bath  for  several 
hours  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  any  glycogen  which  may  be 
present.* 

2.  The  filtered  extract  should  then  undergo  evaporation  on  the 
water  bath  to  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the  meat  used  in  the  test. 

3.  To   this  evaporated   extract,   which,   according   to   circum- 
stances, contains  much  amylogen,  concentrated  acetic  acid  is  added 
in   double   or   treble   its   volume ;  whereupon,  after   a   half   hour, 
flocculi  appear  in  the  cloudy  fluid,  which  mass  together  more  and 
more,  and  finally  sink  to  the  bottom  as  a  starch  precipitate.     As  a 
rule,  the  fluid,  after  most  careful  filtration  through  a  double  filter, 
is  free  from   starch.     One  can  become  convinced  of  this  fact  by 
adding  iodin  to  a  small  portion  of  the  fluid  ;  otherwise  one  should 
make  a  further  addition  of  acetic  acid  and  wait  a  short  time. 

4.  The  fluid  thus  freed  from  starch  can  at  once  be  treated  with 
iodin  water.     Hereupon,  a  glycogen  reaction  always  appears  if  the 
quantity  of  horse  meat  in  the  material  under  investigation  is  not 
exceedingly  small.     Glycogen  can,  of  course,  be  extracted  from  this 
material,  but  its  demonstration,  in  the  excessive  dilution  which  the 
fluid  has  undergone  through  the  addition  of  acetic  acid,  can  not  be 
brought  about  with  certainty  by  means  of  a  simple  film  of  iodin 
water  upon  the  fluid.    For  this  reason,  Brautigam  and  Edelmann  do 
not  conclude  their  method  in  such  cases  with  the  addition  of  iodin 
water,  but  usually  prefer  a  precipitation  of  the  presumptive  glycogen. 
For  this  purpose, 

5.  The  starch-free  extract  is  diluted  with  from  ten  to  twelve 
times  its  volume  of  alcohol,  and  the  cloudy  fluid  is  filtered  through 
a  very  closely  woven,  small  filter.     The  latter  holds  any  traces  of 
glycogen  which  may  be  present,  and  which 

6.  Is  to  be  dissolved  in   a  few  drops  of  hot  water,  slightly 

*  According  to  Brautigam  and  Edelmann,  special  importance  is  to  be  placed 
upon  the  thickening  of  the  aqueous  extraction  on  the  water  bath,  for,  in  cooking  over 
a  flame,  a  part  of  the  starch-flour  may  be  transformed  into  dextrin,  which  gives  a 
reaction  similar  to  that  of  glycogen. 


216         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

acidified  with  acetic  acid.  These  few  drops  of  glycogen  solution 
are  best  caught  in  a  flat  porcelain  vessel,  and  a  few  drops  of  iodiu 
water  are  allowed  to  run  down  from  the  edge  of  the  vessel  to  the 
fluid.  At  the  point  of  contact  of  the  reagent  with  the  fluid,  the 
characteristic  and  unmistakable  red  color  appears  at  once  in  the 
presence  of  the  smallest  quantities  of  glycogen. 

The  preparation  and  testing  of  fluids  containing  starch  must 
follow  in  close  succession,  and  must  not,  under  any  circumstances, 
extend  over  several  days ;  for  Brautigam  and  Edelmann  observed 
that  in  solutions  containing  amylogen,  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
erythrodextrin  is  formed  through  the  influence  of  ferments,  micro- 
organisms, etc.  This  substance  may  give  rise  to  false  conclusions 
on  account  of  its  red-color  reaction  with  iodin.  The  separation  of 
dextrin  from  glycogen  has  thus  far  never  been  accomplished. 

With  materials  which,  presumably,  contain  only  small  quantities 
of  glycogen,  Brautigam  and  Edelmann  prefer  boiling  for  several 
hours  in  water,  rather  than  with  caustic  potash,  for  the  reason 
that  the  latter  substance  may  have  the  effect  of  decomposing  the 
glycogen. 

The  qualitative  determination  of  glycogen  by  means  of  the 
iodin  reaction,  as  recommended  by  Brautigam  and  Edelmann,  and 
as  tested  with  reference  to  its  applicability  to  meat  and  meat 
preparations,  puts  us  in  position  to  make  a  rapid  inspection  of 
suspected  meat,  and  to  decide  whether  or  not  the  more  accurate 
quantitative  determination,  according  to  Niebel,  is  required  in  any 
particular  case. 

The  qualitative  demonstration  of  glycogen  is  not  sufficient  to 
allow  us  to  assume  the  presence  of  horse  meat  with  the  certainty 
necessary  for  legal  purposes.  For,  as  Niebel  has  shown,  beef  may 
also  contain  glycogen  under  certain  circumstances.  The  quantitative 
determination  of  glycogen  excludes  the  possibility  of  such  an  objec- 
tion, since  it  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  whether  or  not  the  quantity  of 
glycogen  peculiar  to  horse  meat  is  present.* 

(b)  Modification  of  Niebel's  Method,  According  to  Courtoy  and  Coremans. 

Courtoy  and  Coremans  consider  the  precipitation  of  albumen 
as  indispensable,  and  proceed  in  the  following  manner  : 

*  In  his  latest  work  (Zeit.  f.  Fleisch-u.  Milchhyg.,  V),  Niebel  considers  the 
demonstration  of  horse  meat  in  sausage  as  complete  when  the  material  in  question 
is  colored  brown-red,  and  permits  the  demonstration  of  glycogen  according  to  the 
method  described  on  p.  211. 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD   ANIMALS  217 

1.  Fifty  grams  of  the  meat  to  be  studied  in  a  fresh  condition, 
and,  after  mincing  finely,  is  boiled  with  200  grams  of  water  for 
fifteen  minutes.     Meat   preparations  should  be  boiled  for  thirty 
minutes. 

2.  After  the  meat  decoction  is  completely  cooled,  it  should  be 
filtered  through  paper  which  was  previously  moistened,  in  order  to 
keep  back  any  fat  bodies  which  might  be  contained  in  the  emulsion. 
In  case  of  fluids  which  contain  starch  and  are  thick,  it  is  best  to  use 
a  fine  linen  filter. 

3.  To  a  small  quantity  of  the  filtrate  in  a  test  tube  should  be 
added  a  few  drops  of  a  fluid  containing  two  parts  of  iodin,  four  of 
iodid  of  potash,  and  100  of  water.     Three  reactions  may  take  place  : 

(a)  No  dark-brown  coloration  of  the  filtrate  appears,  in  which 
case  no  horse  meat  is  present. 

(b)  The  fluid  assumes  a  dark-brown  color,  which  disappears 
on  heating  to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.,  and  reappears  on 
cooling.     This  indicates  horse  meat. 

(c)  An  intensive  blue  coloration  of  the  preparation  appears, 
which  discloses  the  presence  of  starch  and  obscures  the 
glycogen  reaction.     In  this  case,  the  starch  is  precipitated 
by  the  addition  of  from  two  to  three  times  the  quantity  of 
concentrated  acetic  acid,  and  the  filtered  fluid  is  treated 
again  with  the  iodin-potassic  iodid  solution  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  another  reaction. 

According  to  their  method  of  investigation,  Courtoy  and  Core- 
mans  were  unable  to  demonstrate  in  the  meat  of  cattle,  calves,  hogs, 
dogs,  cats  and  rabbits  the  reaction  which  is  to  be  observed  in  the 
case  of  horse  meat,  or  any  similar  reaction.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
meat  of  the  fetuses  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  rabbits  gave  the  same 
reaction  as  horse  meat.  The  same  investigators  observed,  further- 
more, that  the  internal  and  external  masticatory  muscles  of  the 
horse,  strange  to  say,  do  not  give  the  glycogen  reaction  of  the  other 
muscles  of  this  animal.  Edelrnaim  rightly  observed,  with  reference 
to  the  method  of  Courtoy  and  Core  mans,  that  the  unstable  nature  of 
starch,  and  the  similar  behavior  of  its  modification  products  to  that 
of  glycogeu,  are  not  regarded  in  this  method  to  an  extent  which 
could  be  considered  as  excluding  all  errors. 

(c)  Method  of  Quantitative  Determination  of  Glycogen, 
According  to  Lebbin. 

Lebbin  demonstrated  that  glycogen  may  be  precipitated  from 
meat  solutions  by  alcohol,  whether  the  solution  has  an  alkaline, 


218         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT   AND   ORGANS 

neutral  or  acid  reaction,  while  the  precipitation  of  protein  with 
iodin  ceases  when  the  alkalinity  of  the  latter  reaches  a  certain 
degree.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  precipitate  glycogen  directly 
from  protein  solutions  by  means  of  alkaline  alcohol.  According  to 
Lebbin,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  purify  the  crude  glycogen,  since 
small  quantities  of  protein  may  be  carried  with  it.  The  method  is 
as  follows  : 

Muscle  meat  or  sausage  is  to  be  minced  with  a  small  sausage 
machine.  Liver  may  be  cut  up  simply  with  a  knife.  Then,  in  the 
case  of  horse  meat  or  liver,  twenty  grams ;  in  the  case  of  other  kinds 
of  meat,  containing  less  gtycogen,  a  correspondingly  larger  quantity, 
is  to  be  placed  in  a  porcelain  vessel  containing  150  cc.,  together  with 
90  cc.  of  water  and  10  cc.  of  a  15  per  cent,  potash  lye,  and  the  whole 
is  to  be  heated  until  completely  dissolved.  Boiling  for  a  short  time 
does  no  harm.  Muscle  meat  requires  from  one-half  to  one  hour; 
liver,  a  shorter  time.  During  this  treatment  the  fluid  is  evaporated 
to  from  30  to  35  cc.  It  is  then  poured  into  a  graduated  cylinder 
containing  50  or  100  cc.,  and  the  vessel  is  washed  with  water  until 
a  volume  of  50  cc.  is  obtained.  After  vigorous  shaking,  the  solution 
is  poured  through  glass-silk.  By  means  of  a  pipet,  25  cc.  of  the  fluid 
is  to  be  placed  in  a  beaker  and  50  cc.  of  alkaline  alcohol  added. 
This  is  obtained  by  mixing  ninety  parts  of  a  98  to  100  per  cent, 
alcohol  and  ten  parts  of  a  40  per  cent,  potash  lye.  The  precipitated 
crude  glycogen  settles  after  from  two  to  three  hours.  It  is  desirable, 
however,  to  cover  the  mixture  and  allow  it  to  stand  over  night.  The 
mixture  is  then  filtered  and  washed  with  the  alkaline  alcohol. 
Thereupon  the  funnel,with  the  filter  and  precipitate,  is  to  be  placed 
upon  a  graduated  cylinder  of  100  cc.  volume.  The  filter  is  to  be 
punctured  with  a  platinum  needle,  and  the  material  of  the  filter  is 
to  be  washed  in  the  cylinder  with  hot  water,  80  cc.  being  the  maxi- 
mum quantity  required.  The  mixture  should  then  be  vigorously 
shaken,  in  order  that  all  the  glycogen  may  dissolve,  and  is  allowed 
to  cool.  Two  or  three  drops  of  litmus  tincture  is  added  to  the 
solution,  and  10  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid  is  to  be  added  in  drops 
until  the  fluid  becomes  red,  after  which  three  or  four  more  drops 
should  be  added.  Next,  the  mixture  shoujd  be  diluted  with  from 
5  to  10  cc.  of  Briicke's  reagent  and  water  sufficient  to  make  100  cc., 
after  which  it  is  again  filtered.  Of  this  filtrate,  50  cc.  is  withdrawn 
with  a  pipet  and  mixed  with  75  cc.  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  which  has 
been  carefully  poured  through  cotton  batting.  The  next  morning 
it  is  filtered  through  a  quantitative  tared  filter,  washed  with  alcohol, 
then  with  ether,  and  finally  weighed.  Finally,  one  may  make  a 


DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   OF   FOOD   ANIMALS  219 

-determination  of  the  ash  and  subtract  the  sum.  Lebbin,  however, 
always  obtained  a  glycogen  free  from  ash.  The  quantity  of  glycogeii 
obtained,  multiplied  by  twenty,  corresponds  to  the  same  percentages 
in  the  meat  which  was  tested. 

Demonstration  of  Horse  Meat,  According  to  Hasterlik. 

Horse  fat  is  distinguished  from  the  fats  of  other  food  animals  by 
its  high  absorptive  power  for  iodin  and  by  its  high  iodin  number, 
according  to  Hubl.  It  possesses  an  iodin  number  of  from  74  to  83, 
as  contrasted  with  40  to  44  of  beef  tallow  and  60.6  of  lard.  The 
differences  in  the  iodin  number,  according  to  the  investigations  of 
Hasterlik,  extend  also  to  the  intramuscular  fat.  In  the  intramus- 
cular fat  of  beef,  Hasterlik  found  the  iodin  number  to  be  from  49.74 
to  58.45  (an  average  of  54.37);  in  horse  fat,  on  the  other  hand,  from 
79.71  to  85.57  (an  average  of  82.23).  The  fat  of  horse-meat  sausage 
on  the  market,  in  consequence  of  the  addition  of  lard,  showed  a 
somewhat  lower  iodin  number,  namely,  from  68.46  to  79.71. 

These  differences,  according  to  Hasterlik,  make  possible  a 
determination  of  the  origin  of  meat,  even  when  the  coarser  adipose 
tissue,  which  is  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye,  has  been  removed ; 
as,  for  instance,  in  conserves.  Hasterlik  considers  that  the  presence 
of  horse  meat  is  demonstrated  when  the  iodin  number  reaches  or 
exceeds  80. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  intramuscular  fat,  meat  which  is  entirely 
free  from  visible  fat  is  finely  minced,  and  a  quantity  of  from  100  to 
200  grams  is  dried  for  from  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  100°  C.  The  dry  substance  is  then  extracted  with  petroleum- 
ether  on  a  reflux  cooler  for  six  hours,  and  then  with  the  same  solution, 
for  the  same  length  of  time,  in  a  Soxhlet  extraction  apparatus.* 
After  mixing  both  extracts,  namely,  that  obtained  from  the  reflux, 
cooler,  and  that  from  the  Soxhlet  extraction  apparatus,  the  petro- 
leum-ether is  distilled  away,  and  the  last  traces  of  it  are  so  completely 
removed  by  blasts  of  air  into  the  extract  that  no  smell  of  the 
petroleum-ether  is  to  be  detected. 

According  to  Bremer,  the  determination  of  the  iodin  number 
of  the  fluid-fatty  acids  of  the  intramuscular  fat  forms  a  suitable 
complement  to  the  determination  of  the  corresponding  number  of" 
the  fat.  In  horse-meat  sausage,  to  which  lard  is  added  to  the 
extent  of  25  per  cent.,  he  found  the  iodin  numbers  of  the  intramus- 


*  Bremer  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  petroleum-ether  extract  from  horse- 
meat  is  colored  red  or  dark-brown  red  in  a  characteristic  manner. 


220         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  AND   ORGANS 


FIG.  24. 


cular  fat  to  be  53.7,  74,  74.1  and  75.8,  and  the  iodin  numbers  of  the 
fluid-fatty  acids  of  this  fat  to  be  92.4, 104.1, 102.1  and  108.8.  Bremer 
considers  that  the  presence  of  horse  meat  is  certainly  demonstrated 
when  the  preparation  is  colored  reddish-brown,  or  gives  a  strongly 
reddish-brown  colored  petroleum-ether  extract,  or  contains  glycogen, 

or  when  the  iodin  number 
of  the  fat  exceeds  65,  and 
that  of  the  fluid- fatty  acids 
considerably  exceeds  95.* 
Nussberger  proposes  a 
refractometric  determina- 
tion of  horse  meat.  He 
found  the  refractive  index 
of  horse  fat  in  a  Zeiss  re- 
fractometer  (Fig.  24)  at  a 
temperature  of  40°  C.  to  be 
53.1  to  54.1  (on  an  average, 
53.5),  while  the  refraction 
number  of  beef  tallow  never 
exceeded  49,  and  that  of 
lard  never  exceeded  51.9. 
The  intramuscular  fat  of 
i(  horse  meat  showed  an  av- 
|  erage  refraction  number  of 
56.3  (55.2- to  59.8),while  the 

Zeiss'  refractometer.  intramuscular  fat  of  beef 

showed  49.7  (48  to  50.5). 


Appendix. — Inspection  of  German  and  American  Bacon. 

Relative  to  a  suit  at  law  in  Koln  on  account  of  the  smuggling  of 
American  bacon/  the  following  opinion  was  handed  down  on  the 
question  at  issue.  Eehmet  investigated  thousands  of  the  sides  of 
bacon  in  question,  and  demonstrated  that  all  possessed  black  hairs. 
They  also  possessed  a  characteristic  odor,  like  the  oil  of  tar,  which 
was  especially  noticeable  in  cooking,  and  could  be  perceived  for  days 


*  In  accordance  with  this,  Bremer  considers  as  an  evidence  of  horse  fat  or  horse 
meat  an  iodin  number  lower  than  that  required  by  Hasterlik.  On  this  point  Bremer 
.agrees  with  Nussberger,  who  found  the  iodin  number  of  the  intramuscular  fat  of  horse 
meat  to  be  on  an  average  71.9  (65  to  79),  as  contrasted  with  an  average  of  51  (50  to  58), 
in  similar  beef  fat.  In  ordinary  horse  fat,  Nussberger  determined  the  iodin  number 
to  be  from  80  to  94;  in  beef  tallow,  35  to  44;  and  in  lard,  59  to  63. 


KECOGNITION   OF  AGE  AND   SEX  221 

on  the  fingers  and  receptacles.  The  bacon  tasted  rancid.  Further- 
more, it  frothed  strongly  and  shrunk  in  cooking.  None  of  these 
characteristics  were  observed  in  Dutch  or  German  bacon.  In  fact, 
only  a  small  percentage  of  Dutch  and  German  hogs  have  black  hair. 
According  to  Lubitz,  the  bristles  in  the  rind  of  American  bacon  are 
not  uniform,  but  stand  in  an  irregular,  brush-like  manner.  Further- 
more, the  rind  is  thinner.  Schmidt,  of  Aachen,  found  that  more 
than  three-fourths  of  the  sides  of  bacon  in  question  were  covered 
with  black  hairs.  Schmidt  also  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  he 
had  previously  inspected  American  bacon  for  trichina,  and  had 
found  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  trichinous. 

3.— Recognition  of  the  Age  and  Sex  of  Slaughtered  Animals, 
and  Classification  of  Food  Animals. 

The  determination  of  the  age  and  sex  of  living  animals,  as  a 
rule,  offers  no  difficulties.  In  the  meat  of  slaughtered  animals  it  is 
quite  otherwise. 

The  necessity  for  determining  the  age  and  sex  of  slaughtered 
animals  arises  from  several  considerations.  One  consideration  is  the 
usual  compilation,  in  meat  markets,  of  statistics  with  regard  to  the 
age  and  kind  of  food  animals  in  general,  as  well  as  on  the  relation 
between  age  and  sex  and  certain  diseases.  Furthermore,  an  accurate 
determination  of  the  age  is  necessary  in  legal  cases,  and  for  fixing 
the  slaughter  and  insurance  fees.  Finally,  a  consideration  of  the 
age  and  sex  are  required  in  judging  of  certain  pathological  processes. 

(a)  Age. 
Determination  According  to  the  Condition  of  the  Teeth. 

The  age  of  living  animals,  in  the  first  place,  is  determined 
according  to  characters  furnished  by  the  development  and  changes 
in  the  incisor  teeth. 

1.  THE  HORSE. — The  first  two  incisor  teeth,  at  birth ;  the  middle 
incisors,  four  to  six  weeks  after  birth ;  the  corners,  six  to  nine 
months  after  birth.  The  milk  incisors  are  white,  and  furnished 
with  an  evident  neck ;  the  shedding  of  the  central  incisors,  two  and 
one-half  to  three  years ;  of  the  middle  incisors,  three  and  one-half 
to  four  years ;  of  the  corners,  four  and  one-half  to  five  years.  The 
permanent  teeth  are  yellowish,  without  a  neck,  and  furnished  with 
furrows  on  the  labial  surface.  The  further  determination  of  age  in. 


222         APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND  ORGANS 


horses  is  made  according  to  the  degree  of  wear.  This  is  indicated 
nntil  the  ninth  year  in  the  incisors  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  until  the 
twelfth  year  in  those  of  the  upper  jaw,  by  the  loss  of  the  marks; 
later,  by  the  so-called  round,  triangular  and  inverted  oval  grinding 
surface  of  the  incisors  (from  twelve  to  eighteen  years ;  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  years,  and,  lastly,  from  twenty-four  years  on). 

2.  CATTLE. — Concerning  the  determination  of  the  age  of  calves, 
more  detailed  data  are  given  in  the  discussion  of  immaturity.  As  a 
rule,  cattle  retain  the  milk  incisors  for  eighteen  months.  The  milk 
incisors  are  considerably  smaller  than  the  permanent  teeth  in  cattle. 


FIG.  25. 


FIG.  26. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal 
one  year  old. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal 
one  and  one-half  years  old. 


The  teeth  of  old  animals,  however,  may  come  to  resemble  the  milk 
incisors  in  point  of  size,  and,  in  fact,  this  similarity  has  already  given 
occasion  in  slaughterhouses  to  errors  in  judging  the  age  of  animals 
under  one  and  one-half  and  over  ten  years.  By  making  a  careful 
examination,  however,  even  of  the  teeth  alone,  and  when  the  horns 
and  the  condition  of  the  symphyses  do  not  enter  into  consideration, 
such  mistakes  are  impossible.  For  the  teeth  of  such  old  cattle 
project  so  far  out  of  the  alveoli  that  a  large  part  of  the  root  is 
visible.  Furthermore,  even  if  some  doubt  is  still  entertained,  it  is 
easy,  by  exposing  the  alveoli  in  the  jaw  of  a  slaughtered  animal,  to 
convince  one's  self  whether  the  permanent  teeth,  which  have  not 
yet  broken  through,  are  present  together  with  the  visible  incisors. . 
The  German  Agricultural  Society  has  established  the  following 
rules  for  the  determination  of  the  age  of  German  cattle  : 


RECOGNITION  OF  AGE  AND   SEX 


223 


FIG..  27. 


As  a  rule,  the  first  change  of  teeth  occurs  at  the  age  of  one  and 
one-half  years.  The  central  milk  incisors  fall  out,  the  permanent 
central  incisors  appear  and  attain  their  full  height  at  the  age  of  two 
years.  At  the  age  of  two  and 
one-half  years,  the  inner  middle 
incisors  fall  out.  The  correspond- 
ing permanent  incisors  grow  to 
their  full  height  toward  the  end 
of  the  third  year,  and  come  into 
wear.  As  a  rule,  from  the  age 
of  three  and  one-quarter  to  three 
and  one-half  years,  the  external 
middle  incisors  fall  out,  and  the 
permanent  incisors  come  into  wear 
during  the  fourth  year.  At  the 
age  of  four  and  one-quarter  to 
four  and  one-half  years,  the  milk 
corners  fall  out,  and  the  corres- 
ponding permanent  teeth  come 
into  wear  during  the  end  of  the 
fifth  year.  At  the  completion  of  the  change  of  teeth,  good  criteria 
for  judging  are  obtained  in  the  wear  of  the  incisors  and  in  the 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal  three 
years  old. 


FIG.  28. 


Fm.  29 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal  four  years 
old. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal  four 
and  one-half  years  old. 


gradual  appearance  of  the  neck.  The  neck  of  the  central  incisor 
teeth  becomes  noticeable  at  the  age  of  six  years;  that  of  the  inner 
middle  incisors  at  seven  years;  that  of  the  outer  middle  incisors  at 


224         APPEARANCE  AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT   AND    ORGANS 


eiglit  years,  and  that  of  the  corners   at  nine   years.     In   animals 
which   are   over  ten  years   of   age,  all   inner  middle  incisors  are 


FIG.  30. 


FIG.  31. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal  six  years 
old. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  beef  animal  eight 
years  old. 


strongly  worn,  small,  loose,  project  far  out  of  the  alveoli,  and  are 
separated  from  one  another.  After  fifteen  years,  the  incisors  either 
fall  out  or  are  present  in  the  form  of  stumps. 


FIG.  32. 


FIG.  33. 


FIG.  34. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a 
yearling  sheep. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  four- 
year-old  sheep. 


Incisor  teeth  of  a  six- 
year-old  sheep. 


3.  SHEEP. — The  sheep  is  born  with  the  central  incisors.     The 
inner  middle  incisors  appear  at  from  eight  to  fourteen  days,  the 


RECOGNITION   OF  AGE  AND    SEX  225 

external  middle  after  two  to  three  weeks,  and  the  corners  at  from 
three  to  four  weeks.  The  shedding  of  the  teeth  begins  with  the 
central  incisors  at  the  age  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  months ;  next 
follow  the  internal  middle  incisors  at  from  oiie  and  one-half  to  two- 
years  ;  the  external  middle  incisors  at  two  and  one-quarter  to  two  and 
three-quarters,  and  the  corners  at  three  to  three  and  three-quarter 
years.  The  chief  point  in  the  case  of  sheep  is  the  differentiation 
between  the  still  uninjured  milk  dentition  and  the  completely 
developed  permanent  dentition  (Figs.  32  and  33).  The  dental 
conditions  in  older  sheep  possess  little  practical  interest.  It  may 
simply  be  remarked  that  after  six  years  the  incisors  show  a  notch 
(Fig.  34),  and  fall  out  at  from  ten  to  twelve  years  of  age. 

4.  HOG. — At  birth  the  hog  has  the  third  incisors  and  the  canine 
teeth.     The  first  incisor  appears  at  from  two  to  four  weeks,  and  the 
second  at  from  two  and  one-half  to  three  months.    The  third  incisor 
is  shed  first  at  nine  months  (according  to  Nehring,  at  seven  and 
one-half  months).     Then  follows  the  first  incisor  at  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  months,  and,  finally,  the  second  at  from  sixteen  to  eighteen 
months. 

5.  RED    DEER,  FALLOW    DEER    AND    ROEBUCK. — According    to 
Nehring,   the  shedding   of   the   teeth   in   these   animals  occurs  in 
the  following  manner  : 

Name  of  Teeth.  Red  Deer.  Fallow  Deer.  Roebuck. 

Incisor      1  After  15  mos.          After  9-10  mos.  After  6-8  mos. 


Incisor      2 
Incisor      3 
Incisor      4 
Preraolars 

After  17  mos. 
After  20  raos. 
After  22  mos. 
After  30  mos. 

After  12-13  mos. 
After  15  mos. 
After  18  mos. 
After  24  mos. 

After  10-11  mos. 
After  12  mos. 
After  13  mos. 
After  14-15  mos. 

Different  opinions  have  prevailed  on  the  question  of  what  is  to 
be  understood  by  the  term  calf,  or  fawn,  in  the  case  of  red  deer, 
fallow  deer  and  roebuck.  According  to  Sec.  6  of  the  Hunting  Law, 
of  February  26,  1870,  young  game  is  considered  as  calves  until  the 
last  day  of  December  following  their  birth.  For  a  long  time  police 
regulations  followed  the  practice  of  admitting  young  game  for  sale 
if  it  weighed  not  less  than  twenty-two  pounds.  On  the  other  hand, 
Nehring  handed  down  the  opinion  that  a  twenty-two  pound  deer 
was  suitable  for  sale,  but  that  a  deer  which  did  not  possess  a 
complete  set  of  molar  teeth,  and  had  less  than  six  teeth,  must  be 
regarded  as  a  calf. 


226       APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND   ANIMALS 


Other  Criteria  for  Judging  Age. 

Besides  judging  according  to  the  teeth,  it  is  a  well-known 
custom  to  judge  the  age  of  cows  according  to  the  rings  on  the  horn, 
adding  two  to  their  number.  But  this  characteristic  is  at  best  only 
supplementary  to  the  dental  conditions,  since  it  can  not  be  consid- 
ered as  possessing  absolute  reliability,  for  the  rings  on  the  horns 
are  formed  regularly  only  when  the  animals  have  been  regularly 
pregnant.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  At  the 
same  time,  irregular  intervals  between.the  rings  on  the  horns  permit 
the  conclusion  that  pregnancy  has  been  irregular. 

Finally,  particular  parts  of  the  skeleton  furnish  us  certain 
criteria  for  the  determination  of  age  : 

(a)  The  cartilaginous  pads,  between  the  diaphyses  and  epiphy- 
ses,  which  disappear  after  the  growth  of  the  bones  is  complete. 

(b)  The  articular  cartilages,  which  connect  individual  bones 
with  each  other,  ossify  with  increasing  age.     The  degree  of  ossifi- 
cation of  the  ischio-pubic  symphysis  furnishes  an  especially  valuable 
criterion  for  determining  whether  one  is  dealing  with  the  meat  of  an 
old  or  a  young  animal.     This  symphysis  is  always  cut  through  in 
slaughtering.     In  young  animals  this  can  be  readily  done  with  a 
knife,  while  in  older  animals  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  a  saw  or 
an  ax.     The  sternal  cartilages  ossify  in  the  median  line  during  the 
second  year. 

(c)  The   supplementary   and   organic   cartilages    of    the   ribs, 
spinous   processes,  scapula,  trachea,  ear,  etc.,  which   in   old   age 
become  calcareous  and  ossify.     According  to  Bunge,  the  supple- 
mentary cartilages  of  the  spinous  processes  in  cattle  are  cartilagin- 
ous only  during  the  first  years  of  life.   Later  they  ossify  and  become 
completely  ankylosed  with  the  spinous  processes.    Up  to  the  end  of 
the  first  year,  the  supplementary  cartilages  are  very  sharply  marked 
off  from  the  bones,  which  are  rich  in  blood.    During  the  second  and 
third  years,  the  cartilage  shows  larger  and  larger  islands  of  bone 
substance,  and   the  white   color   of   the  cartilage  is  consequently 
changed  into  a  grayish-red.     Toward  the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  the 
larger  part  of  the  supplementary  cartilage  becomes  modified  into  a 
compact  bony  tissue.     A  very  sharp  line  of  demarcation  is  still 
visible  between  both  parts,  and  a  cartilaginous  border  is  observed 
on  the  former  supplementary  cartilage.     At  the  end  of  the  eighth 
year,  no   cartilage   is  demonstrable,  as   a   rule,  in   a   longitudinal 
section  of  the  spinous  process. 


RECOGNITION   OF  AGE   AND   SEX  227 

(d)  The  tubular  bones,  in  which,  after  birth,  the  marrow  cavity 
"becomes  gradually  larger,  and  fat  marrow  is  formed.  In  old  animals 
a  serous,  infiltrated,  gelatinous  tissue  replaces  the  fat  marrow. 

The  difference  in  color  of  the  musculature  and'  fat  tissue  of 
young  and  old  animals  has  already  been  mentioned  (pp.  199-204). 

Age  of  Fowls. 

In  handling  fowls  a  distinction  is  made,  as  a  rule,  only  between 
old  and  young  birds.  For  this  differentiation,  the  following  rules 
are  to  be  observed  : 

Young  hens  possess  only  the  beginning  of  the  so-called  spurs. 
Furthermore,  the  scales  on  the  feet  are  smooth  and  of  a  glistening, 
fresh  color.  The  claws  are  delicate  and  sharp.  The  tarsus  is  soft, 
and  the  comb  is  thin  and  smooth.  In  old  hens,  the  spurs  are  hard 
and  the  scales  on  the  feet  rough.  Furthermore,  the  lower  half  of 
the  bill  is  so  hard  that  it  can  not  be  bent  with  the  fingers.  Lastly, 
the  comb  is  thick  and  rough.  According  to  Cornevin,  the  young 
rooster,  up  to  the  age  of  four  and  one-half  months,  possesses  only 
the  indication  of  a  spur  in  the  form  of  a  broad  scale.  From  four 
and  one-half  to  five  months  on,  a  small  protuberance  develops  in 
the  form  of  a  spur,  which  at  seven  months  is  3  mm.,  and  at  one  year, 
15  mm.,  long  and  straight.  At  two  years  the  spur,  which  has  become 
curved,  is  from  25  to  27  mm.  long ;  at  three  years,  from  36  to  38 ; 
at  four  years,  from  50  to  54;  at  five  years,  from  62  to  65.  The 
breeds  with  feathered  legs  have  shorter  spurs  than  those  with  naked 
legs.  The  hen  commonly  has  no  spurs.  Castration  of  the  rooster 
checks  the  growth  of  the  spurs. 

Old  hen  turkeys  also  have  rough  scales  on  the  feet,  calluses  on 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  long,  strong  claws.  Young  turkey  chicks 
show  exactly  the  opposite  condition  in  all  these  points,  and  an  old 
turkey  cock  with  the  feathers  on  possesses  a  long  beard,  which  is 
entirely  wanting  in  the  young  cock.  When  turkey  cocks  have  been 
picked,  the  roughness  of  the  scales  on  the  feet  is  a  deciding  factor 
in  determining  his  age,  and  also  the  difference  in  the  size  of  the 
wattles  and  the  nose  piece.  Cornevin  asserts  that  the  red,  fleshy 
wattles  appear  in  the  turkey  cock  at  from  two  and  one  half  to  three 
months,  and  the  brush  of  bristles  on  the  breast  at  from  seven  to 
eight  months  of  age.  Furthermore,  the  feet  are  black  up  to  the  age 
of  one  year ;  rose-red  at  from  two  to  three  years,  and  gray  rose-red 
at  from  three  to  four  years,  becoming  paler  from  that  time  on. 

An  old  goose  is  to  be  recognized  by  its  rough  feet,  strength  of 
wing  and  beak,  and  fineness  of  feathers.  In  picked  geese,  the 


228       APPEARANCE"  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND  ORGANS 

following  may  indicate  the  age :  The  condition  of  the  feet,  the- 
delicacy  of  the  skin  under  the  wing  and  wing  points,  the  beak, 
and  the  thickness  of  the  skin  in  general. 

In  ducks  the  age  is  determined  in  the  same  manner.  It  should 
also  be  remembered  that  the  beak,  in  its  relation  to  the  width  of  the 
head,  is  considerably  longer  in  young  ducks  than  in  old  ones. 

In  pheasants  (gold  and  silver),  the  plumage  is  dark  up  to  the 
second  year.  This  is  not  changed  in  the  female  even  later,  while  in 
the  male  the  gorgeous  plumage  and  the  long  tail  feathers  are  devel- 
oped at  two  years  of  age. 

Young  pigeons  are  to  be  recognized  by  the  paleness  of  their 
color,  by  the  smooth,  closed  feet  and  long  yellow  down  feathers, 
which  are  found  scattered  among  the  plumage.  Older  pigeons, 
after  leaving  the  nest,  have  red-colored  feet,  but  no  down  feathers. 
If  the  latter  recognition  marks  are  present,  the  pigeon  is  considered 
by  fastidious  persons  as  already  too  old  for  the  table.  Up  to  six. 
or  eight  months  of  age,  the  beak  is  soft,  but  becomes  hard  later, 
according  to  Cornevin. 

In  young  partridges,  the  beak  is  easily  indented  with  the  finger, 
but  not  in  old  birds.  The  feet  of  young  partridges  are  yellowish, 
while  in  old  birds  they  are  gray. 

According  to  Niebel,the  condition  of  the  wing  feathers  (extreme 
tip  of  the  wing)  offers  in  many  species  of  birds  a  convenient  means 
of  judging  age.  The  feather  vane  of  the  wing  tip  in  the  guinea  hen, 
turkey,  wood  grouse,  black  grouse,  hazel  hen,  white  grouse,  partridge 
and  heath  hen  is  pointed  in  young  birds  and  more  or  less  rounded 
in  old  birds.  In  the  domestic  fowl,  turkey,  wood  grouse  and  pheasant, 
the  development  of  the  spurs,  according  to  Niebel,  is  to  be  consid- 
ered a  good  criterion  for  judging  age.  Furthermore,  in  all  species 
of  birds,  the  condition  of  certain  bones  (sternum,  pubis,  ischium}^ 
serves  to  indicate  the  age.  The  bones  are  flexible  in  young  birds ; 
later,  are  easily  broken,  but  are  broken  with  greater  difficulty  as  the 
age  increases.  Finally,  in  young  pigeons,  according  to  Niebel,  the 
breast  muscles  show  through  the  skin  as  white,  while  in  older  birds 
they  appear  bluish-red. 

(b)  Recognition  of  the  Sex  of  Slaughtered  Animals. 

The  recognition  of  the  sex  of  slaughtered  animals  has  a  practical 
value  in  the  case  of  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs. 

1.  CATTLE. — Bulls,  steers  and  cows  are  slaughtered — spayed 
cows  but  rarely.  Besides  this,  one  speaks  of  young  cattle,  one-halff 


RECOGNITION  OF  AGE  AND   SEX 


229 


io  one  year  old  ;  heifers  (young  cows  which  never  have  never  borne 
calves),  and  steers  (young,  unfattened  oxen).  The  heifers  and  steers, 
in  some  parts  of  Germany,  are  sometimes  included  under  the  term 
"  cattle,"  more  correctly,  young  cattle. 

The  bull  is  characterized  by  the  massive  development  of  his 
muscles,  especially  the  neck  and  shoulder  musculature  (Fig.  35); 
alsct  by  the  dark  color  of  the  musculature  and  the  scarcity  of  fat 
iissue.  Finally,  the  inguinal  canal  is  open,  for  the  reason  that  the 


FIG.  35. 


FIG.  36. 


Fore  quarter  of  a  bull. 


Fore  quarter  of  a  steer. 


testicles,  with  the  spermatic  cord,  are  removed  in  slaughtering 
(Fig-  37,  c). 

The  ox  is  distinguished  from  the  bull  by  the  weaker  develop- 
ment of  the  shoulder  and  neck  musculature  (Fig.  36);  by  its  thick 
panniculus  adiposus,  and  by  the  possession  of  a  scrotal  fat  tissue 
which  completely  conceals  the  inguinal  ring  (Fig.  38,  c). 

In  cows  the  udder  is  often  carefully  removed,  except  for  the 
conical-shaped  remnant  in  the  posterior  part.  This  operation  is 
performed  in  order  to  give  female  animals  the  appearance  of  steers. 
The  attempted  deception,  however,  is  easily  recognized  by  the 
mammary  tissue  which  remains,  and  by  the  supramammary  lymph. 


230         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF  MEAT  AND   ORGANS 

glands  covered  by  this  tissue.  Heifers  possess  an  udder  of  only  slight 
proportions,  and,  when  in  good  condition,  the  udder  is  completely 
infiltrated  with  fat  tissue  (Fig.  39,  c),  as  contrasted  with  the  large, 
flabby,  dependent  udder  of  cows  in  lactation  (Fig.  40,  c).  The  udder 
of  fattened  cows,  four  to  six  years  old,  also  shows  a  high  fat  content, 
but  always  exhibits  a  strongly  projecting  glendular  substance  and 
large  teats. 


FIG.  37. 


FIG.  38. 


Hind  quarter  of  a  bull,  a,  section  of  ischio- 
pubic  symphysis;  b,  cut  surface  of  the 

nilis muscle ;  c,  external  inguinal  ring; 
A  ortion  of  corpus  cavernosum. 


Hind  quarters  of  a  steer,     a  and  I,  as 
in  Fig.  37;  c,  scrotai  fat  tissue. 


Franck  also  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  cross-section  of 
the  adductors  of  the  thigh,  which  is,  in  fact,  dependent  upon  the 
musculus  gracilis  for  its  form,  is  triangular  in  male  cattle  and 
bean-shaped  or  rounded,  on  the  other  hand,  in  females  (Figs.  37 
to  40,  6). 

Furthermore,  a  section  of  the  pelvis  in  the  symphysis  pvbis 
shows  characteristic  differences  in  male  and  female  cattle  (Figs.  37 
to  40,  a). 


RECOGNITION   OF   AGE   AND    SEX 


231 


In  the  diagnosis  of  the  skin,  which  is  no  longer  in  its  natural 
connection  with  the  animal,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  bull 
has  straight,  short  and  conical  horns  ;  the  ox,  curved,  long  and 
strong  horns  ;  and  the  cow,  on  the  other  hand,  curved,  short  and 
slender  horns. 


FIG.  39. 


FIG.  40. 


t-'  v 

Hind  quarters  of  a  heifer,     a  and  6,  as 
in  Fig.  37  ;  c,  fatty  infiltrated  udder. 


Hind  quarters  of  a  cow.     a  and  b,  as 
in  Fig.  37 ;  c,  udder  in  lactation. 


2.  SHEEP.  —  Distinction  is  made  between  bucks,  male  castrated 
animals  or  wethers,  and  female  animals  or  sheep  in  the  narrower 
sense.  The  slaughtered  buck  is  distinguished  from  other  sheep 
by  the  strongly  developed  musculature  of  the  neck,  withers  and 
ghoulder.  The  meat  of  bucks  may  also  possess  a  disagreeable 
odor,  but,  as  a  rule,  this  is  rare.  The  penis  is  left  on  slaughtered 
wethers,  and  the  udder  on  the  ewes  ;  consequently,  the  differentia- 
tion of  wether  from  ewe  offers  no  difficulties. 

In  England  and  America,  breeders  strive  to  bring  sheep  as  young 
as  possible,  yearlings,  to  a  condition  for  slaughter.  This  practice  is 
based  on  two  facts  :  First,  it  has  been  determined  by  numerous 
weighings  that,  with  intensive  feeding  from  birth  until  the  end  of 
the  first  year,  the  sheep  puts  on  twice  as  much  flesh  as  in  the  second 
year.  Secondly,  the  business  risk  is  smaller  the  earlier  the  animal 
is  ready  for  slaughter. 


232         APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEAT  AND   ORGiNS 


3.  HOGS. — Fattened,  castrated  hogs  (barrows),  young  boars  not 
castrated,  and  breeding  hogs  (boars  and  sows)  are  brought  ta 
slaughter.  Breeding  hogs  are  distinguished  from  fattened  hogs 
by  the  slight  amount  of  fat  and  the  stronger  development  of  the 
musculature,  which,  likewise,  possesses  a  darker  color.  Sows, 
furthermore,  are  to  be  recognized  by  the  strongly  developed 
mammary  glands,  and  the  boars  by  the  so-called  shield  (p.  167) 
and  specific  odor. 

Boars,  which  for  some  time  have  been  in  service  and  thereafter, 
at  an  age  of  one  to  one  and  one-half  years,  are  castrated,  are  known 
as  "  castrated  boars  "  or  "  old  cutters."  They  show  the  boar  type 
in  the  form  of  the  skeleton,  and  are  esteemed  of  less  value  than 
animals  castrated  earlier  in  life.  The  specific  odor  is  wanting  in 
castrated  boars. 

The  term  "originals"  is  used  to  mean  cryptorchids.  They  may 
possess  all  the  characters  of  true  boars  when  the  testicles  are 
functional.  However,  this  is  not  always  the  case.  In  slaughtering 
male  hogs,  the  penis,  together  with  the  navel  pocket,  is  removed. 
The  slaughtered  male  hog  is  characterized  by  the  cut.  A  further 
means  of  recognizing  the  male  hog  is  found  in  the  remains  of  the 
.ischio-penal  ligaments,  which  are  found  in  the  ischiac  notch.  In  the 
female  hog,  the  cutting  Hue  in  the  middle  of  the  belly  is  straight, 
and  the  section  underneath  the  root  of  the  tail  is,  as  Lohoff  indi- 
cated, longer  than  in  male  animals,  in  consequence  of  the  removal 
of  the  vulva. 

Ellinger  suggested  the  following  characters  for  distinguishing 
between  boars  castrated  late  and  early  in  life  : 


CRYPTORCHIDS 

BOARS   CASTRATED 
IN   OLD   AGE 

BOARS   CASTRATED 
WHEN  YOUNG 

Sexual  excitement  appears  quickly 

Partly  present 

Wanting 

Smelling  at  the  vulva 

Wanting 

Wanting 

LTrinous  odor 

Wanting 

Wanting 

Strongly  developed  canine  teeth 

Partly  present 

Slightly  developed 

Strong  bristle  crest 

Partly  present 

Slightly  developed 

Shield 

Partly  present 

Wanting 

Penis  1.2  cm.  in  diameter 

1.2  to  2.2  cm. 

0.8-1  cm. 

Cowper's  glands  10-15  cm.  long 

Cowper's  glands 

Glands  atrophied 

10-15  cm.  long 

Post-mortem  shows    one    retained 

Not  present 

Not  present 

testicle 

RECOGNITION   OF   AGE  AND   SEX  233 

National  Economic  Value  of  the  Castration  of  Female  Food  Animals. 

I 

Modern  breeding  of  races  of  hogs  which  mature  early  has 
almost  entirely  abandoned  the  previously  quite  general  practice 
of  castration  of  female  hogs  for  fattening.  Breeders  assert  that 
hogs  which  arrive  at  maturity  early  may,  by  rational  feeding,  be 
made  ready  for  slaughter  before  estrum  appears.  This  assumption, 
however,  is  contradicted  by  the  finding  in  the  slaughterhouses  of  a 
large  proportion  of  fat  female  hogs  which  are  pregnant.  The  extent 
to  which  this  occurs  appears  from  the  reports  of  the  Berlin  Food 
Animal  Insurance  Company,  the  expenditures  of  which,  in  the  year 
1895,  were  not  less  than  $11,540.60,  as  indemnity  for  the  weight  of 
the  uteri  of  pregnant  hogs.  By  castration,  not  only  would  this  sum 
have  remained  in  the  general  treasury,  but  also  the  profits  of  the 
feeders  would  have  been  greater,  since  castrated  female  hogs  fatten 
more  readily  than  pregnant  ones. 

The  same  may  be  said  in  the  fattening  of  cows,  upon  the  slaughter 
of  which  one  may  demonstrate,  not  without  a  feeling  of  great  regret, 
a  large  number  of  almost  mature  fetuses.  The  fetuses  represent 
offal  without  any  value.  In  eastern  Prussia,  several  large  land 
owners  commenced  the  castration  of  all  cows  intended  for  fattening. 
The  results  thus  far  obtained  are  favorable,  and  suggest  an  extension 
of  the  method,  particularly  since  the  operation  is  not  only  easily 
performed,  but  perfectly  safe. 

4.  DISTINCTION  OF  THE  SEX  OF  EVISCERATED  KOEBUCKS. — For  the 
distinction  of  the  sex  of  deer,  in  which  the  skull  is  sawed  out  and 
the  sexual  organs  removed,  Eberhardt  and  Nehring  offer  the  follow- 
ing important  diagnostic  characters  :  The  pelvis  of  the  buck  is 
slender  and  narrower  than  in  the  doe.  In  the  latter  the  external 
iliac  angle  is  much  further  removed  than  in  the  buck,  and  the  rela- 
tion is  about  fifty  to  forty. 

Of  still  greater  importance  for  the  determination  is  the  form  of 
the  pubis,  and  especially  the  symphysis  pubis,  also  called  the  "  lock  " 
by  hunters.  In  the  full-grown  buck  it  is  much  thicker  and  of  a 
rounder  form  than  in  the  doe,  in  which  it  is  flattened  and  hollowed 
out  on  its  upper  surface  on  both  sides.  The  difference  appears  still 
more  conspicuous  in  the  symphysis  pubis  (Figs.  41  and  42).  Similar 
sexual  differences  are  found  in  the  pelvis  of  the  red  deer  and  the 
fallow  deer. 

Nehring  insists  that  the  differentiation  of  the  sex,  according  to 
the  condition  of  the  symphysis  pubis,  can  only  be  made  with  cer- 


234       APPEARANCE   AND   DIFFERENTIATION   OF   MEATS  AND   ORGANS 


tainty  in  old  roebucks,  and  Malkmus  corroborates  this  on  the  basis 
of  numerous  investigations.  Younger  individuals  have,  uniformly, 
a  somewhat  tumor-like,  swollen  symphysis  pubis.  Furthermore,  in 
the  determination  of  the  sexual  differences  in  the  roebuck,  Malkmus 
recommends  that  the  halves  of  the  pelvis  be  separated  and  prepared 
by  boiling. 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


Pelvis  of  a  male  roe  deer. 


Pelvis  of  a  female  roe  deer. 


(c)  Classification  of  Food  Animals. 

The  Conference  of  Delegates  of  German  Slaughterhouse  Officials, 
representatives  of  the  German  Agricultural  Commission,  etc.,  which 
was  held  in  Berlin  in  1895,  decided  upon  the  following  classes  for 
food  animals,  in  the  place  of  the  previous  distinctions,  according  to 
Sees.  1,  2  and  3. 

STEERS. 

1.  Steers  in  full  flesh,  completely  fattened,  of  the  highest  slaughter  value,  up  to 
seven  years. 

2.  Young,  fleshy,  but  not  completely  fattened,  and  older  fattened  steers. 

3.  Fairly  well-nourished  young  steers ;  older  steers. 

4.  Poorly  nourished  steers  of  all  ages. 

HEIFERS  AND  Cows. 

1.  Heifers  in  full  flesh,  well  fattened,  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

2.  Cows  in  full  flesh,  well  fattened,  of  the  highest  slaughter  value,  up  to  seven 
years. 


RECOGNITION   OF  AGE  AND   SEX  235 

3.  Older  cows,  well  fattened,  but  more  poorly  developed;  younger  cows  and 
teifers. 

4.  Fairly  well  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 

5.  Poorly  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 

BULLS. 

1.  Bulls  in  full  flesh,  well  fattened,  up  to  fire  years. 

2.  Younger  bulls  in  full  flesh. 

3.  Moderately  well-nourished  younger  and  older  bulls.  • 

4.  Poorly  nourished  younger  and  older  bulls. 

CALVES. 

1.  The  finest  fat  calves  (fattened  on  milk)  and  the  best  sucking  calves. 

2.  Medium  fat  calves  and  good  sucking  calves. 

3.  Poor  sucking  calves  and  older  poorly  nourished  calves  (feeders). 

SHEEP. 

1.  Fat  lambs  and  young  fat  wethers. 

2.  Old  fat  wethers. 

3.  Fairly  well-nourished  wethers  and  ewes. 

HOGS. 

1.  Hogs  of  the  finer  breeds  and  their  crosses  in  full  flesh,  up  to  one  and  one- 
quarter  years. 

2.  Fleshy  hogs. 

3.  Poorly  developed  hogs,  together  with  sows  and  boars. 

4.  Foreign  hogs,  with  a  statement  of  their  origin. 

The  Conditions  for  Issuing  Meat  Intended  for  Troops. 

Meat  intended  to  be  issued  to  troops  must  be  from  healthy,  nofc 
too  poor  food  animals.  The  best  quality  is  not  required,  but  it 
must  be  good.  Poor  quality  is  excluded.  The  animals  must  be  in 
a  good  state  of  nutrition.  Good  products  are  always  to  be  furnished 
to  garrison  commissaries. 

The  meat  of  bulls,  bucks,  boars,  including  animals  castrated 
late  in  life,  breeding  sows  and  Bakonyi  hogs,  can  not  be  issued  to 
troops.  The  meat  of  breeding  ewes  may  be  furnished  to  troops,, 
but  not  to  garrison  commissaries. 

Steers  must  be  from  two  to  seven,  and  cows  from  two  to  six 
/ears  old,  and  must  possess  a  live  weight  of  at  least  400  kg. 
Wethers  and  ewes  must  not  be  over  five  years  old,  and  their  live 
weight  must  be  at  least  40  kg.  Hogs  must  be  from  six  to  fifteen 
months  old,  and  must  have  a  live  weight  of  not  less  than  75  kg., 
and  not  more  than  125  kg.  Calves  must  be  at  least  four  weeks 
old. 

The  following  materials  are  not  to  be  furnished  to  troops  as 
meat :  Head,  bloody  neck  portion,  udder,  front  legs  below  the  knee, 


"236        APPEARANCE  AND  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  MEAT  AND  ORGANS 

hind  legs  below  the  hock,  in  the  case  of  cattle  ;  the  head  and  legs 
of  wethers,  and  the  udder  of  ewes ;  the  head,  with  the  cheeks,  the 
legs  and  the  dorsal  fat  of  hogs  ;  the  head,  the  bloody  neck  portion, 
and  the  legs  of  calves ;  the  internal  organs  (heart,  lungs,  liver, 
stomach,  spleen,  intestines  and  kidney,  including  the  kidney  fat), 
as  well  as  special  portions  of  bones,  in  so  far  as  they  come  into 
consideration  in  weighing  the  meat  which  is  to  be  furnished. 


VI. 

ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS  WHICH 
POSSESS  SANITARY  INTEREST. 


The  abnormal  physiological  conditions  in  food  animals  can  be 
classified  into  (1)  physiological  abnormalties  and  (2)  pathological 
processes.  The  following  subjects  belong  to  the  first  group  : 

1 . — Immaturity. 

Definition. — Animals  are  characterized  as  immature  until  they 
have  reached  the  age  of  from  eight  to  fourteen  days.  Until  this  age, 
according  to  the  view  of  most  meat  consumers,  animals  are  not  ripe- 
or  mature  for  the  table.  Most  frequently  immature  calves  and,, 
much  less  often,  immature  pigs,  lambs  and  goat  kids  are  offered  for 
sale.  During  the  first  eight  to  fourteen  days  after  birth,  animals 
exhibit  a  poorly  developed,  gray-red,  flabby,  strongly  water-soaked 
musculature.  These  characteristics  are  especially  prominent  in  the 
muscles  of  the  thigh.  If  one  grasps  the  musculature  of  the  thigh 
from  behind,  it  is  noticed  that  in  immature  animals  a  flat,  flabby 
readily  movable  muscle-mass  is  present  in  place  of  the  full,  convex 
muscle  mass  in  older  calves.  Furthermore,  the  musculature  of  the 
posterior  part  of  the  thigh  possesses  such  a  soft  consistency  that  it. 
is  easily  penetrated  with  the  finger.  The  fat  tissue  which  is  found 
in  the  kidney  capsule  in  immature  calves  is  of  a  yellowish  or  gray- 
red  color  and  peculiarly  tough  consistency.  It  never  possesses  the 
white  color  and  soft  consistency,  which  becomes  firm  in  setting,  as 
observed  in  older  calves.  The  subjective  ideas  concerning  imma- 
turity exhibit  great  local  variations.  For  example,  while  in  South 
Germany  a  minimum  age  of  three  to  four  weeks  is  demanded  for  the 
slaughter  maturity  of  calves,  in  other  regions,  as  in  Mecklenburg 
and  Holstein,  calves  from  two  to  three  days  old  are  much  sought 
after.  In  Berlin,  calves  from  six  to  eight  days  old  furnish  a  highly- 
prized  food  material.  This  is  due  to  two  circumstances :  In  the  first 
place,  intensive  dairying,  in  which  all  calves  not  intended  for  rearing 

237 


238  ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS 

are  'quickly  rejected,  has  introduced  a  custom  to  which  meat 
consumers  in  the  course  of  time  adjusted  themselves.  Furthermore, 
the  price  of  immature,  or  fasting,  calf  meat  is  naturally  less  than  that 
of  older  calves,  so  that  it  becomes  possible  for  persons  of  moderate 
means  to  eat  veal — a  luxury  which  otherwise  would  be  denied  them. 
Finally,  by  the  art  of  preparation,  especially  by  the  plentiful  addition 
of  fat,  it  is  possible  to  improve  the  original  condition,  and  in  this 
manner  to  prepare  a  palatable  food  from  immature  veal.  In  the 
greater  part  of  Germany,  in  common  parlance,  calf  meat  is  understood 
to  mean  that  which  comes  from  calves  at  least  eight  to  fourteen 
days  old. 

OFFICIAL  DETERMINATIONS  OF  THE  MEANING  OF  IMMATURITY  IN  CALVES. 

In  the  regulations  of  meat  inspection  and  local  ordinances,  the 
following  rules  are  laid  down :  Section  11  of  the  Baden  Meat 
Inspection  Regulations  of  November  26, 1878,  provides  that  the  meat 
of  calves  under  fourteen  days  of  age  shall  not  be  regarded  as  market- 
able. An  ordinance  concerning  compulsory  slaughter  in  Dessau 
prescribes  that  only  calves  over  ten  days  old  and  with  a  minimum 
weight  of  45  kg.  can  be  slaughtered.  In  Insterburg,  Eastenburg  and 
Swinemunde,  the  meat  of  animals  under  eight  days  old  is  excluded 
from  the  market.  Special  ordinances  forbid  the  sale  of  calves  in 
which  the  navel  has  not  healed.  In  Stolp  and  Haynau  the  matter 
is  decided  according  to  each  individual  case ;  likewise  in  Berlin. 
Here  there  is  no  minimum  age  limit  for  the  admission  of  calves 
for  food,  but  in  each  individual  case  the  development  and  consistency 
of  the  musculature  are  the  deciding  factors.  Calves  in  which  the 
stump  of  the  umbilical  cord  is  still  firmly  united  with  the  navel 
are  regularly  excluded  from  the  market. 

Young  pigs  (sucking  pigs)  and  the  young  of  sheep  and  goats 
(Easter  lambs  and  kids)  must  be  at  least  three  weeks  old  before 
they  can  be  considered  as  mature  for  slaughter. 

Recognition. — Immature  veal  is  to  be  recognized  by  the  peculiar 
properties  of  the  musculature  and  fat  tissue,  which  are  mentioned 
above  as  characteristic  of  immaturity.  Lydtin  also  calls  attention. 
to  the  presence  of  red  bone  marrow  in  the  long  tubular  bones  in 
place  of  the  fat  marrow  which  appears  later.  The  bone  marrow, 
however,  according  to  my  investigations,  becomes  pale  very  rapidly 
after  birth,  so  that  the  color  of  the  bone  marrow  can  not  be  regarded 
as  a  reliable  means  of  recognizing  immaturity.  Of  greater 


IMMATURITY  239 

importance  is  the  high  content  of  glycogen  in  immature  veal.  This 
persists  from  the  fetal  period  and  gradually  disappears  a  few  weeks 
after  birth  (see  pages  213  and  242). 

For  the  determination  of  the  age  of  calves,  which  in  many 
localities  is  considered  as  deciding  the  question  whether  they  shall 
be  admitted  for  food,  we  have  the  following  criteria  in  the  condition 
of  the  hoofs,  teeth,  navel  and  horns : 

New  born  animals  have  soft  hoofs  furnished  with  conical 
processes  on  the  soles.  The  stump  of  the  umbilical  cord  is  still  of 
a  gray,  moist  character,  and  hangs  fast  to  the  umbilical  ring.  The 
vessels  of  the  stump  of  the  umbilical  cord,  as  well  as  the  hepatic 
portion  of  the  umbilical  veins,  and  those  portions  of  the  umbilical 
arteries  which  lie  in  the  lateral  ligaments  of  thQ  bladder,  are  open. 
Moreover,  in  new  born  animals  the  reddened  gums  stand  flush  with 
the  incisor  teeth  and  cover  them  in  great  part.  The  number  of 
incisors  varies  in  new  born  animals.  As  a  rule,  however,  calves  are 
born  with  six  incisors. 

Characteristic  changes  take  place  in  the  teeth  and  navel  during 
the  course  of  the  first  week.  In  the  first  place,  the  eruption  of  the 
corner  teeth  occurs  during  the  first  week  after  birth.  In  exceptional 
cases,  however,  this  may  occur  later.  After  ten  days  (occasionally 
after  seven  days),  the  gums  begin  gradually  to  decrease  in  redness, 
recede  from  the  incisors,  and  assume  the  normal  cushion  form. 
After  fifteen  days,  the  middle  incisors  are  free ;  and,  after  twenty 
days,  the  two  corners  are  the  only  incisors  not  completely  free  from 
the  gums,  the  redness  of  which  no  longer  forms  a  striking  contrast. 
By  the  end  of  one  month,  all  the  incisors  have  appeared  through 
the  gums  and  the  latter  are  thenceforth  of  a  permanent,  normal 
character  (Gerlach).  After  four  or  five  days  the  navel  becomes  dry 
and  black  (necrosis).  It  falls  off  within  two  weeks  (according  to 
Gerlach,  between  eight  and  twelve  days).  Healing  and  cicatrization 
of  the  navel  wound  follow  within  two  or  three  weeks,  while  the  navel 
retraction  takes  place  after  the  fourth  week.  The  healing  is  much 
hindered  by  purulent  processes  in  the  navel.  Morot  collected 
statistics  concerning  the  falling  of  the  navel  cord  in  the  case  of  fifty 
calves.  In  seven  cases  the  navel  fell  between  the  fifth  and  tenth 
day;  in  twelve  cases,  between  the  tenth  and  fifteenth  day;  in 
twenty-four  cases,  between  the  fifteenth  and  twentieth  day ;  and  in 
seven  cases,  between  the  twentieth  and  twenty-second  day  after 
birth. 

The  indication  of  the  formation  of  horns  on  the  frontal  bones 
appears  later.  According  to  Gerlach,  the  thickening  of  the  epider- 


240  ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS 

mis  begins  at  the  end  of  the  second  week.  At  the  end  of  the  third 
week,  a  hard,  epidermal  swelling  is  seen  ;  after  six  weeks,  an  evident 
horn  nucleus  is  formed ;  after  eight  weeks,  complete  epilation  and 
development  of  the  horn-cap  ;  after  three  months,  a  movable  horn- 
point  appears,  3  cm.  long  in  bull  calves  and  2  cm.  in  heifer  calves, 
and  with  a  length  of  4  cm.  and  3  cm.,  respectively,  after  four  months. 
In  bull  calves,  Gerlach  found  that  the  horn-tip  was  fixed  after 
four  months ;  while  in  heifer  calves,  on  the  other  hand,  it  became 
attached  after  five  or  six  months. 

Finally,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  change  in  color  in 
the  kidneys  after  birth  (see  page  175). 

Thomassia  demonstrated,  in  children,  the  following  changes  in 
umbilical  vessels,  which  require  substantiation  by  studies  in  calves. 
Even  when  life  persists  for  only  a  few  hours,  the  lumen  of  the 
vessels,  arteries  as  well  as  veins,  assumes  a  shrunken,  almost  star- 
shape  cross-section  in  consequence  of  a  strong  contraction  of  the 
muscular  layer,  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  endothelium  of  the 
arteries  acquires  an  opaque  appearance,  which  becomes  more  and 
more  apparent  as  obliteration  progresses.  The  blood  clots,  which, 
fill  both  vessels  more  or  less  completely,  begin  to  turn  pale  from  the 
fourth  day,  and  on  the  fifth  day  show  a  decided  tinge  of  yellow. 
Prom  this  time  on,  it  is  apparent  that  a  slight  adhesion  occurs- 
between  the  coagulated  blood,  which  previously  lay  free  in  the 
lumen,  and  the  walls  of  the  vessel.  After  the  twelfth  day,  the 
characteristic  processes  of  the  organization  of  a  thrombus  begin, 
and,  accordingly,  the  lumen  of  the  vessel  becomes  continually 
narrower.  The  process  in  the  vein  varies  according  as  the  himen 
is  free  from  blood  clots,  in  which  case  the  closure  takes  place 
through  proliferation  of  the  endothelium,  or  as  the  lumen  is  filled 
with  a  blood  clot,  as  it  frequently  is.  In  the  latter  case,  the  histo- 
logical  processes  resemble  those  in  the  arteries,  both  with  regard  to 
the  organization  and  the  change  in  color,  which  in  time  assumes 
more  and  more  of  a  reddish-yellow  tinge.  By  the  forty-fifth  day  the 
lumen  of  the  artery  is  usually  closed  by  the  complete  formation  of 
a  thrombus,  and  its  transformation  into  a  ligament  becomes  perfect. 
The  individual  layers  of  the  arterial  walls  are  thin,  and  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  one  another.  Similar  conditions  are  observed  in 
the  vein,  which,  whether  from  the  process  of  thrombus  formation  or 
from  the  adhesion  of  the  proliferated  endothelia,  also  loses  its  vas- 
cular character,  and  is  changed  into  a  solid  cord.  While,  however, 
it  is  often  possible  to  recognize  the  previous  lumen  as  a  point  in  a 
cross-section  of  the  vessel  at  the  time  in  question  (six  weeks  after 


MEAT   OF  FETUSES  241 

birth),  commonly,  at  the  age  of  sixty  days,  the  lumen  has,  without 
exception,  entirely  disappeared. 

Judgment — The  meat  of  immature  calves  is  not  harmful.  Occa- 
sionally, the  opinion  is  held  that  immature  veal  exercises  a  peculiar 
characteristic,  physiological  action  on  the  human  organism,  causing 
the  occurrence  of  diarrhea  and  illness.  This  opinion  is,  scientifically, 
without  foundation  (Schmidt-Mulheim).  On  the  other  hand,  imma- 
ture meat  is  a  spoiled  food  material,  and  is  only  to  be  admitted  for 
sale  under  declaration.  Its  unfit  character  appears  from  the  incom- 
plete development  of  the  meat,  and  from  the  subjective  repugnance 
of  the  majority  of  meat  consumers  toward  it.  With  regard  to  the 
latter  point,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  difference  in  custom  in 
different  regions. 

The  decision,  that  calves  under  eight  days  of  age  are  not  to  be 
offered  for  sale  under  any  circumstances,  is  a  measure  well  calculated 
to  check  the  practice  of  culling  out  immature  calves  and  marketing 
them  for  slaughter. 

2.— Meat  of  Fetuses. 

The  meat  of  fetuses  is  never  a  marketable  food  material.  Only 
among  English  gourmands  is  the  meat  of  fetuses  considered  a  deli- 
eacy,  as  was  the  case  among  the  Romans.  In  localities,  however^ 
without  regular  meat  inspection,  all  strongly  developed  bovine 
fetuses  are  falsely  offered  for  sale  as  veal  in  the  form  of  bratwurst. 

Recognition. — In  those  cases  in  which  it  is  required  to  determine 
whether  there  has  been  a  false  substitution  of  fetus  meat  in  the  place 
of  veal,  those  parts  which  usually  betray  the  fetus  to  the  layman, 
namely,  the  skin  (with  the  umbilical  ring),  the  hoofs,  head,  stomach 
and  intestines,  are,  as  a  rule,  not  present.  Nevertheless,  the  expert 
is  in  a  position  to  determine  with  certainty,  and  without  difficulty, 
the  fetal  character  of  the  meat  from  the  atelectatic  condition  of  the 
lungs  (they  sink  in  water),  from  the  open  urachus,  and  the  wide-open, 
condition  of  the  umbilical  veins  and  arteries.  Especially,  the  point- 
where  the  latter  branch  off  from  the  internal  pudic  arteries  may 
make  possible  a  final  decision  in  those  cases  in  which  the  entrails 
and  umbilical  ring  have  been  removed.  The  liver,  on  account  of  its 
high  value,  is  regularly  included  in  the  sale.  A  further  means  of 
recognizing  fetal  meat  is  to  be  found  in  the  watery,  flabby  condition 
of  the  musculature,  gelatinous  condition  of  the  connective  tissue  in 


ABNORMAL   PHYSIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS 

the  region  of  the  kidneys,  which  first  shows  a  sparse  accumulation 
of  yellow  fat  just  before  birth  and  the  presence  of  a  red  marrow  in 
the  tubular  bones.  Finally,  fetal  meat  is  distinguished  by  its  high 
glycogen  content.  By  the  demonstration  of  glycogen,  the  origin  of 
individual  pieces  of  meat  and  worked-over  fetal  meat  can  be  deter- 
mined (see  page  213). 

Niebel  obtained  from  400  grams  of  the  meat  of  an  almost  mature 
calf-fetus,  7  grams  of  glycogen  by  boiling  three  times,  and  from  6  kg. 
of  a  fetus,  at  full  term,  88  grams  of  glycogen  by  one  boiling. 

Judgment. — According  to  a  decision  of  the  Second  Criminal 
Senate  of  the  Imperial  Court,  of  January  3,  1882,  the  meat  of  calf 
fetuses  (so-called  unborn  calves)  is  to  be  considered  as  an  unfit  food 
material,  because  the  normal  condition  is  not  present ;  but  not  onty- 
this  fact,  but  also  the  character  of  the  object  itself  stamps  fetal  meat 
&s  unfit  food  material.  The  meat  of  fetuses  is>  moreover,  in  all 
-civilized  countries,  considered  as  highly  unfit  for  human  food,  for 
esthetic  reasons,  and  is  excluded  even  from  qualified  sale  under 
declaration. 

3. — Poorness. 

With  insufficient  nutriment,  or  during  excessive  organic  func- 
tions, and,  in  general,  during  disturbed  relations  between  ingestion 
and  assimilation,  domestic  animals  frequently  exhibit  that  condition 
of  nutrition  which  is  characterized  by  the  term  "  poorness."  Thia 
condition  appears  in  old  age,  in  consequence  of  a  failure  in  the 
power  of  assimilation  on  the  part  of  the  organism.  It  is  character- 
ized by  the  scarcity  of  fat  tissue,  and  by  an  increase  in  the  consist- 
ency of  the  musculature  and  its  darker  color. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  such  poor  animals,  in  some  regulations 
for  meat  inspection,  is  characterized  as  unmarketable  ;  that  is,  a» 
unfit  for  human  consumption.  This,  however,  is  not  right,  for  the 
meat  of  poor  animals  contains,  as  was  shown  on  page  192,  more 
protein  than  the  meat  of  fat  animals.  Its  flavor,  as  compared  with 
that  of  fattened  animals  is,  of  course,  considerably  less  agreeable. 
It  shrinks  in  cooking,  becomes  tough,  and  acquires  an  insipid,  dry 
taste.  The  meat  of  poor  animals  is,  therefore,  less  palatable  tham 
the  meat  of  fat  animals.  Nevertheless,  it  is  not  necessary  to  require 
a  declaration,  for  the  reason  that  the  meat  of  poor  animals  declares 
itself  through  the  scarcity  of  fat  tissue,  without  any  legal  require- 
ments. In  this  regard,  the  public  needs  no  protection. 


EMACIATION  243 

Moreover,  in  the  case  of  food  animals,  we  do  not  have  to  deal 
"with  the  highest  degree  of  poorness.  A  regard  for  the  utilization  of 
the  meat  prevents  the  slaughter  of  the  poorest  animals. 

Furthermore,  the  meat  of  poor  animals  is  indispensable  for  the 
manufacture  of  sausage.  However,  in  working  over  sausage  the 
quality  of  the  meat  in  question  is  much  improved  as  a  food  material, 
in  consequence  of  its  mechanical  mincing  and  the  addition  of  lard. 
It  is,  therefore,  to  the  interest  of  meat  consumers  that  the  meat  of 
poor  animals  should  come  into  market  in  this  more  desirable  form. 

4. — Emaciation. 

Frequently,  the  terms  "poorness"  and  " emaciation "  are  con- 
fused, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  refer  to  entirely  different  con- 
ditions. In  the  practice  of  meat  inspection,  especially  in  judging 
the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  it  is  important  to  distinguish 
between  emaciation  and  poorness. 

Distinction  between  poorness  and  emn/doiion. — Under  ordinary 
circumstances,  there  is  a  whole  series  of  food  animals  which  are 
poor  ;  viz.,  all  animals  in  the  process  of  development,  the  majority 
of  male  breeding  animals,  and,  finally,  all  cows  of  heavy  milking 
races,  which  are  slaughtered  during  lactation,  or  immediately  after, 
without  previous  fattening.  Poor  animals  are  much  sought  after, 
because  they  furnish  materials  which  are  indispensable  in  sausage. 
For  example,  bulls  bring  a  higher  price  when  poor  than  when 
fattened.  Fattening  is,  therefore,  scrupulously  avoided  in  these 
cases. 

The  objection  might  be  raised  that  all  veterinarians  entrusted 
with  meat  inspection  would  not  be  in  a  position  to  determine  by 
the  carcass,  without  having  observed  the  animal  during  life,  whether 
he  was  dealing  with  poorness  or  emaciation  in  individual  cases,  for 
the  reason  that  the  emaciation  of  fattened  animals  may  reach  the 
degree  of  poorness  of  animals  which  have  not  been  fattened,  or 
may  stop  at  that  point.  This  objection,  however,  is,  as  a  rule,  not 
justified. 

Poorness  is  a  physiological  condition  present  in  perfectly  healthy 
individuals.  All  the  organs  are  normally  developed,  but  the  fat 
content  of  individuals  is  relatively  small.  Emaciation,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  pathological  condition,  or  a  condition  which  appears  in 
old  age,  during  which  the  ordinary  nutritive  condition  sinks  below 


244  ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS 

the  normal.*  Not  only  is  there  a  loss  of  the  fat  laid  on  during  the- 
process  of  fattening,  but  usually  an  atrophy  of  the  organs  also- 
appears,  including  the  skeletal  musculature.  An  approximate  idea 
of  the  atrophy  of  individual  organs  in  pathological  or  senile  emacia- 
tion is  furnished  us  by  data  on  the  loss  of  weight  of  fasting  animals. 
A  fasting  cat,  for  instance,  lost,  according  to  von  Voit — fat,  97  per 
cent.;  spleen,  66.7  ;  liver,  53.7  ;  muscles,  30.5  ;  kidneys,  25.9  ;  lungs, 
17.7;  and  heart,  2.6  per  cent.  In  two  other  experiments  with  dogs, 
the  musculature  lost  43  per  cent,  of  its  original  weight. 

In  addition  to  the  more  or  less  complete  disappearance  of  fat, 
and  the  decrease  in  size  of  the  spleen  and  liver,  a  decrease  in  the 
volume  of  the  musculature  appears  in  emaciated  food  animals. 
"When  this  is  connected  with  the  disappearance  of  the  fat  deposited 
between  the  muscle  layers  and  the  muscle  fibrillse,  a  soft,  flabby 
condition  of  the  musculature  is  unmistakable,  even  in  early  stages. 
This  is  especially  well  shown  in  a  comparison  of  healthy  and 
emaciated  bulls.  Healthy  bulls,  in  spite  of  the  complete  absence 
of  fat,  possess  strongly  convex  muscle  contours.  The  muscles  feel 
full  and  firm.  In  emaciated  bulls,  on  the  other  hand,  the  muscula- 
ture is  sunken,  flat,  flabby  and  soft.  A  high  degree  of  emaciation^ 
as  is  well  known,  is  commonly  associated  with  the  serous  infil- 
tration of  the  subcutaneous  retro-peritoneal  and  intra-muscular 
connective  tissue.  Gelatinous  tissue  replaces  the  fat  tissue.  Sim- 
ultaneously, with  a  high  degree  of  emaciation,  a  grayish-red  discol- 
oration of  the  musculature  appears. 

Judging  emaciation. — The  decision  on  the  meat  of  emaciated 
animals  is  essentially  determined  by  the  cause  of  the  emaciation^ 
The  meat,  however,  under  all  circumstances,  even  in  emaciation  in/ 
old  age,  is  unfit  for  food  on  account  of  the  important  anomalies  in 
the  musculature.  If  a  slimy  degeneration  of  the  fat,  or  a  serous 
infiltration  of  the  musculature  has  already  taken  place,  the  meat  is- 


*  Emaciation,  therefore,  appears  suddenly  (in  serious  fever),  or  gradually  in- 
chronic  disturbances  of  metabolism.  In  the  case  of  the  sudden  appearance  of 
emaciation,  inconsequence  of  acute,  wasting  diseases,  such  pronounced  changes  are 
present  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  organs  (cloudy  swelling),  as  well  as  in  the  fat 
tissue  (reddish  coloration,  and  obliteration  of  the  structure),  that  all  doubt  is  removed- 
concerning  their  meaning.  In  this  place,  therefore,  only  the  more  important  chronic 
emaciation,  which  takes  place  in  cattle,  will  be  considered.  Naturally,  this  must 
attain  a  certain  degree  before  it  acquires  symptomatic  significance.  In  consideration, 
of  this  fact,  reference  is  not  made  in  regulations  concerning  procedure  with  the  meat 
of  tuberculous  animals  which  are  beginning  to  become  emaciated,  but  to  those  which 
are  already  emaciated. 


ABNORMAL   COLORATION   OF  THE   ADIPOSE   TISSUE  245 

•to  be  condemned  as  highly  unfit  for  food.  But,  in  those  cases  in 
"which  the  emaciation  is  the  consequence  of  disease,  the  decision  is 
made  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  disease  (see  under  Oligemia, 
Hydremic  Cachexia  and  Tuberculosis). 

5.— Abnormal  Coloration  of  the  Adipose  Tissue. 

In  discussing  the  normal  properties  of  fat  tissue,  attention  has 
already  been  directed  to  the  fact  that  the  fat  tissue  of  cattle,  on  an 
•exclusive  grass  diet,  assumes  a  yellow  instead  of  a  white  color. 
'The  meat  of  such  animals  is  offered  for  sale  without  conditions, 
because  it  is,  otherwise,  of  an  unobjectionable  character.  In  meat 
inspection,  the  only  point  of  interest  is  to  recognize  the  yellow 
coloration  caused  by  feeding,  and  the  difference  between  it  and 
pathological  icterus. 

The  yellow  coloration  caused  by  food  is  exclusively  confined  to 
the  fat  tissue.  In  jaundice,  on  the  other  hand,  in  addition  to  the 
fat  tissue,  the  entrails,  fibrous  membranes  (fasciae,  solera  and  walls 
of  blood  vessels),  cartilage,  and,  to  a  still  greater  extent,  the  muscles 
and  bones,  are  colored  yellow  or  discolored.  Furthermore,  upon  a 
microscopical  examination,  an  extensive  accumulation  of  bilirubin 
crystals  is  found  in  the  tissues,  especially  in  the  liver  of  icteric 
-animals. 

6.— Abnormal  Odor  of  Meat. 

This  may  be  due  to  two  different  physiological  conditions  :  (1) 
^Excessive  feeding  with  odorific  substances,  and  (2)  sexual  activity 
-of  male  animals.* 

As  a  rule,  meat  of  an  unusual  odor  also  has  an  abnormal  flavor. 
TFhe  latter,  however,  is  less  pronounced  than  the  former.  For  this 
reason  it  is  desirable,  in  rendering  judgment  on  the  meat  under 
.investigation,  to  consider  merely  the  abnormal  odor. 

1. — ABNORMAL  ODOR  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  IMPROPER  FEEDING. 

The  feed  stuffs  which,  when  given  in  undue  quantities,  transmit 
a  disagreeable  odor  to  the  meat  are  fish  (herring  and  smelt)  and 
swill.  In  the  first  case,  the  meat  assumes  an  odor  like  whale  oil; 


*  With  regard  to  other  causes  of  abnormal  odor  in  meat,  compare  the  chapters 
•tm  Intoxications  and  Post-mortem  Changes,  as  well  as  the  sections  on  Stomach. 
"Worms  and  Blackleg,  in  the  chapters  on  Invasion  Diseases  and  Infectious  Diseases.  • 


246  ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS 

while,  in  the  second,  it  possesses  a  disagreeable,  heavy,  or  rancid!! 
odor.  In  both  cases,  the  fat  tissue  acquires  a  consistency  softer 
than  normal,  and  is  colored  yellow  or  gray.  Moreover,  an  abnormal 
odor  of  the  meat  is  observed  after  feeding  green  fenugreek  or 
decomposing  turnips. 

It  was  reported  from  Konigsberg,  in  Prussia,  that  a  part  of  the 
pork  marketed  there  tasted  so  fishy  that  it  either  could  not  be  eaten, 
at  all,  or  only  with  the  use  of  strong  condiments.  The  hogs  came 
from  the  region  of  Labiau,  where  fattening  was  done  entirely  with, 
smelt.  In  order  to  be  certain,  the  slaughterhouse  authorities  of 
Konigsberg  invariably  subject  suspected  meat  to  a  boiling  test 
before  they  admit  it  to  the  market. 

Fenugreek  (TrigoneUa  fcenum-grcecum),  which,  in  Germany,  is^ 
used  simply  for  medicinal  purposes,  is  cultivated  as  a  forage  plant 
in  southern  France,  Italy,  and  other  southern  countries.  It  furnishes 
a  luxuriant  green  forage,  which  rapidly  fattens  animals.  However, 
one  objection  to  feeding  with  fenugreek  is  the  fact  that  the  meat 
assumes  a  very  disagreeable  taste,  and  an  odor  resembling  hog 
dung.  Mallet  reported  experiments  which  are  chiefly  concerned 
with  the  question  whether  the  specific  odor  of  fenugreek  becomes- 
definitely  fixed  in  the  tissues  of  slaughtered  animals,  or  subsequently 
disappears  from  them.  Mallet's  investigations  resulted  in  the- 
following  conclusions  : 

A  single  feed  of  fenugreek,  in  a  green  condition,  is  sufficient  to 
transmit  the  odor  of  the  plant  to  the  meat.     This  odor  completely 
disappears  within  four  days  thereafter.     The  odorous  principle  ia. 
more  rapidly  excreted  when  the  plants  have  just  blossomed  than, 
when  they  have  already  formed  pods  and  seeds.     Bat,  even  in-  the 
latter  case,  it  is  sufficient  to  stop  feeding  the  fenugreek  fourteen 
days  before  the  sale  of  the  fattened  animals  in  order  that  the  meat 
may  regain  its  normal  odor  and  flavor.  The  excretion  of  the  odorous 
material  takes  place  chiefly  through  the  skin  when  the  plants  are 
fed  ir  bloom  ;  through  the  milk,  urine  and  feces,  on  the  other  hand, 
if  fed  when  the  pods  have  formed.      Consequently,  the  meat  of" 
calves  is  more  seriously  injured  by  the  milk  of  cows  which  have 
eaten  ripe  fenugreek  than  by  the  milk  of  cows  which  have  fed  on 
the  plants  in  bloom.     Ollmann,  in  Greifswald,  observed  a  case  of 
abnormal  odor  and  flavor  of  meat  after  feeding  decomposing  beets. 
A  farmer  fed  100  lambs  with  this  material.     The  meat  of  these 
animals  possessed  a  rancid  odor  and  a   soapy  taste,  in   spite  of 
the  fact   that  they  had  received  other  feed  for  two  days  before? 
slaughter. 


ABNORMAL   ODOR   OF   MEAT  247 

1 

Iii  fowls,  an  oily  odor,  and  flavor  of  the  fat  and  meat,  are 
frequently  observed  after  fattening  on  rape  seed,  rape  cake,  and  the 
refuse  of  oil  manufacture.  As  is  the  case  with  swine,  a  flavor  of 
whale  oil  is  noted  after  extensive  feeding  with  fish.  This  change  is 
especially  striking  in  turkeys  and  ducks  which  are  fattened  on  rape 
cake  or  hemp  seed,  and  in  pigeons  after  a  liberal  feed  of  flax  seed 
and  colza.  An  oily  odor  and  the  flavor  of  whale  oil  are  frequently 
present  in  Italian  pigeons.  Moreover,  young  geese  from  the  region 
of  Hamburg,  and  ducks  from  the  Spree wald,  often  taste  fishy.  In 
these  animals,  however,  the  meat  loses  its  disagreeable  character  if 
grain  is  fed  for  at  least  fourteen  days  before  slaughter.  A  bitter 
flavor  may  appear  in  the  meat  of  fowls  which  are  fed  to  excess  on 
turnips  (Niebel).  According  to  Labler,  the  flavor  of  the  meat  of 
ducks  fed  on  clams  is  extremely  disagreeable.  According  to  this 
author,  the  meat  of  partridges,  in  January  and  February,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  exclusive  diet  of  grass  and  germinating  seeds,  has  an 
odor  of  whale  oil.  Niebel  found  that,  in  the  fat  of  fowls  with  an 
«ily  taste,  the  iodin  number  is  considerably  increased.  Thus,  in 
normal  turkey  fat  it  was  75.48,  while  in  oily  fat  it  was  113.30. 

2. — ABNORMAL  ODOR  IN  MALE  FOOD  ANIMALS. 

A  specific  odor  is  observed  in  sexually  mature  buck  goats  and 
boars.  The  odor  is  highly  disagreeable,  and  is  called  buck-and-boar 
edor,  since  it  can  not  be  more  definitely  described.  It  is  customary 
to  speak  of  this  abnormal  odor,  which  is  especially  strong  in  the 
meat  of  the  posterior  part  of  boars,  as  urinous,  because  it  possesses 
a  certain  similarity  to  the  odor  of  decomposed  urine.  The  flavor  of 
the  meat  is  also  repulsive.  Furthermore,  in  these  animals  during 
old  age,  the  muscle  fibers  become  tough  and  difficult  to  masticate  ; 
and,  in  the  boar,  the  skin  becomes  in  part  chondrified  with  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  shield,  which  makes  this  part  literally 
inedible,  because  it  can  not  be  comminuted  with  the  teeth.  The 
disagreeable  odor  and  flavor  of  buck  and  boar  meat  is  removed  by 
eastration.  Obviously,  castration  should  take  place  some  time 
before  slaughter,  if  the  operation  is  to  have  the  desired  effect. 
Further  investigation  is  required  to  determine  whether  the  common 
practice  of  butchers  in  castrating  goat  bucks  and  boars  immediately 
before  slaughter  has  any  influence  on  the  odor  of  the  meat. 

The  meat  of  cryptorchid  boars,  in  which  the  retained  testicles 
aic  atrophied,  does  not  possess  an  odor  more  disagreeable  than  that 
cf  farrows  (page  232).  Furthermore,  in  actual  boars  and  crypt- 


218  ABNORMAL  PHYSIOLOGICAL   CONDITIONS 

orcliid  boars  with  functional  testicles,  the  urinous  odor  is  not  always 
present.  In  fact,  Goltz,  during  a  period  of  four  years,  by  careful 
boiling  tests  in  the  slaughterhouse  at  Halle,  proved  that  boars  and 
cryptorchid  boars  furnish  neither  malodorous  nor  ill-flavored  meat. 
A  repulsive  odor  and  bad  flavor  were  present  in  only  20  per  cent,  of 
the  boars  which  were  inspected,  while  in  80  per  cent,  the  meat  was 
of  a  marketable  character.  This  rinding  agrees  with  the  observation 
of  Brebeck,  who  cooked  portions  of  the  meat  of  five  cryptorchid 
boars — boiled,  roasted,  and  ate  them,  without  being  able  to  detect 
any  disagreeable  odor. 

Formerly,  the  opinion  was  quite  general  that,  under  certain 
conditions,  the  meat  of  buck  sheep  might  possess  a  repulsive  odor. 
This,  however,  is  uniformly  contradicted  by  the  veterinarians  of 
slaughterhouses.  Thus,  Goltz,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  a  good 
account  of  the  animal  odor  of  meat  (Zcschr.  f.  Fleisch-u,  Milchhyg., 
vol.  7),  called  attention  to  the  fact  that,  during  his  long  practice  at 
the  slaughterhouse,  he  never  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  a 
repulsive  animal  odor  on  the  meat  of  buck  sheep.  It  was  also 
asserted  that  the  abnormal  odor  is,  frequently,  only  slightly  devel- 
oped in  buck  goats,  and  that  this  is  the  case  even  when  the  animals 
emitted  a  strong  odor  before  slaughter. 

Goltz  also  called  attention  to  the  occasional  and  exceptional 
presence  of  a  repulsive  odor  and  flavor  in  the  meat  of  bulls.  The 
odorific  material,  which  during  distillation  of  the  meat  passes  over 
into  the  distillation  product  with  the  steam,  resembles  the  odor  of 
the  perspiration  of  living  bulls,  and  is  present  only  in  vigorous, 
moderately  fat  and  well-developed  bulls ;  but  not  in  either  run-down 
or  fat  animals. 

Possibly,  the  declaration  of  bull  meat,  required  in  the  old 
Oerman  meat  inspection  regulations,  is  to  be  explained  by  reference 
to  the  presence  of  this  abnormal  odor. 

Demonstration  of  abnormal  odor. — During  the  process  of  slaugh- 
tering, and  while  the  animal  heat  is  still  present,  the  abnormal 
odor  is  quite  pronounced.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the  cooling 
process,  it  may  disappear  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  scarcely 
perceptible.  In  cold  meat,  however,  it  is  possible  to  make  the 
unusual  odor  again  perceptible  by  heating  a  piece  of  the  meat  over 
a  flame  or  boiling  it  in  water. 

In  rendering  a  decision  on  boar  meat,  Goltz  recommends  that 
the  boiling  test  should  not  be  a-pplied  until  one  day  after  slaughter, 
for  the  reason  that  the  meat  of  castrated  hogs,  when  cooked 


ABNORMAL  ODOR   OF   MEAT  249 

immediately  after  slaughter,  possesses  a  peculiar,  well-pronounced 
hog  flavor,  which  is  distasteful  to  many  persons. 

Judgment. — Odorous  meat,  under  all  circumstances,  is  an  unfit 
iood  material,  and,  therefore,  only  to  be  sold  at  a  freibank.  If  the 
odor  is  strongly  developed,  and,  simultaneously,  other  abnormal 
conditions  are  present  (discoloration,  softening  of  fat,  chondrifica- 
tion  of  the  skin,  etc.),  seizure  and  condemnation  are  indicated.  In 
l)oars  and  cryptorchids  in  which,  as  already  indicated,  the  abnormal 
odor  and  flavor  may  be  present,  a  decision  is  to  be  rendered 
according  to  the  result  of  the  boiling  test  in  each  case.  With 
reference  to  the  so-called  fishy  hogs,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
they  are  regularly  eaten  in  the  coast  regions,  while  in  the  interior 
only  a  few  purchasers  for  such  would  be  found.  Goltz  demonstrated 
that,  in  ill-smelling  bull  meat,  the  unusual  odor  is  commonly  dissi- 
pated into  the  air  after  hanging  two  or  three  days.  This  fails  to  take 
place  only  when  the  odor  is  very  pronounced.  In  such  exceptional 
cases  the  meat  may  be  made  edible  by  steaming  in  a  Bohrbeck 
disinfector  (with  live  steam),  since  the  odorous  principle  passes  off 
with  the  steam.  Goltz  was  also  able  to  demonstrate  in  the  odorous 
meat  of  buck  goats,  that  the  striking  odor  gradually  disappeared 
when  the  meat  was  allowed  to  hang  in  the  air.  To  be  sure,  this 
only  occurs  after  fourteen  days. 

Advanced  pregnancy. — Meat  inspectors,  with  an  insufficient 
training,  have  occasionally  excluded  from  use,  or  have  declared  to 
be  unmarketable,  the  meat  of  animals  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
pregnancy.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  state,  however,  that  this 
was  without  justification  (compare  Ostertag,  Zeit.  f.  Fleisch-u. 
Milchhyg.,  vols.  7  and  8).  Incidentally,  it  should  be  noted  that,  in 
buying  food  animals  according  to  weight,  pregnant  animals  are  to 
be  characterized  as  defective  ;  for  the  sale  of  a  food  animal  by 
weight  (live  or  dressed  weight)  is  regarded  by  the  court,  not  as  a 
sale  of  cattle,  in  which  guaranty  is  excluded  on  account  of  pregnancy, 
but  as  a  sale  of  products,  The  vendor  is  obliged  to  make  good  the 
decreased  value  according  to  the  weight  of  the  pregnant  uteri  and 
fetuses,  since  these  parts  are  not  used  as  food  materials. 

The  Berlin  Animal  Insurance  Society  indemnify  to  the  extent 
of  the  weight  of  the  pregnant  uterus  in  the  case  of  insured  hogs. 


VII. 

GENERAL  PATHOLOGY  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS  FROM  THE 
STANDPOINT  OF  SANITARY  POLICE. 


The  pathological  conditions,  which  can  be  determined  in 
individual  organs  of  slaughtered  animals,  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  general  groups  : 

(1)  Malformations,  (2)  dissolutions  of  continuity,  (3)  atrophy 
and  hypertrophy,  (4)  deposition  of  pigment  and  lime,  (5)  metaplasias, 
(6)  degenerations,  (7)  circulatory  disturbances,  (8)  transudation,  (9) 
hemorrhages,  (10)  necrosis,  (11)  inflammations,  (12)  simple  tumors, 
(13)  infectious  granulations,  (14)  animal  parasites. 

The  sanitary  significance  of  these  different  forms  oi  abnormali- 
ties varies  exceedingly.  Therefore,  for  purposes  of  orientation,  it 
is  desirable  to  explain  the  principal  view-points  for  judging  the 
conditions  which  are  included  under  the  above-mentioned  patho- 
logical categories. 

1.— Malformations. 

Occurrence. — Congenital  malformations  of  the  organs  of  food 
animals  are  observed  in  various  forms.  The  formation  of  fissures 
and  obstructions  are  most  frequent  in  the  extremities  and  repro- 
ductive organs.  Furthermore,  fissure  formations  occur  in  the 
internal  organs— liver,  lungs,  spleen — and  occasion  supernumerary 
livers,  lungs  and  spleens.  Moreover,  abnormal  accumulations  of 
fluid  of  a  congenital  nature  are  not  rare,  especially  in  the  liver 
(fetal  hepatic  cysts)  and  in  the  kidneys  (hydrops  renum  cysticus). 

Judgment. — Malformations  do  not  affect  the  availability  of  the 
•meat  of  individual  parts  of  an  animal  as  human  food  so  long  as  tiie 
structure  of  the  tissues  remains  unchanged  ;  as,  for  example,  in 
fissure  formations.  If,  however,  the  histological  structure  of  the 
tissues  is  changed,  as  in  congenital  renal  cysts,  the  malformed 


DISSOLUTIONS   OP   CONTINUITY  251 

organ  is   to    be   considered    as   unfit,    or    highly    unfit,   for   food,, 
according  to  the  degree  of  the  change  it  has  undergone. 


2. — Dissolutions  of  Continuity. 

Judgment. — Dissolutions  of  continuity,  in  and  of  themselves,  do 
not  lower  the  quality  of  any  part  of  the  body  as  a  food  material.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  hemorrhage,  which  is  commonly  associated  with 
these  conditions,  lends  the  character  of  spoiled  food  material  to  the 
part  which  is  separated  from  its  natural  connections. 

Furthermore,  dissolutions  of  continuity  must  be  divided  into  two 
essentially  different  kinds ;  namely,  those  which  communicate  with 
the  outside  world  (skin,  alimentary  tract,  lungs,  urino-genital  appa- 
ratus), and  those  which  do  not  communicate  with  the  outside  world 
(rents  in  the  musculature,  fractures  of  bones,  with  uninjured  general 
integument,  ruptures  of  the  heart,  liver,  spleen,  etc.).  Wounds  which 
are  in  connection  with  the  outside  world  may,  by  subsequent  infec- 
tion, render  the  meat  unhealthf ul  (see  Pyemia  and  Septicemia),  while 
such  a  possibility  is  excluded  in  the  case  of  lesions  which  are  not  in 
communication  with  the  outside  world,  and  which,  therefore,  run  an 
aseptic  course. 

In  rendering  a  decision  on  dissolutions  of  continuity,  it  is  very 
important,  in  all  cases  in  which  the  lesions  occur  immediately  before 
death,  to  determine  whether  they  are  of  the  one  kind  or  of  the  other. 

3. — Atrophy  and  Hypertrophy. 

(a)  Atrophy. 

Occurrence. — Atrophy,  or  wasting  away,  may  affect  the  whole 
organism,  as  in  old  age,  or  individual  organs.  Only  the  atrophy  of 
glandular  organs  and  of  the  musculature  possesses  any  sanitary 
importance.  The  atrophy  of  adipose  tissue  also  possesses  a  diag- 
nostic significance  (see  "Emaciation"). 

Judgment.—  Atrophied  organs  are  unfit  food  material,  because, 
as  a  rule,  the  specific  tissue  cells  (as,  for  instance,  the  liver  and 
muscle  cells  in  atrophy  of  the  liver  and  muscles)  disappear  to  a 
greater  degree  than  the  interstitial  connective  tissue.  Organs 
depend  for  their  value  upon  the  specific  tissue  cells,  and  must  be 
considered  as  of  less  value,  or  worthless,  when  the  specific  cells 
disappear  to  a  large  degree,  or  entirely. 


252  GENERAL  PATHOL03Y   OF  FOOD   ANIMALS 

(b)  Hypertrophy. 

Judgment. — Hypertropliied  organs,  iu  which  the  histologieal 
structure  of  the  tissue  is  not  changed,  are  considered  as  equal  to 
normal  organs.  This  condition  is  most  frequently  observed  as  the 
eo-called  vicarious  hypertrophy  in  one  kidney,  while  the  other  i* 
diseased. 

4.— Deposition  of  Pigment  and  Lime. 
(a)  Pigmented  Deposits. 

Occurrence. — An  idiopathic  pigment  deposit,  in  contrast  with 
symptomatic  pigmentation,  as  in  icterus,  is  frequently  observed  in 
-cattle  in  the  form  of  melanosis,  or  black  coloring.  It  is  especially 
frequent  in  the  lungs,  liver,  membranes  of  the  brain,  and  spinal  cord. 
In  generalized  melanosis,  the  peritoneum,  pleura,  fasciae,  vascular 
structures,  nerve  sheaths,  cartilage  and  bones  are  also  colored  black. 
Melanosis,  as  a  rule,  is  congenital,  and  seems  to  disappear  with 
increasing  age. 

Diagnosis.— Melanosis  appears  in  the  form  of  black  blotches, 
or  stripes  and  points.  Melanotic  organs,  therefore,  appear  to  be 
spotted  with  black,  or  "as  if  sprinkled  with  India  ink."  By 
examining  the  black  colored  spots  under  the  microscope,  it  may 
be  demonstrated  that  a  black  pigment  (melanin),  in  granular  form, 
is  deposited  in  the  otherwise  normal  tissue. 

Melanosis  should  not  be  confused  with  melano-sarcomatosis 
(see  "Tumors").  The  latter,  however,  may  lead  secondarily  to  a 
melanemia  or  melanosis  of  all  parts  of  the  body  (degeneration  of 
the  tumors). 

Judgment. — Melanotic  organs  and  parts  are  unfit  for  food. 

Ochronosis. — Virchow  used  this  term  to  signify  a  black  coloration 
of  the  bones,  cartilage  and  sinews  in  man.  It  is  not  due  to  melanin, 
but  to  another  granular  pigment.  Ochronosis,  apparently,  occurs 
also  in  cattle  and  hogs,  and  also,  apparently,  causes  the  dark 
coloration  of  the  heads  of  the  ribs  in  sucking  calves. 

Brown  coloration  of  the  skeleton.— The  Belgian  veterinarians, 
Hosselmann,  Hebrant  and  Wagernous,  described  a  peculiar  brown 
coloration  of  the  bones,  which  is  also  occasionally  observed  ia 


DEPOSITION   OF   PIGMENT   AND   LIME 


253 


FIG.  43. 


Germany  (the  author's  observations  at  the  Berlin  abattoir,  and 
material  sent  to  the  Hygienic  Institute  of  the  Berlin  Veterinary 
High  School).  As  a  rule,  the  affection  is  observed  in  young  cattle, 
in  which  all  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  exhibit  a  reddish-brown, 
chocolate-brown,  or  blackish-brown  coloration.  The  chemical 
analyses  made  by  Mosselmann  indicated  a  normal  composition 
of  the  bones.  The  coloring  material  contained  in  the  bones  was 
not  extracted  by  water,  alcohol,  ether,  or  chloroform,  but  was 
readily  dissolved  in  alkalies  and  dilute  acids,  especially  in  KOH  and 
HNO3.  In  the  first  case,  a  brownish-violet  solution,  and  in  the 
second  case,  a  rose-red  solution  was  obtained,  both  of  which  were 
clarified  by  oxidizing  reagents.  On 
heating,  ammonia  was  developed,  and, 
after  calcining,  an  abundant  iron  deposit 
remained.  Mosselmann,  therefore,  con- 
sidered the  coloring  material  as  a  deri- 
vative of  hemoglobin,  and  classified  it 
with  the  melanins,  which,  according  to 
Gautier,  are  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  soluble  in  alkalies  and  alkaline 
carbonates. 


Judgment. — In  a  high  degree  of 
ochronosis,  in  which  the  larger  part  of 
the  skeleton  is  affected,  and  in  brown 
coloration  of  the  skeleton,  the  decision 
is  the  same  as  in  melanosis.  A  less 
serious  case,  in  which  only  certain  parts 
of  the  bones  show  a  dark  coloration, 
is  to  be  considered  as  insignificant. 


Xanthosis  of  beef   musculature* 
(after  Goltz).     a,  granular  in- 
terfibrillar  pigment. 


Xanthosis. — A  liver-brown  discoloration  of  musculature  is  occa- 
sionally observed  in  cattle.  Goltz  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to 
this  changed  condition.  In  the  cases  which  Goltz  investigated,  the 
heart,  muscles  of  mastication  and  tongue  were  most  conspicuous 
for  their  dark-brown  color.  The  remaining  portions  of  the  muscu- 
lature were  simply  somewhat  darker  in  color  than  normal.  By  a 
microscopic  study,  Goltz  demonstrated  that  the  peculiar  discolora- 
tion was  caused  by  the  presence  of  yellow  granular  pigment  between 
the  muscle  fibers  (Fig.  43).  Moreover,  the  term  xanthosis,  which 
Goltz  selected,  is  quite  appropriate  for  designating  the  nature  of  the 
cLanged  color. 


254  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

When  the  pigment  is  deposited  between  the  fibers,  it  can  be 
recognized  only  by  a  magnification  of  300  diameters.  Goltz  found 
that  it  gave  neither  the  reaction  of  iron  nor  of  bile  pigment  The 
pigment  can  be  extracted  with  chloroform. 

Judgment. — If  the  discoloration  is  confined  simply  to  the  heart, 
muscles  of  mastication  and  tongue,  the  removal  of  these  parts  is 
sufficient,  while  the  rest  of  the  musculature  can  be  sold  without 
hesitation.  For  we  are  dealiug  with  animals  which  exhibited  no 
functional  disturbances  before  slaughter,  and  which,  even  after 
slaughter,  showed  no  alteration  except  the  peculiar  discoloration 
of  the  striated  musculature. 

When  the  whole  skeletal  musculature  is  discolored,  the  meat 
is  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food,  and  is  to  be  sold  only  under 
declaration. 

With  regard  to  the  black  coloration  of  belly  bacon  in  hogs, 
compare  page  269. 

(b)  Calcareous  Deposits. 

Judgment. — A  simple  calcareous  deposit  impairs  the  quality  of 
the  organs  and  parts  to  a  degree  proportional  to  its  occurrence ;  for 
lime  diminishes  the  percentage  content  of  proteids  in  animal  tissue. 
The  simple  calcareous  deposit,  which  is  observed  most  frequently 
in  cartilage,  less  often  in  interstitial  pulmonary  tissue,  and  in  the 
medullary  layer  of  the  kidneys,  is  of  minor  importance  in  meat  in- 
spection, as  compared  with  the  calcification  of  parasitic  forms  (sea 
Calcareous  Concretions). 

6. — Metaplasiae. 

Virchow  distinguishes  the  direct  transformation  of  one  tissue 
into  another  by  the  term  metaplasia.  Metaplasia  occurs  o  ily  in  the 
tissues  of  connective  structures  (connective  tissue,  fat  tissue,  carti- 
lage and  bone).  The  transformation  of  cartilage  into  bone  is  most 
frequent.  However,  the  transformation  of  the  connective  tissue 
castration  cicatrix  into  bone  tissue  is  frequently  observed  in  spayed 
sows. 

6.— Degenerations. 

Of  the  degenerative  processes,  cloudy  swelling  and  fatty 
degeneration  are  of  paramount  sanitary  interest,  for  the  reason 


DEGENEBATIONS 


255 


that  they  are  phenomena  concomitant  with  serious  general  diseases 
(intoxications  and  infections).  Their  recognition  is,  therefore,  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  meat  inspection. 

(a)  Cloudy  Swelling. 

Cloudy  swelling  (parenchymatous  degeneration,  Virchow)  is 
observed  only  in  epithelial  structures.  The  swelling  becomes 
apparent  externally  by  the  slight  enlargement  of  the  organ,  the  loss 
of  the  original  color,  sheen,  outline  and  consistency.  In  the  place 
of  the  glistening  red-brown  of  the  liver,  for  example,  a  cloudy  grey- 
brown  appears.  The  outline  of  the  liver  cells  is  simultaneously  ob- 
literated, the  consistency  becomes  friable,  and  the  moisture  content 

FIG.  44 


Cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  skeletal  musculature,  a,  normal  muscle 
fiber ;  b,  cloudy  swelling ;  c,  slight,  and  d,  extensive  fatty  degeneration. 

is  diminished.  The  consistency  of  the  myocardium,  when  affected 
with  parenchymatous  degeneration,  may  well  be  compared  with 
that  of  boiled  meat. 

Under  the  microscope,  it  is  observed  that  the  epithelial  struct- 
ures are  pervaded  with  fine,  highly  refractive  granules,  or  spherules. 
Consequently,  the  epithelia  appear  cloudy  and  "  as  if  covered  with 
dust."  The  cell  nuclei  and  the  cell  walls  become  indistinguishable. 
Granules  which  appear  in  the  epithelia  in  cloudy  swelling  consist 
of  albumen. 

(b)  Fatty  Degeneration. 

Fatty  degeneration  (fatty  metamorphosis,  Virchow)  is  likewise 
characterized  by  a  loss  of  the  original  color,  sheen,  outline  and 
consistency  of  the  organs.  The  color  of  the  liver  becomes  a  cloudy 


256  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY   OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

yellow-brown  or  grey-yellow.  The  liistological  details,  which  are 
easily  recognized  with  the  nake'd  eye  in  the  normal  organ,  disap- 
pear, and  the  consistency  becomes  flabby  and  soft.  Under  the 
microscope  an  appearance  similar  to  that  in  cloudy  swelling  is- 
observed,  except  that  the  spherules  are  fatty  instead  of  al- 
buminous. 

Differential  diagnosis. — For  the  differentiation  of  cloudy  swelling 
from  fatty  metamorphosis,  we  add  acetic  acid  to  a  microscopic 
preparation.  The  acetic  acid  dissolves  the  proteid  globules,  while 
the  fat  globules  remain  unchanged.  Caustic  potash  may  also  be 
used  in  making  the  differentiation.  The  fat  globules  in  warming 
become  saponified.  Lastly,  the  fat  globules  in  fatty  degeneration 
are  colored  brown  or  black  by  osmic  acid,  while  the  proteid  globules- 
in  cloudy  swelling  do  not  give  this  reaction. 

It  is,  moreover,  of  great  importance  to  distinguish  between 
fatty  degeneration  and  fatty  infiltration.  The  latter  occurs  prin- 

FIG.  45.  FIG.  46. 


Fatty  infiltration  of  the  liver.  Fatty  metamorphosis  of  the  liver. 

cipally  in  supporting  connective  tissue,  but  is  also  observed  in 
liver  cells  and,  in  excessively  fat  conditions,  even  in  the  renal 
epithelia  and  in  the  primitive  fibrillse  of  the  musculature.  The 
differentiation  of  fatty  infiltration  from  fatty  degeneration  is  of 
especial  interest  in  the  liver.  Fatty  infiltration  in  this  organ  may 
appear  in  the  form  of  sharply  outlined  spots  which  extend  into  the 
hepatic  parenchyma  to  various  depths  (McFadyean).  As  a  rule, 
however,  fatty  infiltration  affects  the  whole  liver.  Mild  cases  are 
recognizable  by  a  slight  yellowish-gray  coloration  of  the  peripheral 
zone  of  the  hepatic  lobes  ;  the  more  extensive  the  deposit  of  fat,  the 
smaller  is  the  normally  constituted  central  part,  and  the  greater  the 
swelling  of  the  peripheral  part  of  the  lobe  as  compared  with  the 
central  part,  since  fatty  infiltration  causes  an  increase  in  volume  of 
the  cells  (Kitt).  A  liver  completely  infiltrated  with  fat  possesses  a> 


DEGENERATIONS  257 

cloudy,  yellow-brown  color,  as  in  the  case  of  fatty  degeneration. 
The  outline  of  the  acini,  however,  is  not  obliterated  and  the 
consistency  is  not  flabby  and  soft,  but  more  nearly  like  that  of 
cocoa  butter.  Furthermore,  in  fatty  infiltration  the  liver  is  enlarged, 
the  borders  are  rounded,  for  fatty  infiltration  signifies  the  original 
liver  substance  plus  fat.  In  fatty  degeneration,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  liver  protein  is  changed  into  fat.  The  organ,  therefore,  is  not 
enlarged  in  fatty  degeneration,  but  becomes  smaller  and  compara- 
tively thin,  soft  and  flabby.  The  borders  are  not  rounded,  bui 
sharp. 

Under  the  microscope,  the  liver  cells  in  fatty  infiltration  appear 
distended  with  large  fat  globules.  The  cell  membranes  and  cell 
nuclei,  however,  are  well  preserved,  while  in  fatty  degeneration* 
only  small  fat  globules  or  "  fatty  abscesses  "  (Virchow)  appear  la 
place  of  the  cells. 

In  fatty  infiltration,  according  to  Perls,  the  water  content  of  the 
organ  sinks  below  50  per  cent.,  while  in  fatty  metamorphosis  it 
remains  normal  and  amounts  to  from  75  to  78  per  cent.  The 
specific  gravity  of  fatty  infiltrated  organs  is  also  correspondingly 
less.  Normal  human  livers  possess  a  specific  gravity  of  1,050  to 
1,065  (with  a  fat  content  of  3  to  6  per  cent.) ;  fatty  infiltrated  livers, 
1,001  to  1,035  (with  a  fat  content  of  from  15  to  39  per  cent.) ;  fatty- 
degenerated  livers,  as  high  as  1,056  (with  a  fat  content  of  from  3  to 
8  per  cent.) ;  and  livers  which  are  both  infiltrated  and  degenerated, 
1,009  to  1,012  (with  an  average  fat  content  of  28  per  cent.). 

As  degenerations  of  less  importance,  mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  mucoid  degeneration  of  the  fatty  tissue,  in  which  the 
latter  becomes  a  yellow  transparent  mass  resembling  gelatin,  and 
hyaline  degeneration  of  the  muscles,  as  an  indication  of  serious 
general  disease,  or  of  certain  primary  affections  of  the  muscle. 
Hyaline  degeneration  of  the  musculature,  in  which  the  diseased 
muscles  assume  a  cloudy,  dull,  iridescent  appearance,  like  fish  meat, 
is  also  considered  as  a  necrosis  (coagulation  necrosis). 

Amyloid  degeneration  is  rare  in  domestic  animals.  Isolated 
cases  of  amyloid  degeneration  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  were  demon- 
strated by  Babe  in  horses  and  cattle,  and  by  Kivolta,  Kabe  and  Kitt 
in  dogs.  In  birds,  amyloid  degeneration  appears  more  frequently. 
Boll  and  Friedberger  observed  amyloid  degeneration  in  pheasants ; 
Kitt  in  chickens.  In  an  epidemic  disease  among  pheasants,  Fried- 
berger found  extensive  amyloid  formations  in  the  liver,  spleen,  and 
intestines. 


258  GENERAL  PATHOLOGY   OF  FOOD   ANIMALS 


7.— Disturbances  of  the  Circulation. 

Local  variations  in  the  blood  content  usually  disappear  after 
death  by  bleeding.  They  are  conspicuous,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
case  of  natural  death,  and  in  animals  which  are  killed  during  the 
crisis  of  diseases.  A  different  blood  content  in  paired  organs 
(hypostasis)  is,  therefore,  an  important  criterion  in  the  recognition 
of  animals  which  have  died  a  natural  death  or  have  been  killed 
during  the  crisis  of  disease. 

Hemorrhagic  infarcts  arise  through  embolic  obstruction  of  the 
terminal  branches  of  the  arteries.  They  possess  a  round  or  wedge 
form  and  are  first  red,  then  yellow,  and  finally  white  in  color. 
Embolic  infarcts  are  of  importance  in  meat  inspection  only  when 
they  are  infected  and  consequently  exhibit  softening  (see  Pyemia). 

8.— Transudation. 

Transudation  appears  either  in  the  form  of  edema,  inside  the 
tissue,  or  of  hydrops  in  the  body  cavities.  Both  edema  and 
hydrops  occur  in  consequence  of  certain  disturbances  of  the  circu- 
lation, or  of  hydremia. 

Judgment. — Edematous  infiltrated  organs  are  to  be  treated  as 
unfit  for  food.  Dropsy  of  the  body  cavities,  on  the  other  hand,  has 
no  sanitary  significance. 

9.— Hemorrhages. 

By  the  term  hemorrhage  is  understood  an  escape  of  the  blood 
in  toto  from  the  tissues.  Distinction  is  made  between  slight,  limited 
hemorrhages  (petechise  or  ecchymoses)  or  more  extended  and  diffuse 
hemorrhages  (suggilation).  Petechise  may  occur  in  all  organs.  They 
are  usually  located  in  the  serous  and  mucous  membranes  ;  also  in  the 
•cutis  and  subcutis.  Like  the  parenchymatous  and  fatty  degenera- 
tions, they  are  an  important  concomitant  symptom  of  intoxications 
and  infectious  diseases,  and  are  to  be  given  special  consideration  iii 
the  determination  of  septic  diseases.  Snggilations,  as  a  rule,  are 
sequelae  of  mechanical  rupture  of  the  connections  between  tissues. 
Hemorrhagic  infiltration  of  the  musculature  is  very  frequent  iD 
consequence  of  bone  fractures. 

In  the  determination  of  the  latter  condition  in  slaughtered 
animals,  it  should  be  noted  that  slight  hemorrhages  on  the  external 


HEMORRHAGES  259 

surface  of  animals  which  have  been  skinned  should  lead  one  to 
make  incisions,  since  the  connective-tissue  strands  are  usually  infil- 
irated  as  far  as  the  subcutis  in  case  of  extensive,  deep  hemorrhages 
(Fischoder). 

Judging  "bloody  parts. — Bloody  meat  is  an  inferior  food  material. 
Butchers  attempt  to  remove  the  blood-coloring  matter  by  sprink- 
ling with  salt,  subsequent  washing  with  water,  and  the  application 
of  pressure  to  the  pieces  of  meat.  This  is  successful  in  the  outer 
layers,  but  not  in  the  deeper  portions. 

Determination  of  the  length  of  time  since  the  occurrence  of 
hemorrhages. — Experts  in  meat  inspection  are  frequently  called 

FIG.  47.  FIG.  48. 


Hemosiderin,  partly  in  nucleated  cells,  Hematoidin  crystals,  from  a  large, 
partly  free  in  the  tissue.  X  1,000  centrally  softened  blood  extravasa- 
diameters  (Thoma).  tipn  of  the  peritoneal  cavity.  X  250 

diameters  (Thoma). 

upon  10  render  an  opinion  as  to  the  age  of  hemorrhages,  when 
they  are  so  extensive  that  the  meat  is  considerably  depreciated  in 
value.  According  to  Diirck,  in  determining  the  age  of  hemorrhages, 
we  may  make  use  of  the  changes  which  occur  in  the  red-blood 
corpuscles,  and  the  red-blood  coloring  material  in  extravasations. 
Diirck  made  his  determinations  in  hemorrhages  artificially  produced 
in  the  brain,  and  observed,  in  the  first  place,  leaching  and  swelling 
of  the  red-blood  corpuscles.  The  first  change  is  manifested  from 
the  second  day  by  etiolation,  to  the  extent  of  complete  transparency. 
The  swelling  becomes  manifest  when  the  flat,  biconcave  corpuscles 
gradually  become  spherical.  From  the  fifth  day  a  shrinking  begins, 
^vhich  is  ushered  in  by  the  appearance  of  minute  impressions  in  the 
periphery  of  the  blood  corpuscles.  One  portion  of  the  colorless 


260  GENEKAL   PATHOLOGY   OF   FOOD   ANIMALS 

stroma  may  remain  in  this  condition  for  sixty  days  or  more.  In 
another  part,  however,  shrinking  is  more  extensive ;  and  then  in 
from  six  to  eight  days,  either  irregular  polygonal  and  stellate  or 
scutellate  and  cup-shaped  forms  are  observed.  Concomitantly,  a 
certain  comparatively  small  number  of  red-blood  corpuscles  are 
surrounded  by  contractile  cells  from  the  third  day  on. 

Up  to  the  sixth  day,  hemoglobin  penetrates  uniformly  the 
surrounding  tissue,  and  gives  it  a  light-brown  color.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  sixth  and  beginning  of  the  seventh  day,  a  modification 
of  the  red-blood  coloring  matter  occurs,  which  has  been  described 
by  Neumann  as  "hemosiderin."  The  hemosiderin  at  first  penetrates 
the  whole  tissue  in  a  diffuse  manner  (extensive  Berlin-blue  colora- 
tion after  application  of  iron  reaction).  After  the  tenth  day,  it  is 
restricted  more  and  more  to  the  contractile  cells,  and  after  the 
twelfth  day  is  found  exclusively  in  them.  After  twelve  days  the 
pigment,  previously  dissolved  in  the  plasma  of  the  white-blood 
corpuscles,  becomes  granular.  The  granulations  are  at  first  hard, 
but  disintegrate  into  finer  and  finer  granules  from  the  eighteenth  to 
the  twenty-fifth  day.  Simultaneously,  the  cells  which  inclose  the 
granules  disintegrate  so  that  the  first  free  pigment  granules  are 
seen  in  the  tissue  after  the  eighteenth  day.  Toward  the  sixtieth 
day,  one  finds  in  the  tissues  only  a  rather  finely  granular  pigment, 
free  from  iron.  Furthermore,  pigment  crystals  may  be  formed  under 
certain  conditions  not  clearly  understood. 

10.— Necrosis. 

Necrosis  may  appear  in  all  the  tissues.  It  has  significance  in 
meat  inspection,  however,  only  in  those  parts  of  the  animal  body 
which  are  in  direct  contact  with  the  outside  world  ;  for  the  bacteria 
of  decomposition,  which  are  always  present  in  atmospheric  air,  may 
settle  upon  necrotic  tissues  and  cause  pathological  changes  (see 
Sapremia).  Furthermore,  necrotic  tissues  do  not  offer  protection 
against  pathogenic  bacteria,  as  does  living  tissue,  for  the  reason  that 
the  former  may  be  penetrated  by  pathogenic  micro-organisms. 
Among  the  pathogenic  bacteria,  those  which  cause  inflammation 
and  suppuration  have  a  ubiquitous  distribution,  similar  to  the 
bacteria  of  decomposition.  Consequently,  with  necrosis  of  the 
skin,  stomach  wall,  intestinal  wall,  uterus,  etc.,  there  is  regularly 
associated  an  inflammatory  condition  of  the  neighboring  tissue, 
under  certain  circumstances,  also  pyemia  and  septicemia. 


INFLAMMATIONS  261 


11.— Inflammations. 

Inflammatory  processes  in  the  animal  body  must,  from  the 
-standpoint  of  meat  inspection,  be  judged  according  to  their  kind 
and  degree  as  well  as  according  to  the  affected  organ.  We  distinguish 
productive,  serous,  purulent,  croupous,  diphtheritic,  hemorrhagic 
and  putrid  inflammations.  These  forms  of  inflammation  may  occur 
either  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  mucous  or  serous  membranes,  or 
in  the  interior  of  the  tissues.  Superficial  inflammations  of  the 
mucous  membranes  are  characterized  as  catarrh,  and  a  distinction 
is  made  again  between  desquamative,  serous,  mucous  and  sup- 
purative  catarrh,  and  mixed  forms.  In  inflammations  of  tissue, 
in  so  far  as  glandular  organs  are  concerned,  distinction  is  made 
between  parenchymatous  and  interstitial  inflammation,  according 
as  the  specific  glandular  substance  or  the  supporting  tissue  is 
diseased. 

The  deciding  factor  for  the  sanitary  judgment  of  inflammations 
is  their  etiology.  Most  inflammations  are  produced  by  bacteria.  We 
recognize,  however,  inflammations  which  are  caused  by  mechanical 
irritation,  such  as  productive  inflammations  on  the  serous  membranes, 
and  verminous  pneumonia;  also  inflammations  caused  by  thermic 
irritation  (scalds,  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  or  excessive  cold)  ;  and 
by  chemical  irritation  (caustic  and  drastic  reagents). 

All  inflammations  which  arise  in  consequence  of  physical  or 
chemical  irritation  possess,  in  and  of  themselves,  only  a  slight 
significance  in  meat  inspection,  for  they  are  local,  and  heal  after 
the  disappearance  of  the  irritation.  Inflammations  which  are 
caused  by  bacteria,  on  the  other  hand,  may  give  rise  to  general 
diseases,  and  may  give  a  worthless  or  unhealthful  character,  not 
only  to  the  affected  organs,  but  also  to  all  other  parts  of  the  body. 
It  is  to  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  secondary  infectious  pro- 
cesses may  develop  in  lesions  which.arise  from  physical  or  chemical 
irritations. 

The  following  details  are  given  with  reference  to  the  different 
forms  of  inflammation  : 

(a)  Productive  Inflammations. 

Nature. — By  the  term  productive  inflammation,  we  understand 
inflammations  which  are  accompanied  with  the  formation  of  new 
tissue.  Of  special  interest  for  meat  inspectors  are  the  new  forma- 
tions of  connective  tissue  in  the  interstitial  tissues  of  glandular 


262  GEBERAL  PATHOLOGY   OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

organs,  and  in  the  connective-tissue  substratum  of  serous  membrane* 
under  the  influence  of  moderate  but  continuous  irritation  (cirrhosis 
of  the  liver,  interstitial  nephritis,  pleuritis,  perihepatitis,  peritonitis 
fibrosa,  etc.). 

Judgment. — Productive  inflammations  possess  merely  a  local 
significance.  In  a  mild  form  they  are  insignificant.  Excessive 
interstitial  inflammation,  however,  may  render  organs  unfit,  or 
highly  unfit,  for  food,  for  it  is  accompanied  by  the  destruction 
of  those  elements  which  give  the  organs  in  question  their  character 
and  value  as  food  material. 

(b)   Serous   Inflammation. 

Occurrence. — This  occurs  either  as  inflammatory  edema  in  the 
tissues,  or  as  inflammation  of  the  serous  membranes,  with  a  thin,, 
slightly  clouded  exudate.  Inflammatory  edema  may  be  caused  by 
the  bacteria  of  suppuration,  and  also  by  other  micro-organisms  (see 
"Pyemia"  and  " Malignant  Edema").  Serous  inflammation  of  the 
lining  membranes  of  the  body  cavity  is  either  a  phenomenon  con- 
comitant with  the  inflammatory  process  in  organs  in  the  cavities 
in  question  (for  example,  pleuritis  as  a  sequela  to  pneumonia),  and, 
therefore,  without  primary  significance,  or  a  primary  infection,  to- 
be  judged  by  itself. 

Judgment. — The  decision  with  regard  to  primary  serous  inflam- 
mation varies.  In  case  of  a  serous  inflammation  in  closed  cavities 
which  do  not  communicate  with  the  outside  world  (as,  for  example, 
in  non-traumatic  meningitis,  tendo-vaginitis  and  arthritis  of  domes- 
tic animals),  the  process,  according  to  previous  experience,  remains 
localized  in  the  affected  organ.  In  case  of  a  previous  wound, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  whether  the  inflammation 
possesses  a  septic  character  (see  "Septicemia"). 

Serous,  as  well  as  sero-mucous,  catarrhs  are  local  affections 
which,  at  most,  may  destroy  the  character  of  the  mucous  membranes, 
in  so  far  as  these  are  concern  3(1  as  food  material. 

The  exudation  in  traumatic  serous  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membranes  of  the  body  cavity  frequently  shows,  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  secondary  pleuritis,  an  admixture  of  fibrin  in  the  form  of 
yellow  flakes  or  plates,  which  become  attached  to  the  surface  of  the 
serous  membranes,  and  may  easily  be  removed  from  them  (sero— 
fibrinous  inflammation). 


INFLAMMATIONS  263 

(c)  Purulent  Inflammation. 

Course. — Purulent  inflammation,  as  a  rule,  runs  a  local  course. 
Exceptionally,  it  may  become  generalized. 

Judgment. — An  organ  containing  pus  pockets  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  unwholesome  food  material ;  likewise,  the  meat  of  animals 
which  have  suffered  from  generalized  suppurative  processes.  For 
further  details,  see  under  "  Pyemia." 

(d)  Croupous  and  Diphtheritic  Inflammation. 

Diagnosis. — It  should  first  be  stated  that,  anatomically,  both 
these  forms  of  inflammation  occur  only  on  mucous  membranes. 
They  are  essentially  distinct  from  one  another.  In  croupous 
inflammation,  a  coagulable  exudation  is  deposited  on  the  surface, 
and  the  epithelium  disappears.  In  diphtheritic  inflammation,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  fibrinous  exudation  is  formed  in  the  mucous 
membrane  itself  with  the  necrosis  of  the  latter.  The  croupous 
exudation,  from  the  manner  of  its  origin,  may  be  removed  from 
its  substratum  without  destroying  the  tissue  deeper  than  the 
epithelium,  while  the  diphtheritic  exudation  is  firmly  united  with 
its  substratum,  and,  after  being  thrown  off,  naturally  leaves  a 
deeper  scar,  or  ulcer. 

Occurrence  and  judgment. — Croupous  and  diphtheritic  inflamma- 
tions are  most  frequently  observed  in  man  in  the  form  of  the  disease 
known  as  diphtheria.  We  know  of  no  disease  of  domestic  animals 
which  is  identical  with  this  affection  of  man.  Croupous  and 
diphtheritic  inflammations,  however,  are  frequently  observed  in 
cattle.  In  this  animal,  diphtheritic  and  croupous  inflammation 
accompany,  chiefly,  two  infectious  diseases  :  Rinderpest  and  mal- 
ignant catarrhal  fever.  Furthermore,  a  diphtheritic  inflammation 
may  occur  in  the  uterus,  and  it  forms  here  a  process  which  is  to  be 
judged  very  cautiously,  whether  before  or  after  death  (see  "  Septi- 
cemia  ").  In  the  case  of  rinderpest  and  malignant  catarrhal  fever, 
on  the  other  hand, nothing  is  known  concerning  the  injurious  effects 
of  eating  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  suffered  from  these 
diseases. 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  of  diphtheritic  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  urinary  passages,  which  is  caused  by 
decomposition  of  the  urine  within  the  efferent  urinary  ducts.  This 
diphtheritic  inflammation  is'also  to  be  judged  favorably  with  regard 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGY   OF  FOOD   ANIMALS 

to  the  availability  of  the  meat  for  food,  since,  according  to  all  our 
experience,  it  does  not  produce  injurious  effects  upon  the  health  of 
those  consuming  it  (compare  "  Pjelo-nephritis  "). 

(e)  Hemorrhagic  Inflammation.. 

Nature. — In  hernorrhagic  inflammation,  there  is  an  admixture 
of  numerous  red  blood  corpuscles  to  the  exudation  (red  coloration). 
Hemorrhagic  inflammation  is  to  be  considered  a  symptom  of  a  very 
severe  irritation  (great  alteration  of  the  capillary  walls).  It  readily 
leads  to  necrosis. 

Judgment. — The  etiology  of  hemorrhagic  inflammation  is  not 
simple.  Consequently,  general  propositions  for  the  sanitary  judg 
inent  of  hemorrhagic  inflammation  can  not  be  laid  down.  We  merely 
know  from  experience  that  the  meat  is  harmless  in  a  large  class 
of  diseases  which  are  commonly  accompanied  with  hemorrhagic 
inflammation,  as  in  pneumonia  of  horses  (hemorrhagic  pneumonia), 
in  hemorrhagic  septicemia  (hemorrhagic  enteritis),  in  swine  erysipe- 
las (hemorrhagic  enteritis,  nephritis,  lymphadenitis),  and  in  urticaria 
of  hogs  (hemorrhagic  dermatitis).  In  other  diseases,  however,  such 
as  petechial  fever  in  horses,  and  certain  not  well  understood  forms 
of  hemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  intestines  in  cattle,  the  meat 
has  produced  harmful  effects  (see  "Septicemia  "  and  "Meat  Intoxi- 
cation"). 

(f)  Inflammations  with  Putrid  Exudations. 

These  inflammations  arise  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of 
putrefactive  bacteria  in  the  products  of  serous,  suppurative,  or 
necrotic  inflammations.  For  further  details  on  this  subject,  see 
"Sapremia"  and  "Septicemia." 

(g)  Parenchymatous  and  Interstitial  Inflammations. 

These  inflammations  take  their  names  from  their  different 
positions  in  glandular  organs.  Parenchymatous  inflammations  affect 
the  epithelial  elements ;  interstitial  inflammations,  on  the  other 
hand,  affect  the  supporting  tissue.  Interstitial  inflammation  is,  as 
a  rule,  productive. 

Judgment. — Parenchymatous  inflammations  are  to  be  judged 
according  to  their  causes.  As  a  rule,  however,  parenchymatous 
inflammations  are  symptoms  of  certain  intoxications  and  infections, 
and  possess,  therefore,  only  a  diagnostic  significance.  The  judgment 


TUMORS  265 

of    interstitial    inflammations    corresponds    to   that   of    productive 
inflammations. 

12.— Tumors. 

Tumors  are  classified,  clinically  and  pathologico-anatomically, 
as  benign  and  malignant. 

(a)  Benign  Tumors. 

Benign  tumors,  in  their  sanitary  relationship,  possess  only  a 
miuor  importance  as  strictly  local  affections.  Organs  which  are 
affected  with  benign  tumors  may  be  put  in  a  marketable  condition 
by  removal  of  the  neoplasm,  since  benign  tumors  do  not  alter 
the  internal  character  of  the  organs  except  in  their  immediate 
neighborhood. 

(b)  Malignant  Tumors. 

Malignant  tumors,  sarcoma  and  carcinoma,  have  a  decided 
tendency  to  enlarge  at  the  expense  of  the  affected  organs.  They 
displace  the  normal  tissue  by  their  rapid  local  growth,  or  penetrate 
it  diffusely  (infiltration),  and,  in  addition,  form  metastases  in  other 
organs. 

Occurrence. — Malignant  neoplasms  occur  primarily  in  all  the 
vital  organs  and  upon  the  general  integument.  Sarcomata,  more- 
over, may  occur  in  the  skeleton.  According  to  Pouchet  and  Metz, 
the  scapular  cartilage  is  characterized  as  the  usual  location  for  the 
melano-sarcomata,  which  occur  so  frequently  in  white  horses.  During 
the  process  of  metastasis,  sarcomata  and  carcinomata  may  become 
spread  throughout  all  parts  of  the  animal  body.  In  the  latter  case, 
we  speak  of  generalized  sarcornatosis  or  carcinomatosis. 

Diagnosis. — The  recognition  and  differentiation  of  malignant 
tumors  belong  to  the  rudiments  of  general  pathology,  and  may, 
therefore,  be  omitted  here.  It  should  be  simply  noted  that  sarco- 
mata in  the  lymphatic  glands  are  distinguished  from  tubercular 
alterations  by  the  fact  that  sarcomata  permeate  the  lymph  glands 
in  the  form  of  a  tubercle,  or  in  a  diffuse  manner,  and  show  caseation, 
but  no  calcification;  while  the  presence  of  small  tubercles,  which 
regularly  become  casefied  in  the  center,  and  later  become  calcified, 
is  characteristic  of  tuberculosis. 


GENERAL   PATHOLOGY   OF   FOOD   ANIMALS 

Judgment. — According  to  the  present  status  of  our  knowledge, 
we  must  consider  meat,  or  individual  organs,  which  inclose  malig- 
nant tumors,  as  a  spoiled  food  material.  Despite  the  fact  that 
sarcomata  and  carcinomata  occur  in  man,  such  meat  is  not  dangerous 
to  health,  for  the  reason  that,  according  to  all  experiments,  the 
transmission  of  these  tumors  by  means  of  the  digestive  apparatus 
is  impossible.  Among  hundreds  of  experiments  which  have  already 
been  made,  it  has  only  been  possible,  in  a  few  isolated  cases,  to 
transmit  cancer  from  animal  to  animal  by  intraperitoneal  injection 
(Wehr,  Hanau,  et  al.)t  and  to  inoculate  with  fibre-sarcomata  (Eisels- 
berg).  The  conditions  surrounding  these  cases  must  have  been 
peculiar,  for  the  investigators  succeeded  only  once  in  transmitting 
the  disease.  Furthermore,  the  possibility  of  intraperitoneal  trans- 
mission proves  nothing  with  regard  to  the  transmissibility  of  the 
disease  through  the  alimentary  tract. 

If  malignant  neomorphs  are  confined  merely  to  individual 
parts  of  an  organ,  or  of  the  meat — for  example,  to  certain  bones 
(osteo-sarcoma),  or  to  lymph  glands  (lympho-sarcomatosis) — the 
meat  may  be  offered  for  sale  after  careful  removal  of  the  diseased 
parts.  If  the  meat  is  otherwise  unchanged,  there  is  no  reason  for 
prohibiting  its  sale. 

In  cases  in  which  the  whole  musculature,  all  the  bones  and 
intermuscular  lymph  glands  are  permeated  with  metastases,  the 
sale  of  the  meat  must  be  absolutely  prohibited  as  highly  unfit  for 
food.  A  similar  course  should  be  adopted  in  the  case  of  organs 
which  show  a  few  large,  or  numerous  small,  malignant  tumors. 

Formerly,  as  stated  by  Grams,  a  common  and  fundamental 
mistake  was  made  in  judging  metastatic  formations  of  malignant 
tumors.  They  were  placed  upon  the  same  basis  with  the  generali- 
zation of  infectious  processes :  for  example,  tuberculosis ;  and  the 
generalization  of  the  tumors  was  considered  as  already  present,  if 
the  appearance  of  wide  distribution  was  seen  merely  in  the  entrails. 
This  point  of  view  is  not  justified,  since  the  tubercle  bacilli,  which 
are  carried  in  the  circulation,  can  not  be  readily  demonstrated  as 
such  in  the  musculature.  In  the  vital  organs,  however,  they  produce 
such  striking  changes  as  to  furnish  valuable  diagnostic  aid  in  the 
determination  of  generalization.  In  malignant  tumors,  on  the  other 
hand,  in  the  case  of  generalization,  we  have  to  do  with  the  transpor- 
tation of  tissue  elements  which  develop  rapidly,  and  upon  dissection 
of  animals  may  be  easily  found  in  the  musculature,  and  especially 
in  the  intermuscular  lymph  glands. 


INFECTIOUS   GRANULATIONS  267 


13.— Infectious  Granulations. 

Infectious  granulations  are  caused  by  specific  plant  organisms. 
To  the  infectious  tumors  of  domestic  animals  belong  also  the 
neomorphs  of  glanders,  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis  and  botryo- 
mycosis.  For  further  details,  see  "Infectious  Diseases." 

14.— Animal  Parasites. 

The  number  of  animal  parasites  in  domestic  animals  is  exceed- 
ingly large.  Only  a  few  organs  are  entirely  free  from  them.  The 
others  are  so  regularly  infested  with  worms  that  their  presence  may 
be  considered  as  almost  a  normal  condition  ;  as,  for  example,  the 
presence  of  fluke  worms  in  the  liver  of  sheep  and  cattle,  and  of 
Strongylidae  in  the  lungs  of  the  hog. 

Some  of  these  parasites  are  harmless  guests,  while  others 
produce  extensive  changes  in  the  affected  parts,  and,  under  certain 
conditions,  may  cause  a  more  or  less  serious  disturbance  of  the 
general  health. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  the  parasites  of  domestic  animals 
are  harmless  for  man.  Domestic  animals,  however,  harbor  dangerous 
enemies  of  man,  particularly  trichinae  and  cysticerci  (compare  the 
chapter  on  invasion  diseases)- 


VIII. 
ESPECIALLY  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES. 


It  is  not  in  the  province  of  a  text-book  on  meat  inspection  to 
discuss  in  detail  all  organic  diseases.  We  have  all  the  more  reason 
for  omitting  such  a  detailed  consideration  here,  since  the  principles 
of  sanitary  judgment  of  the  different  pathological  processes  in  gen- 
eral are  mentioned  in  the  discussion  of  general  pathology  (Chapter 
VII).  In  the  following  discussion,  therefore,  only  those  organic 
diseases  will  be  mentioned  which  are  of  special  interest  in  any 
particular  way  (variation  from  the  typical  structure,  or  of  value  in 
differential  diagnosis).  Parasites  and  infectious  granulations  will 
~be  mentioned  only  incidentally,  for  the  reason  that  a  comparative 
and  exhaustive  presentation  of  those  subjects  is  given  under  general 
-diseases. 

1. — General  Integument. 

(a)  Cutis. 

SOLUTIONS  OF  CONTINUITY. — As  a  rule,  skin  wounds  heal  rapidly. 
They  offer  favorable  conditions  for  infection  only  until  granulation 
begins.  For  granulations  are  centrifugal  processes  ;  they  furnish 
a  mechanical  protection  against  the  penetration  and  resorption  of 
foreign  material.  Granulating  wounds  are,  therefore,  to  be  looked 
upon  as  unimportant  alterations,  provided  that  the  granulations 
extend  uniformly  over  the  surface  of  the  wound,  and  communication 
between  the  deeper-lying  parts  and  the  outside  world  is  not  inter- 
rupted by  the  granulations.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  necessary  to 
determine  whether  a  retention  of  the  secretion  and  its  possible 
sequelae  are  present. 

EBYTHBISMS. — Erythrisms  of  the  cutis  may  be  due  to  hemor- 
rhages, inflammation,  or  hypostases  (death  marks).  Active  hyper- 
emia  of  the  skin  disappears  completely  after  death.  The  differen- 
tiation of  the  first-named  three  kinds  of  erythrism  offers  no  difficulty. 

268 


GENERAL  INTEGUMENT  269 

In  hemorrhages,  blood  or  blood  corpuscles  are  found  in  the  inter- 
stices of  the  tissue.  They  occasion  no  conspicuous  swelling,  and 
can  not  be  removed  by  pressure  with  the  finger.  In  inflammation 
there  are  accumulations  of  blood  in  the  capillaries,  and  a  swelling 
arises  with  exudation.  Death  marks  are  found  only  in  the  deeper 
lying  parts  of  the  body.  They  are  bluish-red,  and  readily  disappear 
on  pressure  with  the  finger,  since  the  blood  is  in  the  capillaries,  and 
capillary  blood  does  not  coagulate.  It  is  only  where  imbibition  has 
already  begun  that  the  erythrism  can  not  be  made  to  disappear  on 
pressure.  As  the  name  signifies,  death  marks  are  a  sign  of  death, 
and,  in  fact,  of  natural  death.  In  connection  with  them,  there  is 
simultaneously  a  large  blood  content  of  the  subcutis  (Klein). 

In  differential  diagnosis  the  erythrisms  of  the  skin  of  the  hog 
are  especially  important  (see  "  Swine  Erysipelas  "). 

OTHER  ALTERATIONS. — In  inspecting  calves,  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  condition  of  the  skin  in  the  region  of  the  navel 
(inflammatory  alterations  in  connection  with  umbilical  infection). 
In  the  hog,  the  following  alterations  of  the  skin  deserve  special 
mention :  Thickening  of  the  connective  tissue  frame-work  of  the 
cutis  into  a  cartilage-like  condition  in  boars  (compare  page  167); 
black  pigmentation  of  the  cutis  and  of  the  panniculus  adiposus  on 
the  ventral  side ;  sooty  mange  of  young  pigs ;  and  the  so-called 
granular  eruption. 

Black  pigmentation  of  belly  bacon. — Female,  male  and  castrated 
hogs,  especially  if  they  are  black  haired,  occasionally  possess  in  the 
panniculus  adiposus,  in  the  under  part  of  the  abdomen,  numerous 
black,  irregular,  dendritically  or  venously  branched  spots,  which 
were  described  by  Saake  in  1878,  and  recently  by  de  Jong. 
According  to  de  Jong,  the  spots  are  due  to  pigment  deposits  which 
are  distributed  in  masses,  and  have  their  seat  in  the  connective- 
tissue  trabeculae  of  the  supporting  substance  of  fat  tissue,  and 
not  'in  the  fat  cells.  The  pigment  is  granular,  and  under  slight 
magnification  shows  black,  blackish-brown,  brown,  reddish  or  red 
coloration.  It  is  insoluble  in  hot  water,  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform 
and  bisulphid  of  carbon,  and  is  not  changed  by  sulphuric  acid. 
De  Jong  could  not  obtain  an  iron  reaction.  This,  however,  does 
not  militate  against  the  opinion  entertained  by  the  author,  that  the 
black  pigmentation  of  belly  bacon  is  a  consequence  of  hemorrhage, 
since  the  remainder  of  the  hemorrhage  loses  its  iron  after  a  certain 
time  (see  page  259).  In  favor  of  the  hematogenous  origin  of  the 


270  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

pigment  iii  question,  we  have  the  seat  of  the  pigment  (frequent 
liability  of  bruising),  and  the  fact,  which  was  demonstrated  by 
Blanc,  that  the  pigment  accumulates,  especially  in  the  region  of 
the  blood  vessels. 

It  should  be  noted  that  Tiircks  observed  black  pigmentation  of 
belly  bacon  in  six  black  hogs  which  came  from  the  same  sty. 

Judgment. — The  abnormal  color  makes  belly  bacon  affected 
•with  this  pigment  unfit  for  food,  and  it  should  be  sold  only  under 
declaration. 

Sooty  mange  of  young  pigs. — By  this  term  is  understood  a 
scab-like  eczema  of  acute  or  chronic  form  in  young  hogs.  In 
sooty  mange  an  eruption  of  vesicles  is  observed,  which  are  filled 
with  pus,  and  burst.  In  this  way  a  dark,  pitchy  scab  is  formed 
(pitchy  mange).  Sooty  mange  is  merely  a  symptom  of  internal 
disease.  The  nature  of  the  latter  determines  the  course  of  action 
with  regard  to  the  meat  of  hogs  which  are  affected  with  sooty 
mange. 

Granular  eruption  (Zschokke). — Granular  eruption  is  character- 
ized by  the  presence  in  the  cutis  of  roundish  tubercles  of  various 
colors,  and  varying  in  size  from  that  of  hemp  seed  to  that  of  peas 
(Fig.  49).  The  tubercles  are  firm  but  yielding.  Curled  hairs  are 
to  be  seen  through  the  apices  of  the  tubercles.  The  hairs  lie  in  a 
dark,  oleaceous,  tallow-like  mass.  The  grain-like  or  shot-like 
tubercles,  from  which  Zschokke  named  the  disease,  are  especially 
numerous  in  the  cutis  of  the  croup,  sides  of  the  breast,  and  ears. 
Opinions  are  divided  on  the  nature  of  the  disease.  Kitt  considers 
the  tubercles  as  atheromata  of  a  minute  size.  Johne  and  the 
author  consider  them  as  multiple  dermoid  cysts,  and  Lungershausen, 
as  arrested  development  (hypotrichosis).  Finally,  Zschokke  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  granular  eruption  represents  an  infectious 
process  (conical  proliferation  of  the  epidermis  inwardly,  in  conse- 
quence of  an  infection  by  micrococci). 

According  to  the  careful  investigations  of  Olt,  none  of  these 
explanations  is  satisfactory.  Olt  demonstrated,  in  the  first  place, 
that  granular  eruption  is  a  skin  disease  of  progressive  character ; 
that  the  diseased  parts  of  the  skin  are  sharply  delimited,  and 
exhibit  large  cysts  in  the  middle  and  smaller  ones  at  the  periphery. 
Recently  formed  tubercles,  recognizable  by  the  naked  eye,  are  of 
minute  size,  pale-yellow,  or  often  almost  white.  By  further  growth 
in  a  superficial  position,  the  tubercles  acquire  the  sheen  of  dull 


GENERAL   INTEGUMENT 


271 


pearls.     Later,  they  become  russet-red,  yellowish -brown  to  brown, 
and  finally  blue-black,  with  a  metallic  luster.     The  largest  vesicles 


FIG.  49. 


Granular  eruption  of  the  hog  after  removal  of  the  normal  bristles.     In  some  of  th« 
tubercles  coiled  and  protruding  bristles  are  seen. 

are  of  the  size  of  mustard  seeds,  or,  rarely,  as  large  as  peas.    The 
vesicles  are  filled  with  a  cloudy,  watery  fluid,  and  usually  contain 

FIG.  50. 


Granular  eruption  of  the  hog.     Cross-section  of  a  convoluted  gland  (after  Olt). 
a,  coccidia  surrounded  with  shells  and  lying  between  the  disintegrated  epithelia, 

one,  or,  according  to  circumstances,  two  or  three,  rarely  more, 
bristles.  Furthermore,  Olt  discovered  from  serial  sections  that  the 
pathological  process  arises  in  the  sweat  glands,  and  is  caused  by 


272  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

coccidia,  which  are  parasitic  in  the  epithelia  of  the  sweat  glands, 
and  cause  a  proliferation  of  the  epithelial  layer  (spiradenitis  cocdd- 
iosa).  The  epithelial  proliferation  leads  to  inhibition  of  the  secretion, 
and  to  the  formation  of  a  cyst.  The  bristles'  come  to  lie  in  the  cysts, 
either  through  fusion  of  the  hair  follicles  with  the  cysts,  or  by 
penetration  of  developing  bristles  into  the  primary  cysts  of  the 
convoluted  glands.  The  fully  developed  coccidia  have  a  membrane, 
are  ovate,  .034  mm.  long,  .0275  mm.  wide,  and,  therefore,  somewhat 
thicker  than  Coccidium  oviforme  (Fig.  50).  They  are  distinguished 
by  their  brown  color,  wherefore  Olt  gave  them  the  name,  Coccidium 
fuscum.  The  youngest  forms  are  naked,  and  are  found  in  the- 
epithelia  as  brown,  granulated  masses  of  protoplasm.  Later,  by 
the  destruction  of  the  epithelial  cells,  the  young  forms  become  free, 
and  wander  into  the  interior  of  the  glands,  aud  transform  themselves 
in  the  contents  of  the  glands  with  different  transition  stages  into 
forms  surrounded  by  membranes. 

Judgment. — Granular  eruption  is  a  harmless  local  affection  of 
the  skin,  which  requires  merely  the  removal  of  the  diseased  parts 
of  the  skin  before  sale. 

Finally,  in  the  study  of  the  skin  the  following  diseases  are  to  be- 
considered  : 

(a)  In    the    horse,   hemorrhages  in    petechial   fever  (morbus^ 
maculosus),  sarcomata,  melano-sarcomata  in  white  horses ;  botryo- 
mycomata ;   glanderous  tubercles,   glanderous   ulcers,   as  well  as- 
sarcoptic  and  dermacoptic  mange  (the  latter  merely  in  relation  to 
veterinary  police). 

(b)  In  cattle,  actino mycosis,  aphtha,  and  their  sequelae. 

(c)  In  sheep,  scab. 

(d)  In  the  hog,  aphtha  and  bleeding  erosions,  especially  in  the 
hoof. 

In  birds,  especially  chickens,  turkeys  and  pigeons,  there  is  ob» 
served  an  infectious  alteration  of  the  skin  (contagious  epithelioma.) 

(b)  Subcutis. 

SUBCUTANEOUS  FAT  TISSUE. — The  subcutis  connective  tissue  i* 
one  of  the  most  important  depositories  of  fat.  Consequently,  in  fat- 
tened animals,  it  is  transformed  into  a  strongly  developed  tissue. 
In  emaciated  animals,  on  the  contrary,  a  yellow  serous  infiltrated 
connective  tissue  is  found  in  the  place  of  the  fat  tissue. 

EDEMA. — In  the  subcutis  of  the  lower-lying  regions  of  the  body- 
are  observed  the  first  consequences  of  serious  hydremia,  as  well  a* 


DIGESTIVE    APPARATUS  273 

of  heart  disease  (endocarditis  and  pericarditis),  in  the  form  of  exten- 
sive transudations  (anasarca).  Moreover,  in  the  subcutis  of  cattle, 
restricted  edema  may  be  developed  around  the  larvae  of  oestrus. 

URINOCJS  INFILTRATION  AND  PHLEGMON.— Urinous  infiltration  and 
phlegmon  are  essentially  different  from  edema.  Urinous  infiltra- 
tion arises  from  lesions  of  the  urinary  ducts.  It  is  to  be  recognized 
by  the  urinous  odor  of  the  infiltrate  and  the  tendency  of  the 
infiltrated  parts  to  necrosis.  Phlegmon  is  a  serous,  purulent  or 
hemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  subcutis,  which,  in  limited  exten- 
sion, has  no  sanitary  significance.  It  is  quite  otherwise  with 
malignant  edema  and  black  leg  (see  these  subjects). 

OTHER  ALTERATIONS. — In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  alter- 
ations, we  may  have  in  the  subcutis  tuberculosis  actinomycomata, 
botryomycotic  alterations,  also  blood  effusions  (simple  and  specific 
[anthrax,  morbus  maculosus])  and  emphysema  of  mechanical  origin. 

In  the  subcutis  and  intermuscular  tissue  of  fowls,  mites  (Cyto- 
dites  nudus  and  Laminosioptes  cysticola)  are  frequently  found.  They 
either  live  in  a  free  condition,  or  are  located  in  simple  connective- 
tissue  capsules  of  only  J  to  1  mm.  in  diameter,  which  possess  a 
flattened  form  ind  are  frequently  incrusted  with  lime  salts. 

Judgment. — The  number  of  mites  in  the  connective  tissue  may 
be  so  great  that  the  meat  must  be  considered  as  highly  unfit  for 
food.  A  few  specimens  of  the  mites  are  to  be  considered  as 
unimportant,  in  view  of  the  frequency  of  their  occurrence.  In 
infestation  of  medium  extent,  the  sale  of  the  meat  may  be  permitted 
under  declaration  as  an  inferior  food  material. 

2.— Digestive  Apparatus. 

(a)  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Mouth  and  Tongue. 

Inflammation  and  infectious  granulations  occur  most  frequently 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  month  and  tongue  of  food  animals. 

INFLAMMATIONS.— The  inflammations  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  mouth  cavity  and  tongue,  as  well  as  inflammations  of  the  anterior 
parts  of  the  alimentary  tract,  are  of  interest  on  account  of  their 
varying  etiology.  As  a  rule,  they  are  caused  : 

1.  By  traumata  or  caustic  materials,  which  are  administered  to 
the  animals  as  medicines,  or  are  ingested  by  them  with  their  food. 


274 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


2.  By  specific  toxines  (aphtha,  Fig.  51 ;  rinderpest,  scurvy, 
and  diphtheria  of  calves  and  of  fowls).  Moreover,  an  ulcerous 
stomatitis  appears  as  a  general  phenomenon  in  metal  poisoning, 
especially  in  mercurial  poisoning.  In  so-called  diphtheria  of  calves 
and  fowls,  croupous  and  diphtheritic  inflammations  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth  and  pharynx  form  the  most  important 
symptom  of  the  disease  (see  these  diseases).  In  septicemia,  large 
edematous  swellings  of  the  tongue  are  observed.  The  tongue  may 

FIG.  51. 


Aphtha.     Tip  of  beef  tongue, 
a,  Aphtha;  b,  epithelial  erosion  after  bursting  of  the  aphtha. 

be  enlarged  to  three  or  four  times  its  natural  size.  Furthermore, 
a  considerable  enlargement  and  prolapsus  of  the  tongue  may  occur 
in  consequence  of  phlegmonous  stomatitis. 

Judgment. — In  caustic  irritation  of  the  anterior  part  of  the 
alimentary  tract,  if  death  does  not  follow  at  once,  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  if  secondary  processes  have  arisen  from  the  corroded 
or  necrotic  parts  of  the  mucous  membrane ;  for  it  is  only  such 
secondary  processes,  and  not  the  poisoning  itself,  which  renders 
the  meat  dangerous.  The  other  inflammations  of  the  oral  cavity 
are  without  independent  significance  (for  judgment,  see  under  the, 
different  diseases  in  question). 


DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS 


275 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  — Iii  cattle,  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth 
cavity  and  organs  lying  in  it  are  frequently  the  seat  of  actinomycotic 
alterations.  They  appear  either  as  superficial  lesions,  resembling 
erosions  of  the  mucous  membrane,  or  in  the  form  of  granules  and 
tubercles  in  and  upon  the  mucous  membrane.  Superficial  foci  may 
be  confused  with  the  sequelae  of  aphtha.  The  former  are  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  by  the  fact  that  the  floor  of  the  ulcers, 

FIG.  52. 


A,  Beef  tongue  with  typical  actinomycotic  affection  (a)  ;   It,  section  through  the 
primary  focus  (after  Henschel  and  Falk). 


feels  leathery,  is  sprinkled  with  minute  yellow  spots;  the 
fungiform  papillae  are  destroyed  (Leutsch)  ;  and  also  by  the  fact 
that  the  destruction  of  the  epithelium  is  not  so  sharply  delimited 
irom  the  erosions  as  in  the  case  of  broken  aphthous  pustules 
(compare  Figs.  53,  a,  and  51,  b).  According  to  Henschel  and  Falk, 
the  dorsal  surface  of  the  tongue  at  the  transition  point,  between  the 
lx>dy  of  the  tongue  and  the  tip,  is  the  most  frequent  location  of. 
primary  actinomycotic  affections  (Fig.  52,  A,  a). 


276  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

Henscliel  and  F.ilk  called  attention  to  the  point  that  in  many 
cattle  (90  out  of  985  inspected,  or  9.1  per  cent.),  epithelial  lesions 
occur  at  the  point  above  described.  In  the  majority  of  cases  these 
lesions  represent  an  incipient  actinomycotic  infection  (in  the  985 
animals  above  mentioned,  this  was  the  case  in  71,  or  7.2  per  cent.). 
According  to  Breuer,  the  frequency  of  primary  lingual  actinomyco- 
sis  at  the  transition  point  between  the  body  and  tip  of  the  tongue 
varied  in  cases  observed  in  Budapest  between  16  per  cent,  in  sum- 
mer and  33  per  cent,  in  winter.  Schwaimair  observed  this  altera- 
tion in  26  per  cent,  of  the  Bavarian  cattle  which  he  examined. 
"When  an  incision  is  made  in  the  spot  where  the  epithelium  is  want- 
ing, one  generally  finds  small  tubercles  or  small  abscesses  which 
contain  actinomyces.  Comparatively  few  of  these  foci  are  simple; 

FIG.  53. 


Beef  tongue  with  (a)  actinomycotic  erosions ;  I,  mushroom-shaped  actinoiuycoinata^ 
The  tip  of  the  tongue  also  exhibits  the  condition  of  wooden  tongue. 

abscesses  produced  by  pyogenic  bacteria.  In  the  foci  in  questions 
on  the  tongue,  one  frequently  finds  small  foreign  bodies,  grains, 
which  are  strongly  penetrated  with  actinomyces.  Henschel  and 
Falk  ascribe  the  above-mentioned  typical  lingual  affection  of  cattle 
to  their  peculiar  mode  of  ingestion  (retention  of  fungus- covered 
portions  of  food  at  the  boundary  between  the  moveable  and  fixed 
portions  of  the  tongue. 

Breuer,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  it  probable  that  the 
disease  is  associated  with  a  peculiarity  of  the  structure  of  the 
tongue.  In  old  cattle  a  crescent-shaped  atrophy  of  tin?  mucous  mem- 
hs.T.ne  occurs  in  front  of  the  dorsal  ridge  of  the  tongue,  with  destruc- 
tion of  the  filiform  papillae.  The  smooth  portion  of  the  mucous 
membrane  thereby  becomes  more  easily  injured  than  the  other 
portions  of  the  lingual  mucous  membrane.  In  accordance  with  this, 


DIGESTIVE    APPARATUS  277 

explanation  is  the  fact,  established  by  Breuer,  that  the  frequency 
of  the  disease  in  question  increases  with  the  age  of  the  cattle. 

Tubercular  acthiomycornata  may  occur  upon  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  whole  anterior  portion  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of 
cattle,  from  the  lips  to  the  fourth  stomach.  The -tongue  and 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth  and  pharynx  are  most  frequently 
affected ;  more  rarely  that  of  the  first  three  stomachs.  Actinomy- 
comata  ordinarily  sit  upon  the  mucous  membrane  like  mushrooms 
or  conical  or  flat  proliferations.  The  colonies  of  actinomyces  upon 
their  surfaces  are  readily  distinguished  from  the  red  ground  color 
as  yellow  spots  (Fig.  53,  b). 

Johne  has  called  attention  to  the  ray  fungus  in  the  tonsils  of 
hogs.  Occasionally  actiuomycosis  is  also  observed  in  the  retro- 
pharyngeal  lymphatic  glands  of  cattle. 

Actinomycosis  of  the  tongue  is  characterized  by  distinct  ana- 
tomical forms.  As  already  described,  it  may  occur  as  a  superficial 
process  in  the  form  of  erosions.  Furthermore,  the  disease  may 
appear  in  two  other  forms  :  In  the  form  of  multiple  tubercles  of 
various  sizes  which  lie  scattered  in  the  tissue  of  the  tongue,  and  as 
diffuse  induration  of  the  tongue  (wooden  tongue). 

The  tubercles  may  be  readily  detected  by  touch,  especially 
while  the  animal  heat  is  still  present.  Moreover,  upon  microscopic 
inspection,  they  exhibit  the  typical  structure  of  actinomycotic  gran- 
ulations. 

Wooden  tongue,  which  is  very  frequent  in  cattle  and  has  been 
observed  once  in  sheep  (Berg)  and  hogs  (Schilling),  is  distinguished 
by  its  firm,  unyielding  consistency.  On  cross  section,  one  observes 
a  vigorous  proliferation  of  connective  tissue  and  an  atrophy  of  the 
musculature  of  the  tongue.  The  connective  tissue  proliferations 
include  small  and  large  colonies  of  the  ray  fungus.  As  a  rule, 
wooden  tongue  is  a  partial  alteration.  A  complete  induration  of  the 
tongue  rarely  occurs,  since  animals  affected  with  wooden  tongue  are 
soon  slaughtered  on  account  of  the  difficulty  they  experience  in  the 
prehension  of  food. 

Non-actinomycotic  wooden  tongue. — Pflng  described  several  cases 
of  non-actinomycotic  wooden  tongue.  The  tongues  were  hard, 
enlarged,  white  on  cross  section,  and  without  a  trace  of  muscular 
tissue  (diffuse  interstitial  myositis).  Later,  Imminger  reported  sim- 
ilar cases.  Furthermore,  Kitt  observed  a  fibroma  of  the  tongue, 
which  had  likewise  led  to  the  formation  of  the  so-called  wooden, 
tongue. 


278 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


TUBERCULOSIS. — Tuberculosis  is  frequently  met  with  as  a  pri- 
mary affection  in  the  lymph  glands  of  the  head  (retro-pharyugeal 
glands  in  cattle  ;  tracheal  lymph  glands  in  hogs).  Simultaneously 
a  tuberculous  alteration  of  the  tonsils  may  exist. 

Morot  claims  to  have  frequently  observed  tuberculosis  of  the 
tongue.  This  assertion  does  not  agree  with  observations  in  Ger- 
man slaughter-houses.  In  Germany,  tuberculosis  of  the  tongue  is 
an  exceptionally  rare  occurrence.  In  Berlin,  for  example,  only  one 
case  of  tubercular  disease  of  the  tongue  was  established  during 
ten  years. 

(b)  Pharynx. 

Besides  typical  pharyngitis,  the  sanitary  significance  of  whicii, 
varies  according  to  the  degree  of  inflammation  and  the  accompany— 


FIG.  54. 


FIG.  55. 


Bovine  esophagus  with  o^trus  larvae.     On 
the  right  a  larva  in  natural  size. 


Sheep  esophagus  with 
sarcosporidia. 


ing  phenomena,  specific  changes  occur  in  the  mucous  membrane  o£" 
the  pharynx  in  the  form  of  hemorrhages,  bloody  serous  and  pure 
serous  infiltrates,  in  petechial  fever,  anthrax,  hemorrhagic  septi- 
cemia,  and  swine  erysipelas.  Furthermore,  the  larvae  of 
lus  are  frequently  found  in  the  pharynx  of  the  horse. 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  279 

In  the  pharynx  of  the  stag  the  larvae  of  Pharyngomyia.  picta  and 
Cephenomyia  rufibarbis ;  in  the  roebuck,  the  larvae  of  C.  stimu- 
lator ;  and  in  the  reindeer,  the  larvae  of  C.  trompe,  are  found. 

(c)  Esophagus. 

In  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  esophagus  of  cattle  one  observes 
papillomata  ;  in  cattle  and  sheep,  the  esophageal  thread  worm,  Fila- 
aria  scutata  esophagea  bovis  ;  and,  finally,  in  the  musculature  of  the 
esophagus  of  cattle,  the  larvae  of  Oestrus  bovis  (Fig.  54)  ;  and  in  the 
same  location  in  sheep,  goats  and  horses,  one  finds  sarcosporidia 
(Fig.  55). 

(d)  Stomach,  and  Intestine. 

The  most  important  abnormal  conditions  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  are  inflammations  and  parasites. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Inflammatory  alterations  may  be  of  different 
sorts.  All  transition  stages  are  observed  from  simple  catarrh  accom- 
panied simply  with  erythrism  and  swelling  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane, to  diphtheritic  inflammation  ushered  in  with  necrosis  of  the 
mucous  membrane.  The  judgment  on  this  process  should  vary 
accordingly,  as  already  stated  in  the  chapter  on  general  pathology. 
One  point,  however,  ought  to  be  agakT  emphasized  in  this  place: 
Simple  gastric  catarrhs,  as  well  as  simple  non-febrile  enteric 
catarrhs,  are  without  sanitary  significance.  It  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  differentiate  between  these  harmless  diseases  and  septic 
diseases  of  the  intestines  of  calves  and  cows,  ushered  in  with  high 
fever  and  great  depression  (see  under  "  Diarrhea,"  "  Emergency 
Slaughter  "  and  "  Meat  Poisoning").  Schwaimair,  by  a  regular  inspec- 
tion of  the  second  stomach  of  slaughtered  cattle,  demonstrated  that 
traumatic  inflammation  of  this  organ  is  much  more  frequent  than 
commonly  supposed.  Of  639  cattle  inspected,  54,  or  8.62  per  cent., 
were  affected  with  inflammation  in  consequence  of  injury  by  foreign 
bodies.  The  majority  of  the  animals  had  exhibited  no  disturbance 
of  health  during  life. 

Harms  described  a  phlegmonous  gastro-enteritis  in  cattle, 
which,  as  a  rule,  ran  a  fatal  course.  The  mucous,  muscular  and 
serous  coats  were  inflamed.  A  bloody  content  was  occasionally 
found  in  the  small  intestines.  Harms  emphasized  the  fact  that  the 
meat  of  animals  which  were  affected  even  with  an  advanced  stage 
of  phlegmonous  gastro-enteritis  did  not  show  the  slightest  variation 
.from  the  normal  condition.  In  the  case  of  cattle  which  were  well 


280 


NOTEW011T11Y   OilGANIC  DISEASES 


nourished  and  seasonably  slaughtered,  Harms  accepted  the  meat  as 
fit  for  human  food  when  it  was  necessary  to  assume  a  cold  (?)  as  the 
cause  of  the  disease.  Torsion,  invagination,  and  incarceration  of 
the  intestines  may  lead  to  inflammations  which  may  become  fatal  in 
consequence  of  necrosis  of  the  wall  by  perforative  peritonitis. 
Oroupous  enteritis  is  observed  in  cattle  either  as  an  independent 
disease  or  as  a  symptomatic  affection  of  malignant  catarrhal  fever 
and  rinderpest.  A  hemorrhagic  inflammation  of  the  intestines  is 
never  absent  in  swine  erysipelas.  Croupous  and  diphtheritic 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  small  intestine,  as  well  as  of  the  large  intestine,  is  characteristic 
of  hog  cholera.  According  to  Kitt,  a  diphtheritic  intestinal  inflam- 
mation may  occur  independently  of  hog  cholera  merely  as  a  result  of 
the  necrosis  bacillus. 

Finally,  the  intestines  exhibit  serious  alterations  in  enteric 
anthrax.  Swelling,  erythrism  and  hemorrhages  of  the  mucous 
membrane  are  observed,  and,  in  severe  cases,  also  hemorrhagic  and 
sero-hemorrhagic  infiltration  of  the  mucosa  and  submucosa,  so  that 
the  mucous  membrane  is  forced  into  the  lumen  of  the  intestine  in 
the  form  of  flabby  ridges,  and  sloughs  off.  The  duodenum  is  com- 
monly affected  most  severely. 


FIG.  56. 


Calf  abomasum  with  peptic  ulcers  of  different 
sizes  and  depth.     Largest  ulcer  is  perforated. 

rence  of  perforative  peptic  ulcer  of  the 


ULCUS  PEPTICUM.  - 
Peptic  ulcer  of  the  stom- 
ach is  an  affection  which  is 
observed  in  calves  rather 
frequently  at  slaughter- 
houses. The  author  has 
called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  round  and  elongated 
ulcers  with  sharp  borders 
andwithout  apparent  cause 
may  occur  in  the  rennet  of 
calves.  Frequently  death 
is  brought  about  by  per- 
forative peritonitis  in  con- 
sequence of  the  necrosis  of 
the  floor  of  the  ulcer.  Pep- 
tic ulcers  may  also  occur 
in  the  duodenum.  The 
frequency  of  the  occur- 
stomach  in  calves  makes  it 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  281 

the  duty  of  inspectors  to  observe  carefully  the  peritoneal  changes 
in  these  animals  in  every  individual  case.  The  inflammation  is 
sero-fibrinous.  The  inflammatory  erythrism  of  the  peritoneum 
under  the  fibrinous  deposit  furnishes  a  certain  means  of  diagnosis, 
even  when  the  deposit  is  carelessly  removed  during  the  inspection. 
Judgment. — In  perforative  peritonitis,  the  meat  must  be  con- 
sidered as  an  unwholesome  food  material  (see  "Sapremia").  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  peritonitis  is  absent  and  the  floor  of  the  ulcer  shows 
a  granular  formation,  the  meat  may  be  offered  for  sale  as  a  market- 
able food  material,  provided  the  animal  is  in  a  good  state  of  nutri- 
tion. Occasionally  the  perforation  heals  by  a  connective  tissue 
union  at  the  point  of  rupture  between  the  omentum  and  the  abdom- 
inal wall. 

PARASITES. — The  following  parasites  occur  in  the  stomach  and 
intestines :  Gastrophilus  equi  (stomach  of  the  horse)  ;  G.  nasalis 
(pyloric  portion  of  the  stomach  of  the  horse);  G.  pecorum  and  G. 
//(emorrhnidalis  (stomach  and  rectum  of  horses  and  cattle) ;  Amphis- 
tomum  conicuin  (rumen  and  omasum  of  ruminants)  ;  Filaria  micros- 
torna  and  F.  megastoma  (stomach  of  the  horse)  ;  F.  strongylina  (stom- 
ach of  the  hog)  ;  Strongylns  contortus  and  S.  osfertagi  (fourth  stomach 
of  cattle,  sheep  and  goats) ;  S.  curticei  (fourth  stomach  and  small 
intestine  of  cattle  and  sheep)  ;  S.  oncop/iorus  (fourth  stomach  and 
small  intestine  of  cattle)  ;  S.  harkeri  (fourth  stomach  of  cattle) ;  S. 
retortceformis  (fourth  stomach  and  small  intestine  of  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  roebuck,  hares  and  rabbits) ;  S.  filicollis  (small  intestine  of 
sheep,  especially  in  America)  ;  Gnathostomum  hispidum  (stomach  of 
the  hog) ;  Strongylus  armatus  (cecum  and  colon  of  the  horse)  ; 
Ascaris  megalocephala  (small  intestine  of  the  horse) ;  A.  lumbricoides 
(small  intestine  of  the  hog) ;  Anoplocephala  perfoliata,  plicata,  and 
mamillana  (horse) ;  Moniezm  cxpansa  (cattle  and  sheep).  Lastly, 
pentastomum  larvae  are  found  in  the  wall  of  the  small  intestine  in 
cattle  and  sheep. 

Strongylus  ostertagi,  but  more  frequently  S.  contortus  and  Mon- 
iezia  expansa,  when  present  in  large  numbers,  may  cause  serious 
nutritive  disturbances  (stomach-worm  disease,  caused  by  Strongylus 
contortus  and  S.  osterfagi),  and  tape-worm  disease  of  lambs  (caused 
by  Moniezia  expansa).  Ascaris  lumbricoides  occasionally  wanders 
into  the  bile  ducts  and  causes  icterus  by  the  sudden  obstruction  of 
the  flow  of  bile. 

Casefying  nematode  tubercles  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine. — In  the 
submucosa  of  the  small  intestine  of  cattle,  Drechsler  discovered  a 


282 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


nematode  1  to  1.5  mm.  long,  which  was  located  in  small,  round 
tubercles  with  green-colored  contents  (Fig.  57).  Saake  confirmed 
this  discovery  soon  afterward.  The  author  has  very  frequently 
seen  these  tubercles  in  cattle  killed  at  Berlin  slaughterhouses. 
According  to  Strose,  the  round  worm  which  is  found  in  the  tubercles 
is  a  larva  of  Auchylostomum  (A.  bovis). 

According  to  the  thorough  investigation  of  Strose,  the  parasitic 
enteric  tubercles  of  cattle  are  found  exclusively  in  the  small  intes- 


FIG.  57. 


a 


Bovine  small  intestine  with  submucous 
nematode  tubercles. 


Larva  of  AncJiylostomum  bovis  from 
a  submucous  tubercle  of  the  bovine 
intestine  (after  Strose)  X  25  diam. 


tine  in  varying  numbers.  The  spherical,  often  somewhat  flattened, 
tubercles  lie  under  the  mucosa.  They  consist  of  a  connective  tissue 
wall  and  a  green  or  yellowish-brown,  caseous,  crumbly  content.  The 
size  of  the  tubercles  varies  from  that  of  a  pin  head  to  that  of  a  pea. 
The  larger  tubercles,  even  before  the  intestines  are  cleaned,  may 
be  seen  from  the  outside  through  the  muscular  and  serous  coats. 

The  nematodes  (Fig.  58)  which  were  isolated  from  the  tubercles 
by  Strose  were  2.83  to  3.85  mm.  long  and  0.16  mm.  wide. 

In  the  small  intestine  of  American  sheep  and  cattle,  Curtice 
also  demonstrated  nematode  tubercles.  In  tubercles  1  cm.  in  diam- 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  283 

eter,  Curtice  found  larvae  and  sexually- mature  round  worms  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  (Esophagostomum  columbianum.  Further 
investigations  are  required  to  determine  whether  the  European  and 
American  intestinal  parasites  are  identical.  Von  Ratz  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  tubercles  observed  in  European  cattle  contained 
0.  inflatum.  It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection  that  nema- 
tode  tubercles  are  frequently  found  in  bovine  intestines  imported 
from  America  in  such  numbers  that  they  look  as  if  sprinkled  with 
them.  In  the  intestinal  wall  of  chickens,  von  Ratz  demonstrated 
grayish-yellow  tubercles  from  the  size  of  millet  seed  to  that  of  hemp 
seed,  which  were  due  to  penetration  of  the  small  tape  worm 
(Davainea  tetragona)  into  the  intestinal  wall.  The  parasites  were 
located  inside  the  tubercles.  The  chronic  intestinal  inflammation 
caused  by  tetragona  may  appear  in  an  epizootic  form  and  may  cause 
the  death  of  a  large  number  of  fowls,  especially  young  ones. 

Judgment. — According  to  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  it  can 
not  be  assumed  that  the  parasites  contained  in  the  intestinal 
tubercles  can  be  transmitted  to  man.  On  the  other  hand,  intestines 
which  are  infested  to  a  high  degree  with  verminous  tubercles  are 
highly  unfit  for  food  in  so  far  as  the  manufacture  of  sausage  is 
concerned.  In  case  of  slight  infestation,  the  tubercles  may  be 
removed.  Meat  dealers  must  be  made  personally  responsible  for 
this  removal,  since  the  tubercles  are  not  seen  until  the  intestines 
have  been  prepared  for  market  in  the  usual  manner. 

Olt  demonstrated  another  entozoic  disease  in  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  large  intestine  of  hogs.  In  spring  and  summer  a. 
swelling  and  nlceration  of  a  few  or  many  follicles  of  the  large 
intestine  are  observed  in  hogs.  This  infection  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  the  rectum  and  colon  ;  less  frequently  in  the  cecum  and 
the  parts  anterior  to  it.  In  the  caseous  contents  of  the  follicular 
tubercles,  Olt  discovered  the  larva  of  a  round  worm  (Strongylus 
follicularis),  1.7  mm.  long  and  1  mm.  in  diameter.  According  to 
Liebe,  this  is  not  a  new  parasite,  but  a  hitherto  undescribed  imma- 
ture form  of  Strongylus  dentatus. 

Finally,  Liebe  discovered  in  the  mucosa,  occasionally  also  under 
the  serous  coat  of  the  cecuna  and  colon  of  sheep,  tubercles  varying 
in  size  from  that  of  a  pin  head  to  that  of  a  pea,  with  yellowish  or  a 
yellow-green  detritus.  These  tubercles  likewise  contained  neinatode 
larvae.  According  to  Liebe,  this  is  not  identical  with  Drechsler's 
nematode  or  Anchylostomum  bovis. 

Judgment. — The  statement  already  made  with  reference  to  judg- 
ment of  the  tubercles  in  bovine  intestines  holds  good  for  the 


'2b±  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

tubercles  described  by  Liebe.  On  the  other  hand,  the  entozoic 
follicular  tubercles  discovered  by  Olt  in  the  hog  intestines  require 
no  further  consideration  in  practical  meat  inspection,  since  they  are 
removed  in  cleaning  the  intestines  (by  stripping  the  mucous  mem- 
brane). 

Diagnosis  and  differential  diagnosis  of  nematode  tubercles  of  the 
intestines. — The  nematode  tubercles  in  the  wall  of  the  intestines  may 
be  mistaken  in  superficial  inspection  for  the  products  of  tuberculosis. 
They  are  distinguished,  however,  from  the  latter  by  the  gray  or 

FIG.  59. 


Intestinal  tuberculosis  of  cattle,     a  and  &,  lenticular  ulcers;  c,  tuberculous 
infiltration;   d,  part  of  a  tuberculous  mesenteric  gland. 

grayish-green  color  of  the  caseous  material  and  by  the  integrity  of 
the  corresponding  lymph  glands.  By  crushing  the  caseous  material 
with  the  addition  of  glycerin  (Linstow)  or  dilute  caustic  potash,  the 
round  worms  may  be  easily  isolated. 

OTHER  ALTERATIONS. — Among  the  other  alterations  in  the 
stomach  and  alimentary  tract  may  be  mentioned  hemorrhages  under 
the  visceral  peritoneum  (in  intoxications  and  infections)  ;  hemor- 
rhagic  infarcts  (in  the  horse  by  emboli  from  aneurism  of  the 
.anterior  mesenteric  artery);  necrosis  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the- 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  285 

anterior  stomachs  of  cattle  (caused  by  the  necrosis* bacillus);  tumors, 
such  as  lipomata  and  sarcomata ;  and,  finally,  actiuomycotic  and 
tubercular  changes  in  all  layers  of  the  alimentary  canal  and  on 
the  intestinal  peritoneum.  Sarcomata  may  infiltrate  the  whole  wall 
of  the  intestine  for  a  considerable  length,  or  may  be  deposited  in  it 
as  tubercles.  Primary  tuberculosis  of  the  intestine  begins  with  the 
appearance  of  lenticular  ulcers  on  the  mucous  membrane  (Fig.  59, 
a  and  b)  with  which  tuberculous  infiltrations  of  the  mucosa  and 
submucosa  become  connected  later  by  the  degeneration  of  the 
superficial  tubercles  (Fig.  59,  c).  Tuberculous  ulcers  and  infiltra- 
tions are  surrounded  with  a  wall-like  border.  Furthermore,  the 
mesenteric  glands  regularly  show  a  marked  specific  alteration  (Figs. 
23  and  59,  d). 

Kitt  describes  "  papilloma  polyposum  omasi  (myxomatodes)  " 
as  a  frequent  condition  in  the  stomach  of  cattle.  Papilloma  of  the 
omasum  is  usually  multiple  in  all  transition  stages  from  simple 
papillary  hyperplasia  to  papillomatous  rosettes  of  the  size  of  the 
double  fist.  According  to  Kitt,  they  are  best  compared  in  a  fresh 
condition  "with  the  fruit  of  Muscatelle  grapes."  The  berry-like 
structures  possess  a  firm,  elastic  consistency,  the  color  being  partly 
milk  white,  partly  of  a  reddish  flesh  tint.  Edema  from  obstruction 
lends  a  myxoma-like  character  to  the  papilloma. 

(e)  Peritoneum. 

The  parietal  fold  of  the  peritoneum  may  exhibit  the  same 
alterations  which  have  just  been  described  as  occurring  in  the  vis- 
ceral layer  and  in  the  serous  covering  of  the  abdominal  organs. 
This  statement  also  holds  good  for  the  duplicatures  of  the 
peritoneum,  omentum  and  mesenteries.  Furthermore,  there  are 
certain  processes  which  are  peculiar  to  the  parietal  layer  of  the 
peritoneum,  or  have  a  predilection  for  it. 

MULTIPLE  CALCIFICATION. — The  peritoneum  of  cattle  frequently 
exhibits  an  interesting  calcification  which  may  be  confused  with 
incipient  tuberculosis.  The  calcification  is  distinguished  by  the 
appearance  of  a  few  or  countless  flat  elevations  varying  in  size  from 
that  of  a  pin  head  to  that  of  a  lentil  (Fig.  60).  The  latter  are  of  a 
white  color  and  upon  microscopic  examination  it  becomes  apparent 
that  the  normal  tissue  of  the  peritoneum  is  interrupted  by  cloudy 
spots.  The  cloudiness  is  due  to  acicular  depositions  in  close  contact 
with. one  another  in  the  larger  tubercles.  According  to  their  chem- 
ical behavior,  these  deposits  must  be  considered  as  lime  salts. 


286 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC  DISEASES 


Multiple  calcification  of  the  peritoneum  is  distinguished  from 
tuberculosis  (Fig.  61)  by  the  complete  absence  of  caseation,  as  well 
as  by  the  flat  form  and  the  absence  of  tubercles ;  also  by  the 
absence  of  an  alteration  in  the  corresponding  lymph  glands. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Peritoneal  inflammations  are  closely  connected 
with  alterations  of  the  alimentary  canal.  From  an  etiological 
standpoint,  inflammations  of  the  urino-genital  apparatus,  especially 
of  the  uterus  in  female  animals,  and  injuries  of  the  abdominal  walls 
are  to  be  considered  in  this  connection.  All  cases  of  peritonitis 
which  I  have  seen  in  slaughtered  animals  were  caused  by  injuries 
of  the  alimentary  tract,  of  the  urino-genital  apparatus,  or  of  the 
abdominal  wall,  or  by  primary  inflammations  of  these  parts. 

FIG.  60. 


FIG.  61. 


Multiple  calcification  of  the 
bovine  pleura. 


Serous  tuberculosis  of 
cattle  (pearl  disease). 


Peritonitis  of  domestic  animals  is  either  purely  fibrinous  or 
sero-fibrinous,  more  rarely  purulent.  In  extensive  injuries  of  organs 
covered  by  the  peritoneum,  the  exudation  may  decompose — ichorous 
inflammation  of  the  peritoneum.  Perforative  peritonitis  following 
injuries  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  is  always  of  an  ichorous 
character.  This  is  the  case  also  in  so-called  traumatic  peritonitis  of 
cattle,  in  which  foreign  bodies  pass  from  the  second  or  third  stomachs 
into  the  body  cavity. 

Inflammations  of  the  peritoneum  following  rupture  of  the  blad- 
der or  in  connection  with  necrotic  cystitis  are  characterized  by  the 
intense  urinous  odor  of  the  exudation.  The  odor  clings  to  the 


DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS  287 

peritoneum  even  after  washing  out  the  abnormal  contents  with 
water;  otherwise  inflammatory  phenomena  in  urinous  peritonitis, 
as  a  rule,  are  oiiiy  slightly  pronounced. 

Finally,  we  should  mention  the  proliferating  inflammation  of 
the  se"rous  covering  of  the  alimentary  tract  which  may  lead  to  an 
adhesion  of  the  individual  folds  of  the  intestines. 

Judgment. — With  the  exception  of  the  last-named  proliferating 
process  and  urinous  peritonitis,  peritoneal  inflammations  are  of 
great  sanitary  importance.  The  proliferating  processes  are  of  no 
significance.  They  simply  prevent  the  use  of  the  affected  portions 
of  the  alimentary  tract  for  customary  market  purposes.  Urinous 
peritonitis  renders  the  meat  highly  unfit  for  food,  but  not  dangerous. 
In  exudative  peritoneal  inflammations,  on  the  other  hand,  the  con- 
ditions are  favorable  for  the  resorption  of  toxines  and  the  origin  of 
general  diseases  (intoxication  or  infection). 

Fibrinous  and  purulent  peritonitis  in  cattle  may  heal  on  account 
of  the  unusual  resistence  of  these  animals  to  fibrinous  and  purulent 
inflammations.  The  former  heals  by  resorption  of  the  exudation  or 
a  connective  tissue  adhesion  of  the  affected  parts  ;  the  latter  heals 
imperfectly  by  encapsulation  of  the  pus.  With  regard  to  judgment 
on  acute  peritoneal  inflammations  and  healed  purulent  peritonitis, 
see  "  Septicemia  "  and  "  Pyemia." 

Infectious  pleura-peritonitis  of  hogs. — According  to  the  statistics 
of  slaughterhouses,  hogs  are  frequently  attacked  by  a  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum,  in  the  course  of  which 
multiple,  usually  strongly  encapsulated  abscesses  are  formed. 

According  to  Grips,  who  investigated  the  disease,  this  is  a 
specific  infectious  disease  of  hogs  (see  under"  Infectious  Diseases"). 

Biliary  peritonitis. — Finally,  mention  may  here  be  made  of  a 
so-called  biliary  peritonitis  which  sometimes  occurs  in  sheep.  This 
disease  may  arise  when  the  liver  or  gall  bladder  is  injured.  In  the 
cases  which  I  have  observed,  an  artificial  communication  had  been 
formed  between  the  bile  duct  and  the  body  cavity  by  liver  flukes 
which  had  left  their  customary  habitat  and  had  bored  through  the 
liver  substance  and  liver  capsule.  In  biliary  peritonitis,  one  finds 
a  thickening,  especially  of  the  lower  parts  of  the  parietal  peritoneum. 
The  thickened  parts  of  the  peritoneum  possess  a  bluish- white  sheen 
and  are  covered  with  a  greenish,  glistening,  semi-fluid  deposit.  In 
one  hog  I  demonstrated  a  similar  alteration  of  the  parietal  and 
visceral  peritoneum.  In  this  case  the  cause  was  a  rupture  of  the 
pregnant  uterus  from  torsion. 


288  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

OTHER  ALTERATIONS. — Of  .the  other  pathological  conditions  in 
the  peritoneum,  the  following  deserve  mention  :  Melanin  deposits  in 
cattle,  trarisndations  and  hemorrhages  in  rupture  of  the  spleen  and 
liver  or  in  fresh  perforation  of  the  rectum  and  uterus,  hernorrhagic 
infiltrations  in  anthrax,  and  sarcomata  and  carcinornata,  as  well  as 
tuberculous  granulations  in  the  form  of  tubercles,  pearl-like  prolif- 
erations, and  superficial  deposits  (Fig.  61). 

Multiple  fatty  necrosis. — Multiple  necrosis  may  appear  in  the 
adipose  tissue  under  the  parietal  fold  of  the  peritoneum,  between 
the  folds  of  the  mesentery  and  in  the  omentum.  Fischoder  de- 
scribed such  a  case  in  a  hog  which  was  more  carefully  investigated 
by  the  author  and  was  named  fatty  necrosis.  Numerous  yellowish- 
white  opaque  areas  of  lardaceous  consistency  were  observed  in  the 
fat  tissue.  The  size  of  the  areas  reached  that  of  a  five-pfennig  piece. 
Olt  and  Steuding  subsequently  reported  several  cases  of  fatty 
necrosis  in  domesticated  animals.  According  to  the  investigations 
of  Benda  and  Stadehnann,  multiple  fatty  necrosis  is  a  sequela  of 
diseases  of  the  pancreas,  tumors,  lesions  of  the  pancreatic  duct,  etc. 
The  pancreas  was  also  diseased  in  the  case  reported  by  Fischoder 
and  in  one  of  the  cases  described  by  Steuding.  Jung  produced  local 
inflammation  and  fatty  necrosis  by  the  artificial  introduction  of 
trypsin  and  fresh  pancreas  into  the  body  cavity  of  rabbits.  He  is 
of  the  opinion  that  the  secretion  of  the  pancreas,  in  consequence  of 
a  solution  of  the  continuity  of  the  latter,  flows  into  the  body  cavity 
and  causes  fatty  necrosis. 

In  rendering  judgment  on  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with 
multiple  fatty  necrosis,  the  condition  of  the  animals  before  slaughter 
and  the  general  findings  after  slaughter  should  be  determining 
factors.  If  the  animal  affected  with  fatty  necrosis  is  healthy  before 
slaughter  and  if,  after  slaughter,  the  necrotic  areas  are  found  only 
in  the  fat  tissues,  the  disease  is  to  be  considered  an  insignificant 
local  affection,  so  far  as  the  meat  is  concerned.  On  account  of  the 
abnormal  condition  of  the  fat  tissue,  however,  the  meat  is  to  be 
offered  for  sale  under  declaration,  as  unsuitable  food  material. 

Lipoma  in  adipose,  tissue  of  the  abdomen. — According  to  Tiircks, 
in  food  animals  which  have  undergone  a  long  course  of  fattening, 
adipose  tissue  tumors  appear  in  the  omentum  and  in  the  fat  iissue 
of  the  intestines  and  kidneys  in  the  form  of  hard,  knotty  thicken- 
ings which  are  called  "  fat  stones  "  by  butchers. 

Mesenterial  emphysema  of  hogs. — Mesenterial  emphysema  of  hogs 
is  a  very  remarkable  disease  which  formerly  was  given  the  name 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS 


289 


multilocular  air  cysts  (Motz)  and  "  air  bladder  mesentery  "  (pneu- 
matosis  cystoides  iutestinorum,  Maier).  The  first  description  of 
this  interesting  affection  was  by  Maier  in  1825.  Recently  it  has 
been  described  by  Both  and  Schmutzer.  However,  mesenterial 
emphysema  is  well  known  to  meat  inspectors  as  a  frequent  and 
striking  phenomenon.  It  is  observed  that  the  small  intestine,, 
especially  that  portion  of  it  known  as  the  jejunum,  is  fringed  along 
the  line  of  attachment  of  the  mesentery  with  grape-like  evaginations 

FIG.  62. 


Mesenteric  emphysema  in  hogs. 


and  appendages  of  varying  size  which  are  formed  of  cysts  containing 
gas  (Fig.  62).  The  appendages  are  tightly  distended  and  do  not 
communicate  with  one  another.  The  wall  of  the  cysts  is  trans- 
parent and  only  exceptionally  of  a  red  color  from  hemorrhage.  In 
addition  to  the  conglomerate  groups,  individual  cysts  appear,  either 
in  the  intestinal  wall  and  between  the  folds  of  the  mesentery,  or 
pedunculate  on  those  parts.  Accumulations  of  gas  occur  also  in  the 
mesenteric  glands,  sometimes  to  such  a  degree  that  the  latter 
resemble  sponge  structures.  The  accumulation  of  gas,  however, 
appears  not  to  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  the  mesenteric  glands. 
In  connection  with  the  gaseous  cysts,  solid  tubercular  filiform 


290 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


FIG.  63. 


formations  are  found  on  the  peritoneum.  Gas  analyses,  which  the 
author  undertook,  with  the  contents  of  cysts  obtained  under  quick- 
silver, indicate  the  presence  of  oxygen,  together  with  a  preponder- 
ating content  of  an  inert  gas,  nitrogen.  This  had  been  previously 
established  by  Maier,  Roeckl,  Zschokke,  and  Both.  Dryer  found 
in  the  cysts  a  mixture  of  2.1  per  cent.  CO2,  20.8  per  cent.  O,  and 
77.1  per  cent.  N.  Krummacher,  however,  found,  in  addition  to  N, 
10  to  16  per  cent.  O,  while  CO2  and  H  were  wanting  or  present  only 
as  a  trace. 

With  regard  to  the  etiology  of  mesenterial  emphysema,  we  are 
still  entirely  in  the  dark.  The  author  made  an  extended  investi- 
gation of  the  disease  and  in  spite  of  abundant 
and  excellent  material,  for  the  most  part 
still  possessing  the  animal  heat,  only  nega- 
tive results  were  obtained.  The  investiga- 
tions of  Both  were  also  without  result  on 
this  point.  He  combats  the  idea  of  Eisenlohr 
and  Dupraz  that  the  disease  is  due  to  a 
pathological  organism  demonstrable  by  pre- 
sent methods  of  research.  It  is  undoubtedly 
a  process  of  mycotic  origin,  and  the  author 
believes  from  the  conditions  in  numerous 
microscopic  preparations  that  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  yeast  cells  as  the  cause  of  this 
process,  which  is  observed  only  in  the  patho- 
logy of  domestic  animals.  No  success,  how- 
ever, was  had  in  cultivating  the  organisms  in 
question.  Schmutzer,  with  Krummacher, 

considers  as  excluded  the  possibility  that  the  formation  of  the  gas 
is  due  to  micro-organisms,  and  is  of  the  opinion  that  we  have  to  do 
in  this  case  with  intestinal  gases  which  have  become  changed  in 
their  composition  by  diffusion. 

Motz  ascertained  that  multilocular  air  cysts  occurred  most 
frequently  in  hogs  which  are  fed  upon  the  waste  products  of  the 
dairy,  and  this  observation  was  confirmed  by  others. 

Judgment. — Mesenterial  ephysema  is  found  quite  incidentally 
in  hogs  in  perfect  health  and  in  good  condition.  Accordingly,  and 
in  view  of  the  further  unobjectionable  character  of  the  other  vital 
organs  and  of  the  meat,  this  affection  is  to  be  considered  as  insig- 
nificant and  of  a  purely  local  character  No  special  measures  are 
required  with  reference  to  affected  parts  of  the  intestine,  since  in  con- 
sequence of  the  emphysema  they  can  not  be  used  as  sausage  casings. 


Cysticercus  tenuicollis 
with  artificially  pro- 
truded scolex. 


DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS  ,  291 

PARASITES. — The  retro-peritoneal  tissue,  omentum,  and  mesen- 
tery furnish  favorable  situations  for  Cysticercus  tenuicollis,  which 
occurs  there  in  sizes  varying  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  potato. 
Furthermore,  echinococci  and  wandering  liver  flukes  may  occur 
under  the  peritoneum.  Finally,  in  horses,  Filaria  papillosa  has 
been  observed  free  in  the  body  cavity,  as  well  as  Strongylus  armatus, 
which  latter  is  also  found  under  the  parietal  fold  of  the  peritoneum  ; 
and  occasionally  Spiroptera  reticulata  attached  to  the  peritoneum. 

(f)  Liver. 

MALFORMATIONS. — Occasionally  lobulation  is  entirely  absent  in 
hog  livers,  so  that  the  liver  appears  like  an  amorphous  mass  (non- 

FIG.  64. 


Beef  liver  with  spotted  capillary  angiomatosis. 

tabulated  or  clump  liver).  Furthermore,  double  livers  (livers  with 
accessory  livers)  and  livers  with  a  congenital  cyst  formation  are 
observed. 

In  cattle  one  observes  rather  frequently  a  peculiar  formation  of 
the  liver,  which  is  described  by  Sluys,  Koorevaar,  Saake  and  Kitt, 
and  was  called  by  the  latter  spotted  capillary  angiomatosis.  Such 
livers  of  the  normal  size  and  form  exhibit  numerous  blue-black 
spots  which  become  violet-red  after  lying  for  a  long  time  and  which 
occupy  a  deeper  position  than  the  normal  liver  surface  (Fig.  64). 
TThe  spots  are  of  the  size  of  a  25-cent  piece,  soft,  and  show  a  net- 
like  structure  on  cross  section.  Blood  is  found  between  the  meshes 


292  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

of  the  net,  which  occasionally  is  very  rich  in  leucocytes.  The 
meshes  are  furnished  with  an  endothelium  ;  the  lacunae  are  there- 
fore to  be  considered  as  enlarged  capillaries  and  the  whole  anomaly 
a  formation  due  .to  arrested  development  in  consequence  of  the 
occasional  failure  of  the  liver  cell  cylinders  to  grow  into  the  sup- 
porting substance.  As  a  result,  the  capillary  meshes  are  not  suffi- 
ciently constricted  (Kitt). 

Saake  the  younger,  in  connection  with  the  publication  of  his 
father,  investigated  ten  cases  of  hepatic  angiomata  and  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  disease  in  question  is  characterized  by  "  mul- 
tiple bloody,  infiltrated,  blue-red  areas  varying  in  size  from  that  of 
a  millet  seed  to  that  of  a  cherry  or  even  a  walnut,  and  permeating 
the  whole  liver  substance  without  changing  the  unaffected  parts  of 
the  liver  tissue."  Microscopically,  these  areas  are  to  be  considered 
partly  as  hemorrhages,  partly  as  angiomatous  sinuses.  In  many 
cases  alterations  were  observed  in  the  blood  vessels  in  the  form  of 
thrombi  (eight  out  of  eleven  cases),  liver  cell  emboli  (six  cases), 
rupture  of  the  blood  vessel  (one  case),  infiltrations  of  the  vascular 
walls  with  eosinophilous  cells  (five  cases)  ;  also  disintegration  of  the 
nuclei  in  the  connective  tissue  cells  of  the  walls  into  granular 
masses  (two  cases),  transparent  spherules  in  the  blood  masses  and 
almost  always  proliferation  phenomena  in  the  connective  tissue 
elements  in  the  surrounding  tissue.  In  these  conditions,  Saake  sees 
a  similarity  with  the  changes  described  by  Schmorl  in  the  liver  of 
eclamptic  women,  and  his  supposition  that  the  hepatic  alterations  in 
question  in  cattle  are  connected  with  the  act  of  parturition,  is  con- 
firmed by  the  fact  that  the  livers  which  he  investigated  came  from 
cows.  In  four  of  the  cases  it  was  demonstrated  that  they  had 
calved  and  the  other  was  killed  in  consequence  of  parturient  paresis. 
Saake,  accordingly,  does  not  agree  with  the  interpretation  of  Kitt 
that  we  are  dealing  with  congenital  angioma,  and  he  is  strengthened 
in  his  dissenting  opinion  by  the  fact  that,  according  to  the  experi- 
ence of  veterinarians  engaged  in  meat  inspection,  the  disease  is  not 
observed  in  virgin  heifers. 

Finally,  Stockmann  is  disposed  to  consider  the  hepatic  altera- 
tions in  question  as  the  sequela  of  distoinatous  cirrhosis  of  the  liver 
and  as  a  simple  enlargement  of  the  hepatic  capillaries.  This  view, 
however,  is  opposed  to  the  fact  that  angioma  of  the  liver  is  also 
observed  without  coexistent  cirrhosis. 

Judgment. — Livers  affected  with  the  above  described  alterations 
must  be  considered  unfit  for  food,  whether  the  affection  is  of  the 
nature  of  angioma  or  hemorrhage.  Special  restrictions  on  the  sale 


L»I(i  KSTIVE    A1TAKATUS 

•"01  these  livers  is  not  necessary,  since  their  nature  is  declared  by 
their  striking  variation  from  the  normal  condition. 

RUPTURES  of  the  liver  arise  from  the  effect  of  violent  mechanical 
shocks  in  the  anterior  abdominal  region.  A  necessary  condition, 
however,  is  an  unusual  discerptibility  which  usually  is  brought 
about  by  a  strong  fatty  infiltration,  as,  for  example,  in  fattened 
lambs.  The  animals  die  suddenly  of  hemorrhage.  Upon  post 

FIG.  66. 


Fatty  infiltration  of  the  liver.  Fatty  metamorphosis  of  the  liver. 

mortem   examination  a  bloody   infiltrated  rupture  in  the  liver  ia 
^observed,  in  addition  to  blood  in  the  body  cavity. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  dead  of  rupture  of  the  liver  is 
to  be  considered  the  equal  of  that  of  animals  slaughtered  in  the 
ordinary  way,  if  evisceration  occurs  immediately  after  death. 

ATROPHY. — Atrophy  of  the  liver  in  old  animals  (horses  and 
-cows)  has  been  discussed  in  the  description  of  the  normal  structure 
of  these  organs.  Furthermore,  the  so-called  nutmeg  liver  occurs  in 
food  animals.  This  alteration  is  due  to  obstruction  of  the  blood,  in 
consequence  of  cardiac  or  pulmonary  disturbances.  The  central 
veins  of  the  acini  of  the  liver  become  distended  by  the  persistent 
obstruction,  and  bring  about  atrophy  of  the  neighboring  liver  cells. 
The  interior  of  the  acini  appears  dark  iu  color  and  the  cortical  zone 
is  red-brown  or  yellow-brown.  Simultaneously,  a  slight  shrinking 
or  enlargement  of  the  liver  occurs  (atrophic  and  hypertrophic  nut- 
meg liver). 

Judgment. — Nutmeg  liver  is  decidedly  abnormal  and  must  be 
considered  as  unfit  for  food. 

PIGMENTATION. — A  yellow  discoloration  of  the  liver  is  a  regular 
symptom  of  hepatogenous  icterus.  By  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  a 
deposit  of  bilirubin  crystals  is  found  as  a  cause  of  the  discoloration. 
JMelanosis  of  the  liver  is  also  observed  in  calves. 


294:  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

A  peculiar  form  of  pigmentation  of  the  liver  is  observed  in 
Texas  fever.  The  enlarged,  superficially  pale,  on  cross-section* 
brownish-yellow,  liver  exhibits  a  delicate  yellow  network  which 
encloses  the  trabeculae  of  the  liver  cells.  This  pigmentation  is  due 
to  a  pronounced  distention  of  the  smaller  bile  ducts  with  thickened 
bile.  In  fresh  preparations  bile  plugs  of  a  Y  form  are  conspicuous- 

DEGENERATIONS. — The  degenerative  conditions  of  cloudy  swell* 
ing  and  fatty  metamorphosis  of  the  liver  are  of  importance  in  meat 
inspection,  since  they  are  the  first  or,  in  premature  slaughter,  the 
only  symptoms  of  serious  infectious  diseases  and  intoxications.  "With 
regard  to  the  distinction  between  fatty  metamorphosis  and  fatty 
infiltration,  compare  page  256. 

Rarely,  amyloid  degeneration  of  the  liver  is  met  with  in  food 
animals.  The  domestic  hen  has  already  been  mentioned  as  the  only 
exception.  Livers  affected  with  amyloid  degeneration  become 
enlarged,  harder  than  normal,  and  of  a  dull  gray  color  (bacon 
liver).  In  the  horse,  the  firmness  of  the  amyloid  liver,  according  to 
Babe,  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  wax  while  cooling,  and  later  of 
the  crumbling,  soft  consistency  of  half  dried  mortar.  The  livers  of 
fowls  affected  with  amyloid  degeneration  are  friable,  light  yellowish 
red  and  to  the  touch  are  granular  sandy  (Kitt). 

HEMORRHAGES. — Hemorrhages  occur  in  the  liver  in  two  different 
forms :  As  a  symptom  of  the  serious  effects  of  an  excess  of  carbon 
dioxid,  infection,  or  intoxication  ;  and  as  a  local  affection  in  conse- 
quence of  the  destruction  of  the  liver  tissue  by  flukes  which  may~ 
have  succeeded  in  boring  through  the  bile  duct  and  penetrating. 
into  the  parenchyma  of  the  liver.  Hemorrhages  of  the  first  named 
sort  are  located  under  the  capsule  of  the  liver,  and  are  of  only  slight 
extent,  while  traumatic  hemorrhages  may  occur  throughout  the 
liver  and  are  sometimes  quite  extensive.  Traumatic  hemorrhages 
terminate,  as  a  rule,  after  resorption  of  the  blood,  in  atrophic  cir- 
rhosis of  the  liver  or  in  abscess  of  the  liver,  when  pyogemc  bacteria 
are  carried  into  the  liver  tissue  by  the  fluke  worm.  The  flukes 
which  cause  traumatic  hemorrhages  are  usually  found  only  after 
considerable  search,  for  the  reason  that  they  are  constantly  moving 
through  the  liver  tissue  by  means  of  the  peculiar  arrangement  of 
spines  on  their  integument. 

Judgment  on  traumatic  hemorrhages  of  the  liver  is  the  same  a& 
that  for  capilliary  angioma. 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS 


295 


NECROSIS. — Multiple  necrosis  of  the  liver  is  met  with  iu  hog 
cholera.  The  necrotic  areas  appear  cloudy  and  friable  ;  their  struc- 
ture is  obliterated ;  otherwise  the  liver  necrosis  which  occurs 
during  the  course  of  hog  cholera  is  only  of  symptomatic  value  and 

FIG.  67. 


Necrosis  of  beef  liver.     Superficial  foci. 

without  sanitary  interest.  Necrotic  processes,  however,  may  occur 
in  the  liver  as  idiopathic  local  affections.  Bang  made  known  the 
fact  that  the  necrosis  bacillus  (see  under  "  Hog  Cholera  ")  has  the 
power  of  penetrating  into  the  liver  of  cattle  and  of  producing  more 

FIG.  68. 


Necrosis  of  beef  liver.     Section  through  an  affected  liver. 

or  less  numerous  necrotic  areas,  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
einboli  caused  by  its  presence  (bacterial  necrosis  of  the  liver). 
Occasionally  the  disease  is  associated  with  inflammation  of  the 
navel  (the  author).  The  necrotic  areas  which  appear  in  bacterial 


296  NOTEWORTHY   OliGANIC   DISEASES 

necrosis  of  the  liver  are,  as  a  rule,  spherical,  cloudy,  firm,  sharply 
delimited,  and  surrounded  by  a  red  zone.  The  necrosis  bacilli  dis- 
covered by  Bang  are  found  in  the  necrotic  areas  in  clumps,  especially 
on  the  borders  between  the  healthy  and  necrotic  tissues.  The  liver 
may  become  enlarged  to  five  times  its  normal  volume.  The  liver 
tissue  lying  between  the  necrotic  foci  is  usually  discolored  as  iu 
icterus.  Later  the  necrotic  areas  become  delimited  from  the  neigh- 
boring tissue  by  tough  capsules  of  connective  tissue,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  necrosed  portions  soften  and  become  modified  into 
green,  friable  pus  with  an  acid  reaction. 

Judgment. — The  necrosis  bacillus  has  a  decided  tendency  to 
localization  It  belongs  to  the  anaerobic  bacteria  and  loses  its. 
vitality  in  blood.  Bacterial  necrosis  of  the  liver  is,  therefore,  to  be 
considered  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  as  a  local  affection,  and  the 
meat  of  animals  affected  with  this  disease  as  harmless.  Neverthe- 
less, the  sale  of  this  meat  must  take  place  under  declaration  if  the 
animal  was  slaughtered  during  the  febrile  stage  of  the  disease,  or 
if  the  icterus  has  developed  in  consequence  of  the  necrosis. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — The  most  frequent  form  of  inflammation  of  the 
liver  is  interstitial  hepatitis.  This  represents  a  chronic  productive 
inflammation  of  the  interacirious  tissue  which  may  lead  to  a  consid- 
erable increase  in  volume  (hypertrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver),  or  to 
a  striking  decrease  in  volume  (atrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver).  In 
both  cases  there  is  an  active  proliferation  of  the  connective  tissue 
of  the  liver.  In  atrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  however,  a  partial 
destruction  of  the  hepatic  parenchyma  and  consequently  a  shrink- 
ing of  the  whole  organ  may  occur  as  a  result  of  the  cicatricial  retrac- 
tion of  the  newly-formed  connective  tissue.  Hypertrophic  cirrhosis 
of  the  liver  is  frequently  observed  in  hogs  to  such  a  degree  that  the 
liver  is  enlarged  to  twice  or  three  times  its  normal  size  .and  can  no 
longer  be  penetrated  with  the  finger.  In  the  horse,  cirrhosis  of  the 
liver  is  symtomatically  an  important  phenomenon  which  accom- 
panies the  so-called  Schweinsberger  disease,  a  form  of  perniciou^ 
anemia;  in  cattle,  it  is  a  result  of  distomatosis.  In  the  origin  of  cir- 
rhosis of  the  liver  in  hogs,  feeding  alcoholic  by-products  appears  to 
play  an  important  role  (Tschauner). 

Judgment  on  productive  inflammatory  processes  has  already 
been  discussed  on  page  262.  Livers  with  a  moderate  formation  of 
connective  tissue  should  be  admitted  for  sale  without  restriction. 
Those  with  a  pronounced  formation  of  such  tissue,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  unfit  for  food  and  should  be  sold  under  declaration ;  while 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  297 

livers  which  have  lost  their  normal  consistency  should  be  completely 
withheld  from  sale. 

Hepatitis  with  abscess  is  a  second  form  of  inflammation  of  the 
liver.  It  may  arise  from  pathogenic  bacteria  transported  through 
the  umbilical  veins  in  new-born  animals  or  more  rarely  through  the 
portal  vein  in  inflammatory  processes  in  the  intestine,  or  through 
the  hepatic  artery  in  pyemia.  In  cattle,  abscess  of  the  liver  may  be 
a  sequela  of  hepatic  necrosis  (page  295).  Hepatic  abscesses  are 
commonly  sterile,  which  fact  is  ascribed  by  Teissier  to  the  bacteri- 
cide  action  of  the  hepatic  glycogen. 

For  judgment  on  hepatitis  with  abscesses,  see  under  "  Pyemia." 

Inflammation  of  the  bile  ducts. — The  bile  ducts  (as  well  as  the 
liver  tissue)  may  be  altered  by  inflammatory  processes.  The  most 
frequent  form  of  inflammation  of  the  bile  duct  is  distomatosis,  char- 
acterized by  a  thickening  of  the  walls  and  occasional  calcification. 
A  chronic  inflammatory  process  may  secondarily  involve  the  liver 
tissue  through  the  larger  bile  ducts,  and  may  cause  a  partial  or  total 
cirrhosis. 

A  chronic  inflammation  of  the  walls  of  the  bile  duct  is  observed 
to  a  slight  degree  in  consequence  of  obstruction  of  bile  by  the  pres- 
ence of  biliary  calculi  in  the  efferent  ducts.  A  clear,  greenish-yellow 
bile  flows  out  of  the  thickened  and  distended  bile  ducts  in  such 
cases  in  contrast  with  the  dirty,  oleaceous  substance  which  is  dis- 
charged from  bile  ducts  infested  with  liver  flukes. 

Judgment  on  inflammations  of  the  bile  ducts  will  be  determined 
according  to  the  degree  of  sympathetic  affection  of  the  liver  tissue. 
As  a  rule,  it  is  sufficient  to  .remove  the  affected  bile  ducts  for  the 
purpose  of  putting  the  liver  into  marketable  condition. 

TUMORS. — The  liver  of  food  animals  may  be  the  seat  of  primary 
and  secondary  sarcoma  and  carcinoma.  Furthermore,  in  hogs  and 
calves,  leukemic  infiltration  is  observed  as  a  symptom  of  leukemia 
and  pseudo-leukemia.  The  liver  in  such  cases  is  much  enlarged,  is 
light-gray  or  grayish-brown  in  color,  and  tough.  A  close  examina- 
tion shows  that  the  interacinous  connective  tissue  is  greatly 
-distended  in  consequence  of  leukemic  infiltration. 

For  judgment,  see  under  "  Tumors  "  and  "  Leukemia." 

Multiple  primary  adenoma  in  the  liver  of  the  horse  was 
described  by  Kitt.  The  liver  was  infested  with  hundreds  of  tubercles 
of  different  sizes,  from  a  grain  of  sand  to  a  potato.  The  tubercles 


298  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC   DISEASES 

were  irregular  in  form,  yellowish-white  in  color,  and  of  a  hard,,, 
elastic  consistency.  Tubercles  were  also  found  in  the  portal 
lymph  glands.  Under  the  microscope  they  exhibited  numerous, 
tubes  of  cylindrical  epithelium  which  were  forced  together. 
Furthermore,  adenoma  of  the  liver  is  also  observed  in  cattle  and 
sheep. 

Martin  made  a  report  concerning  cavernous  tumors  (cavities 
•varying  in  size  from  that  of  mustard  seed  to  that  of  a  hazel  nut  and 
filled  with  blood).  These  tumors  were  present  in  the  liver  and 
other  organs. 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — Of  the  infectious  granulations  in 
the  liver,  mention  should  be  made  of  tubercles,  glanderous  neo- 
morphs,  actiuomycomata  and  botryomycomata,  the  bacterial  organ- 
isms of  which  are  introduced  into  the  liver  either  through  the  portal 
vein  or  through  the  hepatic  artery.  Hepatic  actinomycomata  arise 
regularly  from  one  of  the  first  stomachs.  Direct  invasion  of  the  liver 
by  actinomycomata  from  the  anterior  stomachs  has  been  observed, 
as  well  as  eruption  of  actinomycotic  tumors  in  connection  with 
wounds  of  the  liver  caused  by  infected  foreign  bodies  which  pene- 
trated the  liver  from  the  reticulum.  That  hepatic  actino  mycosis  is 
not  rare  is  shown  by  a  statement  of  Rasmussen,  who  identified 
twenty-two  cases  of  the  disease  in  the  abattoir  at  Copenhagen  in  the 
course  of  a  year. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  tuberculosis  of  the 
liver  frequently  occurs  in  hogs  in  a  form  which  may  easily  be  con- 
fused with  simple  interstitial  hepatitis.  Upon  close  examination, 
however,  casefied  and  calcified  foci  are  observed  in  the  strongly- 
proliferated  interacinous  connective  tissue  of  tuberculous  hog  livers, 
quite  aside  from  the  fact  that  the  portal  lymph  glands  exhibit  the 
most  pronounced  tuberculous  changes. 

PARASITES  are  very  frequent  in  the  liver,  especially  echinococci, 
flukes,  Gysticercus  tenuicdlis,  and,  more  rarely,  pentastomum.  All  of 
these  parasites  will  be  considered  in  greater  detail  under  "  Invasion 
Diseases."  Attention  may  here  be  called  merely  to  the  fact  that  the 
dangerous  bladder  worms,  Cysticercus  bovis  and  C.  cellulosae,  occur 
only  in  cases  of  most  serious  invasion  and  that  in  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  cases  of  bladder  worms  in  the  liver,  C.  tenuicollis  is  the  spe- 
cies concerned.  The  fact  that  the  latter  in  its  larval  stage  resembles, 
externally  the  dangerous  bladder  worms  (compare  Fig.  69),  has  led 
to  unwarranted  condemnation  of  whole  animals. 


DIGESTIVE   APPARATUS  299 

in  hogs,  one  finds  coccidia  in  the  liver  in  addition  to  the  above- 
named  parasites.     They  produce  tubercles  varying  in  size  from  a-. 
pea  to  a  walnut,  with   cloudy,  brown,  oleaceous  contents,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  which  a  pronounced  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  tissue  is 
developed. 

Coccidiosis  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  rabbits  (Fig  70). 

The  wandering  of  round  worms  into  the  bile  ducts  has  already 
been  mentioned.  By  sudden  obstruction  of  the  bile  ducts,  they 
bring  about  icterus  and,  under  certain  conditions,  multiple  necrosis 
of  the  liver  (effect  of  retained  bile). 

"  Calcareous-fibro'us  "  tubercles  of  the  liver. — Yellow  and  yellowish- 
brown  formations,  varying  in  size  from  a  pin  head  to  millet  seed, 
and  characterized  by  Kitt  as  calcareous-fibrous  tubercles,  are 

FIG.  70 


FIG.  69. 


Young  Cysticercus  tenuicollis 
in  situ,  (after  Leuckart). 


Rabbit  liver  with  coccidia. 

rather  frequently  observed  in  the  liver  of  the  horse.  Kitt  considers 
them  "  primary  healed  necrotic  areas,  such  as  may  arise  in  omphalo- 
phlebitis  of  foals  (einbolic  infarcts  of  minute  caliber)."  DieckerhofF, 
on  the  other  hand,  regards  them  as  a  product  of  vegetable  parasites. 
According  to  Willach,  the  tubercles  appear,  as  a  rule,  to  be  of 
zooparasitic  origin.  On  two  occasions  he  found  egg-shaped  struc- 
tures in  such  tubercles  which  he  considered  to  be  eggs  of  an  oxyuris. 
In  the  third  case,  Willach  succeeded  in  demonstrating  operculate 
eggs  of  a  parasite  in  the  tubercles ;  and,  in  the  fourth  case,  devel- 
opmental stages  of  a  distome  such  as  occur  in  the  lungs.  Yon  Ratz 
also  observed  dead  specimens  of  a  distome  filled  with  eggs  in 
calcareous-fibrous  tubercles  of  the  liver.  Finally,  Olt  demonstrated 
prematurely  disintegrated  echinococci  in  the  tubercles. 


300  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

The  reproductive  power  of  the  liver  in  partial  destruction  of 
'the  liver  tissue  as  a  result  of  parasitic  invasion  is  remarkable.  The 
uninfected  parts  of  the  liver  show,  according  to  the  degree  of  destruc- 
tion, a  greater  or  less  increase  in  volume  as  a  result  of  proliferation 
of  the  liver  cells,  of  the  biliary  capillaries  and  of  the  connective 
tissue  (PonfickX 

Cadaverous  alterations. — The  great  susceptibility  of  the  liver  to 
decomposition  by  putrefactive  bacteria  is  well  known.  In  beef 
livers,  however,  one  can  observe  the  origin  of  putrefactive  gas 
bubbles  under  the  liver  capsule  within  from  one  to  two  hours  after 
slaughter.  This  unusually  rapid  decomposition  is  due  to  befouling 
the  liver  with  the  stomach  contents ;  for  portions  of  the  latter  may 
pass  into  the  open  vena  cava,  thence  into  the  hepatic  veins,  if  the 
contaminating  matter  is  not  entirely  removed,  but  merely  washed 
off  superficially.  It  would  be  advisable  to  open  up  the  larger 
branches  of  the  hepatic  veins  and  wash  them  out.  In  consequence 
of  its  high  content  of  glycogen,  the  liver  may  also  undergo  an  acid 
fermentation  (compare  the  chapter  on  "  Post  Mortem  Changes  "). 

(g)  Pancreas. 

Diseases  of  the  pancreas  are  rare  occurrences  in  domesticated 
food  animals.  Concretions  (pancreas  stones)  are  found  in  the  effer- 
ent ducts  of  the  pancreas  with  comparative  frequency.  The  efferent 
ducts  of  the  usually  simultaneously-indurated  organ  are  enlarged 
and  filled  with  milk-white  concretions  varying  in  size  from  a  millet 
seed  to  a  hazel  nut.  According  to  Bar,  they  are  composed  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  traces  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  an  undetermined 
organic  substance.  Furthermore,  tumors  are  observed  in  the 
pancreas  and,  in  tropical  countries,  also  a  parasite  (Distomum  pan- 
creaticum)  in  sheep,  cattle  and  buffalo. 

Marek  called  attention  to  a  frequent  necrosis  of  the  adipose 
tissue  of  the  pancreas  in  old,  fat,  Mangalicza  hogs.  In  such  cases, 
irregular,  sharply-defined  tubercles,  varying  in  size  from  a  poppy 
seed  to  a  pea,  are  found  in  the  interacinous  tissue  of  the  pancreas, 
which,  as  a  rule,  is  strongly  developed.  The  tubercles  at  first 
possess  a  slight  sheen  ;  later  they  become  dull  and  cloudy ;  their 
color  varies  from  a  yellowish-white  to  a  grayish-yellow.  The  pan- 
creas increases  in  volume  and  its  consistency  becomes  firmer  as  the 
number  and  size  of  the  tubercles  increase.  In  the  most  severe  cases 
of  the  disease,  the  pancreas  may  enlarge  five  times  and  may  form  a 
firm,  hard,  bilobed  body.  The  glandular  tissue  remains  completely 


UMNO-GENITAL   APPARATUS  301 

Intact.  This  explains  why  the  general  condition  of  the  animal  is 
not  disturbed  in  consequence  of  the  disease,  and  especially  why 
diabetes  does  not  occur.  Marek  demonstrated,  by  inoculation  and 
microscopic  examination  that  the  disease  studied  by  him  was  neither 
of  an  infectious  nor  parasitic  origin. 

Judgment. — Marek  rightly  maintains  that,  according  to  the 
nature  of  this  disease,  an  injurious  effect  upon  the  character  of  the 
meat  can  not  be  assumed  to  occur.  In  fact,  the  meat  should  be  sold 
without  restriction,  if  no  changes  have  occured  in  other  organs. 

3.— Urine-Genital  Apparatus. 

(a)  Kidneys. 

MALFORMATIONS. — The  most  frequent  malformations  of  the  kid* 
neys  are  unilateral  congenital  aplasia  (with  vicarious  hypertrophy 
of  the  other  kidney) ;  unilateral  or  bilateral  fissure  of  the  kidneys, 
symphysis  of  both  kidneys  (horse-shoe  kidneys),  and  congenital 
cystic  kidneys. 

LIME  AND  PIGMENT  DEPOSITS. — Deposition  of  lime  is  occasionally- 
found  in  sheep  in  the  form  of  striae  in  the  medullary  layer  of  the  kid- 
neys, and  frequently  in  cattle  in  the  form  of  concretions  in  the  renal 
pelvis  (nephro-lithiasis).  As  a  rule,  in  the  latter  case  there  is  at  the 
same  time  a  moderate  chronic  interstitial  nephritis  which  leads  to 
partial  shrinkage.  Furthermore,  hemoglobin  and  bilirubin  may 
be  deposited  in  the  kidneys. 

DEGENERATIONS. — With  regard  to  degenerations  of  the  kidneys 
the  same  statements  may  be  made  as  with  reference  to  the  liver. 
Attention  should  be  called,  however,  to  the  fact  that  cloudy  swelling 
and  fatty  metamorphosis  of  the  kidneys  indicate  a  more  serious 
diseased  condition  of  the  whole  organism.  Furthermore,  in  order 
to  avoid  errors  in  diagnosis,  it  should  be  noted  that  fatty  infiltration 
occurs  in  the  kidneys  of  fattened  animals  and  causes  a  cloudiness 
similar  to  that  of  fatty  metamorphosis  (compare  page  175). 

Hemorrhages  in  the  kidneys  are  of  diagnostic  interest,  for  they 
may  be  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic  unhealed  purulent  pro- 
cesses ;  for  example,  osteomyelitis.  Furthermore,  hemorrhages 
occur  in  the  kidneys  under  the  same  conditions  as  in  the  liver. 

INFARCTS. — The  formation  of  infarcts  may  appear  in  the  kidneys, 
since  they  contain  terminal  arteries.  Hemorrhagic  infarcts  are 


302  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

conical,  with  the  base  outward.  Their  color  is  first  red,  then  cloudy 
gray-yellow  or  yellowish-white.  The  issue  in  benign  emboli  is 
cicatrization  ;  in  infectious  cases,  the  formation  of  pus  under  certain 
conditions.  Lustig  described  multiple  formation  of  infarcts  in  the 
kidneys  of  a  horse  which  was  due  to  bilateral  verminous  aneurism, 
of  the  renal  arteries. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Inflammations  of  the  kidneys  are  due  to 
various  conditions  and  are  therefore  of  varying  importance  for  meat 
inspection.  Acute  parenchymatous  nephritis  may  accompany  intoxica- 
tions, as  excretion  nephritis  (from  cantharides),  or  acute  infectious 
diseases  (swine  erysipelas),  and  pyemic  and  septicemic  processes. 
In  such  cases  the  kidney  is  swollen. 

Purulent  nephritis  is  a  second  important  form  of  renal  inflam- 
mation. This  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  numerous, 
mostly  small,  abscesses  surrounded  by  red  zones  in  the  cortical  and 
medullary  layers  of  the  kidneys.  It  may  arise  from  a  partial  acute 
nephritis  (purulent  areolar  nephritis)  ;•  also  from  emboli  (embolic 
purulent  nephritis) ;  and,  finally,  from  a  purulent  process  spreading 
from  the  urethra  and  bladder  (pyelo-nephritis).  In  both  of  the  first 
cases,  the  abscesses  lie  almost  exclusively  in  the  cortical  layer ; 
while  in  pyelo-nephritis,  they  are  primarily  in  the  medullary  layer. 

The  author  frequently  observed  ascending  purulent  nephritis 
associated  with  purulent  cystitis  in  wethers,  and  once  also  in  a  calf 
in  which  a  diphtheritic  inflammation  had  extended  from  the 
urachus  to  the  bladder  and  thence  to  the  ureters  and  kidneys. 

Judgment. — In  the  last-mentioned  cases,  the  meat  had  to  be 
prohibited  from  sale,  since  the  animals  showed  symptoms  of  acute 
pyemia.  In  purulent  aerolar  or  embolic  purulent  nephritis,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  animals  may  exhibit  completely  normal  conditions 
in  other  respects.  The  meat  of  such  animals  is  to  be  admitted 
to  sale  without  restriction,  if  the  primary  foci  are  considered  as 
healed. 

The  third  principal  form  of  nephritis  is  chronic  induration, 
so-called  contracted  kidneys,  in  which  the  surface  becomes  granu- 
lated and  a  symphysis  arises  between  the  renal  capsule  and  the 
surface  of  the  kidneys. 

Judgment. — Contracted  kidney  in  food  animals,  according  to 
present  knowledge,  does  not  possess  as  much  significance  with 
reference  to  the  general  condition  as  in  man.  It  is  of  interest  to  us 


UEINO- GENITAL  APPARATUS  303 

merely  as  a  local  affection  which  should  be  judged  analogously  to 
cirrhosis  of  the  liver. 

We  are  indebted  to  Kitt*  for  a  comparative  account  of  the 
forms  of  nephritis  which  occur  in  domesticated  animals.  This 
author  distinguishes  the  following  forms  : 

Parenchymatous  nephritis. — Parenchymatous  inflammation  of 
the  kidneys  is  characterized  by  a  moderate  or  not  demonstrable 
swelling  or  by  a  ready  separability  of  the  tunica  propria,  greater 
prominence  of  the  glomeruli,  cloudy  coloration,  especially  on  cross 
section,  greater  fluid  content  of  the  latter,  and  hyperemia  of  the 
medullary  substance.  Hemorrhagic  parenchymatous  nephritis  is 
a  special  parenchymatous  nephritis  which  is  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  numerous  minute  red  hemorrhagic  spots  and  is  observed 
in  typical  development  in  swine  erysipelas.  Kitt  proposes  the  term 
acute,  diffuse  nephritis  and  hemorrhagic  nephritis  for  those  condi- 
tions in  which  true  inflammatory  alterations  and  other  conspicuous 
symptoms  are  present  in  high  degree. 

Purulent  renal  inflammations. — These  are  either  embolic  (meta- 
static)  or  ascending  (urogenous).  Furthermore,  purulent  processes 
appear,  the  causes  of  which  can  not  be  demonstrated  anatomically. 

In  purulent  embolic  nephritis  (punctate,  disseminate,  diffuse, 
mixed),  the  whole  organ,  especially  the  whole  cortical  region,  is 
invaded  by  abscesses  which  are  surrounded  with  a  bright-red  zone 
and  dark-red  hemorrhages.  The  renal  pelvis  is  uuchanged4  but  may 
contain  a  bloody  urine  rich  in  leucocytes.  Bacteria,  especially 
groups  of  micrococci,  are  demonstrable  in  the  purulent  infiltrated 
regions.  The  process  involves  both  kidneys.  This  form  of  nephritis 
appears  to  be  more  frequent  in  hogs,  but  is  also  observed  in  a 
perfectly  typical  development  in  the  calf.  Kitt  applied  the  term 
mixed  purulent  nephritis  to  that  form  of  inflammation  which  very 
frequently  occurs  in  the  calf  and  in  which  the  hyperemic  zone  is 
smaller,  while  the  whole  cortex  is  discolored,  dirty  whitish  gray, 
and  oozes  on  section  (combination  of  purulent  degenerative  inflam- 
mations and  of  those  which  lead  to  hyperplasia  of  the  connective 
tissue). 

Ulcerative  and  vegetative  endocarditis,  pyemia,  and  pulmonary 
cavities  are  to  be  considered  the  causative  factors  of  purulent 
nephritis.  In  this  connection  Kitt  calls  attention  to  the  experiments 

*  Monatsh.  fur  Praktische  Tierheilk.,  IV,  Xos.  ll  and  12. 


NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC   DISEASES 

of  C,  Frankel,  who  produced  artificially  a  disseminate  purulent 
nephritis  by  intravenous  injection  of  Staphylococcus pyogenes  aureus  in 
rabbits  (whitish  areas  of  the  size  of  a  bean  or  extensive  pyramidal 
infarcts). 

The  larger  encysted  purulent  areas  in  the  kidneys  are  charac- 
terized by  Kitt  as  apostematous  nephritis  (abscess  or  apostema  of  the 
kidney).  Kitt  distinguishes  apostematous  perinephritis  and  para- 
nephritis,  perirenal  abscess  and  pyonephrosis.  Apostematous 
nephritis  may  be  of  embolic,  urinous,  and,  perhaps,  also,  of  traumatic 
origin. 

Kitt  considers  the  comparatively  frequent  "white  spot  kidneya 
of  calves"  (nephritis  fibro-plastica  or  nephritis  maculosa  alba, 
according  to  Kitt)  as  a  transitional  stage  between  acute  and  chronic 
inflammation.  The  macroscopic  alterations  in  white  spot  kidney 
are  sufficiently  well  known  to  all  meat  inspectors.  We  are  indebted 
to  Rieek  for  a  detailed  description  of  this  condition.  According  to 
Kitt,  fibro-plastic  nephritis  is  "  either  from  the  very  beginning  a 
progressive  process  of  induration,  perhaps  caused  by  micro- 
organisms which  are  not  pyogenic  and  which  pass  through  the 
kidney  ;  or  it  is  the  second  stage  of  a  purulent  nephritis  *  *  * 
in  which  the  slight  exudative  deposit  in  small  quantities  is  resorbed 
or  removed  through  the  urinary  canal,  and  productive  inflammation 
becomes  predominant."  The  regular  affection  of  both  kidneys,  the 
wedge  shape,  disseminate,  or  multiple  arrangement  of  the  white 
areas,  and  the  frequent  presence  of  red  borders  and  hemorrhages 
are  unmistakable  signs  of  the  embolic  hematogenous  character  of 
the  white  spot  kidney  of  calves.  Kitt  agrees  entirely  with  Rieck, 
who,  as  is  well  known,  described  the  disease  in  question  as  multiple 
embolic  nephritis  of  calves.  Fibro-plastic  nephritis  seems  to 
disappear  during  the  first  years  of  life,  but  may,  however,  lead  to 
multiple,  diffuse  sclerosis  of  the  kidneys. 

Glomerulo-nephritis  is  another  inflammatory  disease  of  the 
kidneys  which  is  a  forerunner  of  diffuse  nephritis.  A  diagnosis  is 
to  be  reached  only  on  the  basis  of  a  microscopic  investigation. 

Kitt  characterized  as  mixed  nephritis  those  conditions  in  which 
interstitial  inflammation  and  degenerative  changes  of  the  epithelium 
exist  simultaneously.  The  kidneys  are  firmer  than  normal,  cloudy, 
and  red-yellow  or  gray  spotted.  The  disease  occurs  from  unknown 
causes  in  hogs. 

Indurative  nephritis. — Inflammations  of  the  kidney,  in  which  the 
most  important  phenomena  are  connective  tissue  proliferation^ 


URINO-GENITAL   APPARATUS  305 

sclerosis,  or  induration,  are  described  by  Kitt  under  the  general 
name  indurative  nephritis  (chronic  fibrous  nephritis).  He  distin- 
guishes multiple  depositions  and  absorption  of  connective  tissue^, 
which  are  frequent  in  cattle,  as  sclerosis  maculata  sive  virgata,  and 
diffuse  hyperplasia  of  the  connective  tissues  or  sclerosis  totalis  sive 
diffusa  remim.  In  extreme  cases,  which  are  occasionally  observed 
in  cattle,  the  kidneys  are  abnormally  large,  unusually  hard,  some- 
times cut  with  difficulty,  and  grate  on  section  (lime  deposition).  If 
the  newly-formed  connective  tissue  shrinks,  a  contracted  kidney  is 
formed,  nephritis  grauulata  (ren  retractus). 

Nephritis  fibro-vesiculosa  represents  a  rare  form  of  inflamma- 
tion. It  is  characterized  by  a  cystoid  degeneration  of  the  urinary 
canal  and  by  the  formation  of  watery  cysts  which  are  thereby 
produced.  The  process  is  observed  in  a  granular  diathesis  and  also 
in  simple  induration  of  the  kidneys. 

Finally,  bacterial  nephritis  of  cattle  is  to  be  distinguished  as  a 
special  form  of  inflammation  (see  below). 

Among  the  renal  inflammations  mentioned  above,  fibro-plastic 
nephritis  of  the  calf  and  bacterial  pyelo-nephritis  of  old  cattle  possess 
considerable  importance  in  meat  inspection. 

Fibro-plastic  nephritis. — According  to  Rieck,  this  is  the  most 
frequent  disease  of  calves.  Among  26,000  calves  which  were  slaugh- 
tered in  the  abattoir  of  Leipsic  during  the  first  half  of  1890,  Eeick 
found  pathological  processes  which  led  to  condemnation  in  only 
seventy-two  cases,  and  of  these  twenty-four,  or  33 1  per  cent.,  were 
kidney  diseases.  Multiple  embolic  nephritis,  for  which,  from 
reasons  given  above,  Kitt  chose  the  term  nephritis  fibro-plastica, 
constituted  the  largest  contingent  of  pathologically-altered  kidneys. 

Etiology. — According  to  the  very  plausible  assumption  of  Kitt, 
the  cause  of  fibro-plastic  nephritis  is  to  be  found  in  micro-organisms 
of  a  particular  species  or  pyogenic  bacteria  which  have  lost  their 
peptonizing  power  and,  therefore,  exercise  merely  a  stimulating 
action  upon  the  formation  of  connective  tissue.  Rieck  found  in  one 
case  in  which  the  foci  had  the  appearance  of  putrefactive  degenera- 
tion, micro-organisms  of  various  forms,  and  in  another  equally 
recent  case,  structures  which  resembled  the  mycelia  of  mold  fungi. 
Kabitz  demonstrated  the  presence  of  bacilli,  streptococci,  and 
staphylococci  in  the  diseased  foci.  The  point  of  origin  of  fibro- 
plastic  nephritis — that  is,  the  organ  from  which  the  micro-organisms 
of  fibro-plastic  nephritis  pass  into  the  blood  circulation — can  not,  as 
£}  rule,  be  determined  at  slaughter.  As  Reick  indicated,  the  navel 


306  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

can  not  be  assumed  to  be  the  point  of  origin.  It  is  more  probable 
that  the  disease  in  question  arises  from  the  excretions  of  infectious 
material  through  the  kidneys,  in  connection  with  frequent  intestinal 
inflammation  in  calves.  Rieck  states  that  he  was  unable  to  deter- 
mine any  retarding  influence  of  the  disease  upon  th.e  development 
of  the  animals.  Vaerst  considers  spot  disease  of  kidneys,  not  as 
products  of  pathological  processes,  but  as  the  remains  of  incom- 
pletely-developed kidneys — blastem  tubercles. 

Judgment. — Fibro-plastic  nephritis  in  calves  in  the  majority  of 
cases  represents  the  last  phenomenon  of  a  general  disease  which 
has  run  its  course.  In  favor  of  this  hypothesis  we  have  the  absence 
of  a  primary  alteration  and  the  good  nutritive  condition  of  the 

FIG.  71. 


White  spot  kidney  (nephritis  fibroplastica)  of  the  calf. 

animals.  In  all  these  cases  fibre-plastic  renal  inflammation  has 
significance  only  as  a  local  affection.  The  affected  kidneys  are  to 
be  prohibited  from  sale  as  highly  unfit  for  food  on  account  of  their 
great  deviation  from  the  normal ;  while  no  restriction  should  be 
placed  upon  the  sale  of  the  meat.  Yaerst  also  favored  the  admission 
of  altered  kidneys  after  convincing  himself  of  their  harmlessness  and 
good  flavor  after  roasting.  In  extremely  rare  cases,  in  which,  in 
addition  to  the  kidney  disease  in  question,  acute  alterations  exist  in 
other  organs,  it  is  necessary  to  proceed  according  to  their  special 
characters  (see  under  "  Pyemia  "). 

Bacterial  Pyelo-nepliritis  of  Cattle. — This  disease  of  the  kidneys  is 
important  on  account  of  the  frequency  of  its  occurrence,  and  also 


UEINO-GENITAL  APPARATUS  307 

for  the  reason  that  when  the  bilateral  affection  occurs  it  may  cause 
a  serious  disturbance  of  the  general  condition.  In  unilateral  pyelo- 
nephritis, on  the  other  hand,  as  a  rule,  such  disturbances  are  not 
observed. 

Pathological  Anatomy. — In  an  examination  of  the  body  cavity 
the  inspector  notices  first  an  enlargement  and  thickening  of  one  or 
both  ureters.  After  removing  the  kidneys  from  their  protective 
covering,  one  observes  that  the  kidney  fat  tissue  has  undergone  a 
serous  infiltration  and  that  the  kidneys  are  enlarged  and  the  surface 
is  either  completely  gray  or  spotted  with  gray.  The  most  important 
changes,  however,  appear  only  on  sectioning  the  kidneys.  The 
renal  pelvis  is  greatly  enlarged  and  fully  distended  with  a  gray, 
slimy,  purulent  secretion  of  an  ammoniacal  odor.  Triple  phosphate 
crystals  are  found  in  the  secretion.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the 
renal  pelvis  and  the  adjacent  medullary  layer  show  swelling  and 
diphtheritic  ulcers.  Cloudy  streaks  may  be  observed  passing  from 
the  renal  pelvis  through  the  medullary  layer  to  the  cortical  layer. 
Furthermore,  small  abscesses  are  found  in  the  medullary  and 
cortical  layers. 

Etiology. — As  the  investigations  of  En- 
<derleii    and    Hoflich    have    shown,    pyelo-  FIG.  72. 

nephritis  of  cattle  is  caused  by  the  so-called 
kidney  bacillus  (Bacillus  bovis  renalis,  Bol- 
linger).  It  is  2  to  3  /*  long  and  0.6  to  .7  /* 
wide,  sometimes  slightly  curved  and  rounded 
-at  the  ends  (Fig.  72).  The  kidney  bacillus  is 
non-motile  and  is  easily  distinguished  from 
related  bacteria  by  the  fact  that  it  is 
strained  by  the  Gram  method.  In  a  case  of  .^^ 
pyelo-nephritis  of  cattle,  Cadeac  and  Morot  ' 

found  a  pure  culture  of  Bacillus  pyocyaneus.         Bacillus  bovis  renalis. 

Judgment. — In  an  appendix  to  the  work 

of  Enderlen,  Bellinger  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  kidney 
bacillus  of  cattle  is  characterized  by  its  strict  localization  in  the 
renal  pelvis  and  tissue  of  the  kidney.  It  shows  no  tendency  to 
generalization. 

Unilateral  pyelo-nephritis,  as  already  mentioned,  is  frequently 
observed  quite  unexpectedly  in  well-nourished  animals.  In  such 
cases  the  inspector  should  simply  remove  the  affected  kidney  and 
ureter.  If,  however,  both  kidneys  are  involved  and  the  disease  has 
already  led  to  extreme  emaciation  or  to  retention  of  the  urine,  the 
meat  of  affected  animals  is  to  be  wholly  excluded  from  human  con- 


308 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


Sumption  as  highly  unfit  for  food.  In  the  latter  case  a  urinous  or* 
ammoniacal  odor  develops  during  the  cooking  of  the  meat  (see  under- 
"Uremia"). 

TUMORS. — In  the  kidneys  of  food  animals  fibro-sarcoma  and  car- 
cinoma (adeno-carcinoma)  are  observed.     Furthermore,  in  leukemia, 
the  kidneys  are  altered  specifically  (enlarged  and  grayish-white  in 
consequence   of   leukemic   infiltration).      Sarcoma   and   carcinoma, 
appear  either  as  a  primary  affection  in  the  kidneys  or  develop  here 
metastatically   during   general    sarcomatosis    and    carcinomatosis. 
Primary  carcinoma  and  sarcoma  may  attain  considerable  size.     The- 
author  observed  a  case  of  renal  carcinoma  in  a  hog  in  which  th& 
affected  kidney  weighed  18  kg.     Rieck  described  a  case  of  adeno- 
sarcoma  in  the  kidney  of  the  hog  in  which  the  organ  was  changed.. 
into   a  spherical   mass  of  3J    kg.   weight.     Tumors   of   metastatic- 
origin  were  present  in  large  numbers  and  sprinkled  everywhere  in* 
the  healthy  tissue. 

INFECTIOUS   GRANULATIONS. — Through    hematogenous   infection 
the  development  of  the  tubercles  of  glanders  or  tuberculosis  may 

FIG.  73. 


Bovine  kidney  with  tuberculosis  in  different  stages  in  the  individual  renculi. 

a,  solitary  young  tubercle  with  incipient  caseation;    b,  numerous  tubercles  of  the 

same  sort;  c,  older  totally  casefied  tubercles;  d,  totally  tuberculous  renculus, 

occur  in  the  kidneys,  and  rarely,  in  cattle,  actinomycomata  may- 
appear. 


URINO-GENITAL  APPARATUS  309 

Tuberculosis  of  the  kidneys  first  appears  in  the  form  of  minute 
.gray  tubercles  (Fig.  73,  a  and  b)  which  remain  scattered  or  *orm 
larger  groups  by  a  local  dissemination  (Figs.  73  c  and  74).  In  the 
latter  case,  individual  renculi  may  be  completely  destroyed  (Fig. 
73  d),  while  the  rest  of  the  kidney  remains  intact.  Kenal  tubercu- 
losis is  distinguished  from  other  changes  in  the  kidneys  by  the 
presence  of  spherical  tubercles  with  casefied  centers  (Fig.  v3,  a 
,-and  b). 

FIG.  74. 


Section  of  a  beef  renculus  with  tubercles  in  the  medullary  and  cortical  layers. 

PARASITES  are  rare  in  the  kidneys.  They  are  the  usual  seat  of 
Eustrongylus  yigas.  Moreover,  Sderostomum  equinum,  cysticerci,  and 
echinococci  sometimes  occur  in  the  kidneys. 

Natterer  found  a  nematode  (Stephanurus  dentatus,  Diesing)  ii» 
the  fat  capsule  of  the  kidney  in  a  Chinese  breed  of  hogs.  Accord- 
ing to  Leuckart,  the  parasite  which  he  named  Sderostomum  pingui- 
cola,  is  occasionally  found  in  our  hogs  in  the  fat  capsule  of  the 
kidney.  The  male  is  from  20  to  26  mm.  and  the  female  from  30  to 
36  mm.  long,  Eaillet  and  Lucet  demonstrated  in  emaciated  geese 
white  tubercles  of  the  size  of  a  pin  head,  consisting  of  masses  o£ 
oval  structures  resembling  Coccidium  oviforme  (coccidiosis  rencdis). 

(b)  Bladder  and  Urethra. 

The  changes  to  be  considered  in  this  connection  may  be  briefly 
dismissed  since  serious  diseases  of  the  bladder  and  urethra,  involv- 
ing the  general  condition,  are  rare  in  domestic  animals.  Only  irt 


310  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

oxen  and  wethers  are  diseases  of  the  efferent  urinary  passages 
frequent,  since  in  these  animals  cystic  calculi  are  frequently  formed. 
When  large,  the  calculi  may  stop  in  the  S-shaped  curvature  of  the 
urethra,  and  lead  to  a  rupture  of  the  bladder  with  urinary  peritonitis 
as  a  result,  or  to  necrosis  of  the  adjacent  portion  of  the  urethra  with  a 
urinous  infiltration  of  the  tissue  surrounding  the  urethra.  These 
sequelae  have  all  been  discussed  (see  pages  273  and  286). 
Compared  with  these  occurrences,  the  other  alterations  of  the 
bladder  and  urethra  possess  but  slight  practical  importance.  With 
necrosis  of  the  urethra  from  retained  calculi  a  serious  diphtheritic 
urocystitis  may  be  associated  (ascending  infection  of  the  contents  of 
the  bladder),  and  with  this  in  turn  a  peritonitis  may  be  associated 
(in  partial  necrosis  of  the  wall  of  the  bladder).  In  and  of  them- 
selves, cystic  calculi  cause  only  slight  superficial  changes  of  the 
mucous  membrane,  even  when  they  are  present  in  large  num- 
bers. A  cystic  catarrh  of  greater  or  less  severity  is  observed  in 
cows  after  parturition;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  runs  a  purely  local 
course. 

A  specific  uro-cystitis  appears  to  be  the  cause  of  "bloody 
urine,"  or  heinaturia,  enzootic  in  cattle  in  the  Black  Forest.  Arnold 
considered  coccidia  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease  which,  from  a 
pathologico-anatomical  standpoint,  was  characterized  as  a  chronic 
productive  cystitis  with  papillomatous  and  polypous  neomorphs  of 
the  mucous  membrane  which  showed  a  tendency  to  hemorrhage 
(Gmelin). 

Finally,  an  emphysema  may  occur  in  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  bladder,  caused  by  gas-producing  bacteria.  Bunge  described  a 
case  of  this  sort  in  which  the  disease  affected  simultaneously  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  renal  pelvis. 

Among  the  specific  granulations,  actinomycomata  are  observed 
in  the  urinary  bladder  (Ernst). 

(c)  Male  Sexual  Organs. 

Of  the  diseases  of  the  male  reproductive  organs,  mention  is 
required  only  of  tuberculosis  of  the  testicles.  This  is  quite 
often  observed  in  bulls  and  boars  (Johne,  Lydtin,  Hess,  Kitt, 
Schmidt,  Laurie,  et  al),  Usually  both  testicles  are  completely 
casefied.  The  weight  of  a  tuberculous  testicle  may  reach  10  kg. 
Frequently  tuberculous  alterations  are  also  met  with  on  the  surface 
of  the  testicles  and  sheath  (Kitt  and  the  author). 


URINO-GENITAL  APPAEATUS  311 

(d)  Female  Sexual  Organs. 

The  most  important  changes  in  the  region  of  the  female  repro- 
ductive organs  are  in  the  uterus,  and  the  least  important  in  the 
ovary.  The  diseases  of  the  latter  may  be  disregarded. 

Uterus. 

In  the  uterus  the  following  phenomena  are  of  importance  : 

ABNORMAL  CONTENTS. — The  occurrence  of  mummified  fetuses 
(lithotheria)  or  of  dead  fetuses  undergoing  maceration  in  the  uterus 
should  be  mentioned  only  incidentally.  The  so-called  foul  fetuses 
alone  possess  significance  (see  under  "  Sapremia  "). 

LACERATIONS  frequently  occur  in  difficult  parturition.  They  are 
almost  always  dangerous  lesions,  for  they  may  cause  death  immedi- 
ately through  hemorrhage  or  gradually  through  infectious  peritonitis. 
The  case  described  above  (page  287),  of  laceration  of  the  uterus 
during  torsion,  forms  an  exception  ;  likewise  laceration  during 
closure  of  the  os  uteri.  In  these  cases  bacteria  are  excluded  ;  when, 
however,  torsion  is  accompanied  with  necrosis  of  the  affected  parts 
of  the  body  of  the  uterus  or  of  the  vagina,  a  fatal  infectious 
peritonitis  occurs. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — The  inflammations  of  the  uterus  deserve  the 
most  serious  attention  of  sanitary  officers.  For,  as  the  history  of 
cases  of  meat  poisoning  teaches,  they  may,  under  certain  conditions, 
render  meat  highly  injurious  to  health.  In  this  connection  the 
acute  inflammations  which  are  associated  with  gross  lesions  of  the 
uterine  wall  in  retention  of  placenta  or  with  decomposition  of  the 
fetuses  seern  to  be  especially  dangerous  (inflammations  with  mal- 
odorous exudation).  In  no  other  organs  are  equally  favorable 
conditions  found  for  the  resorption  of  harmful  materials  as  in  the 
uterus  immediately  after  parturition.  For  further  details  of  acute 
metritis,  see  under  "  Septicemia." 

CATARRH. — In  contrast  with  the  acute  inflammations  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus,  the  superficial  processes,  chronic, 
slimy  and  slimy-purulent  catarrh  of  the  uterus  play  an  unimportant 
role  in  meat  inspection.  They  frequently  develop  pronounced 
local  affections  in  connection  with  infectious  vaginal  catarrh  or 
infectious  abortion  and  are  frequently  met  with  unexpectedly  in 
well-nourished  animals.  When  of  a  more  serious  character,  chronie 


312  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

uterine  catarrh  maybe  accompanied  with  emaciation.  In  such  cases 
the  meat  is  to  be  considered  unfit  for  food.  In  juries  to  health  from, 
eating  the  meat  of  animals  which  are  affected  with  uterine  catarrh 
have  never  been  observed,  although  the  meat  of  such  animals  is 
almost  always  used  for  food. 

TUMORS  of  the  uterus  are  quite  often  observed  in  cows.  As  a 
rule,  they  are  fibromyomata  (liomyomata).  In  several  cases  the 
author  also  observed  diffuse  sarcornatous  infiltration  of  the  whole 
wall  of  the  uterus  whereby  it  underwent  an  enormous  enlargement. 
On  sectioning  a  uterus  altered  in  this  way,  the  wall  is  found  to  be 
much  thickened,  white  and  firm  ;  the  mucous  membrane,  on  the 
contrary,  is  atrophied.  Occasionally,  moreover,  carcinoma  of  the 
uterus  is  observed  in  food  animals. 

TUBERCULOSIS. — Tuberculous  affection  of  the  uterus  may  appear 
in  three  forms  :  (1)  As  primary  uterine  tuberculosis  produced  by 
coitus.  This  form  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  ulcers  and 
an  abnormal  secretion  of  the  mucous  membrane.  (2)  A  second 
form  is  embolic  uterine  tuberculosis  with  eruption  of  tubercles 
under  the  mucosa.  (3)  The  third  and  most  frequent  form  is  that 
which  develops  in  chronic  peritoneal  tuberculosis  by  the  spreading 
of  the  infection  to  the  wall  of  the  uterus.  In  the  latter  case  a  great 
increase  in  thickness  may  occur  through  tuberculous  infiltration  of 
all  the  layers  of  the  uterine  wall.  Through  subsequent  calcification 
the  uterus  may  become  a  cavity  inclosed  with  inflexible  walls,  in 
which  a  cloudy,  slimy,  purulent  secretion  is  constantly  present. 

A  tuberculous  affection  of  the  oviduct  is  usually  associated  with 
uterine  tuberculosis.  The  oviducts  alone  may  be  affected  in  the 
same  way  as  the  uterus,  in  connection  with  peritoneal  tuberculosis. 

ANIMAL  PARASITES  are  not  found  in  the  uterus. 

Vagina. 

In  the  vagina  we  observe  inflammatory  conditions  either  of  an 
independent  nature  '(pustular  eruption,  purulent  catarrh),  or  as 
symptoms  of  general  diseases  (rinderpest  and  malignant  catarrhal 
fever).  Pustular  eruption  and  catarrh  are  without  interest  to  meat 
inspectors,  since  they  represent  local  alterations  and  the  parts  in 
question  are  not  used  as  food.  Furthermore,  attention  should  be 
called  to  the  fact  that  the  vaginal  lesions  do  not  possess  the  same 
significance  as  lesions  of  the  uterus,  for,  as  a  rule,  the  former  occur 


TIRING-GENITAL   APPARATUS  313 

in  parts  of  the  vagina  which  are  without  peritoneum  and  may, 
therefore,  heal  like  simple  wounds,  without  complications. 

Fatal  hemorrhages  have  been  observed  in  consequence  of 
injuries  received  during  copulation  (Beisswanger).  More  frequently, 
however,  urinous  infiltrations  occur  in  the  connective  tissue  within 
the  pelvic  cavity  in  consequence  of  injuries  to  the  urethra  received 
during  copulation. 

Finally,  tuberculous  alterations  may  appear  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  vagina  in  the  form  of  granules,  tubercles,  and 
ulcers.  Moreover,  in  vaginal  tuberculosis,  Gartner's  ducts  are 
modified  into  firm  strands  which  may  be  as  thick  as  the  finger. 

DieckerhofF  described  a  contagious  vaginal  inflammation,  sui 
generis,  under  the  name  "  pernicious  colpitis."  This  apparently 
rare  disease  forms  an  exception  to  the  other  diseases  of  the  vagina, 
since  it  does  not  run  a  local  course,  but  causes  a  fatal  general 
disease.  The  meat  is  to  be  judged  as  in  septicemia  from  wounds. 

Udder. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  CONDITIONS.  —  Physiological  hypertrophy  is 
observed  in  the  udder  during  lactation  and  atrophy  after  this 
period  of  activity  in  the  gland.  The  udder  during  active  milk  secre- 
tion is  enlarged  and  hangs  flabbily  on  the  abdominal  wall.  An 
atrophic  udder,  on  the  other  hand,  is  small  and  may  be  enclosed 
and  penetrated  with  fat  to  such  an  extent  that  apparently  little 
remains  of  the  mammary  tissue.  In  heifers  and  young  ewes  in  the 
condition  of  medium  fatness,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  glandular  tissue  from  the  fat  tissue. 

BLACK  PIGMENTATION,  as  already  mentioned  (page  269),  frequently 
occurs  in  the  mammary  region.  The  author  obseived  a  deposition 
of  lime  in  the  udder  of  a  cow  which  was  not  of  parasitic  origin,  but 
which  occurred  in  an  udder  of  normal  size  with  perfect  integrity  of 
the  supramammary  lymph  glands. 

MAMMARY  EDEMA. — In  pregnant  cows  shortly  before  parturition, 
transudation  occurs  in  the  region  of  the  udder  in  the  form  of  so-called 
mammary  edema.  After  the  removal  of  the  skin  a  clear  amber- 
yellow  serum,  with  slight  admixture  of  corpuscular  elements  from 
blood,  oozes  out  of  the  edematous  udder.  Inflammatory  phenomena 
are  absent  and  mammary  edema  is  thereby  distinguished  from 
mammary  phlegmon. 


314  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Inflammations  of  the  udder  are  of  the  highest 
importance.  No  animal  is  so  frequently  affected  with  mammary- 
affections  as  the  cow,  and  this  fact  is  sufficiently  explained  by  its- 
Intensive  milk  production.  Favorable  conditions  for  bacterial  infec- 
tions are  thus  brought  about.  Distinction  may  be  made  between 
parenchymatous  mastitis,  in  which  the  secreting  glandular  tissue  is 
primarily  affected,  and  phlegmonous  mastitis,  which  runs  its  course 
in  the  connective  tissue  stroma  of  the  udder. 

Parenchymatous  mastitis  may  exhibit  all  degrees  of  inflamma- 
tion, including  necrosis.  As  a  rule,  however,  mammary  inflammation. 
is  a  benign  affection  which  may  terminate  with  the  destruction  of 
the  glandular  substance,  but  affects  the  general  condition  only 
slightly  or  temporarily. 

In  phlegmonous  mastitis  one  observes,  in  contrast  to  mammary 
edema,  a  diffuse  redness  and  hemorrhages  in  the  serous  infiltrated 
tissue,  and  numerous  white  and  red  blood  corpuscles  in  the  exuda- 
tion. 

Judgment. — The  common  parenchymatous  and  phelgmonous 
inflammations  of  the  cow's  udder,  which  are  so  frequently  called  to 
the  attention  of  veterinarians,  possess  only  slight  sanitary  impor- 
tance, since  they  are  local  affections.  Those  mammary  inflammations 
in  the  cow  which  are  characterized  by  the  formation  of  numerous 
abscesses  and  frequently  occur  as  sequelae  of  aphtha  and  also  septic 
mastitis  in  sheep,  form  the  only  exceptions  to  this  statement. 

Judgment  on  the  meat  in  the  latter  case  should  be  governed  as 
in  septicemia.  In  mastitis  with  abscess  formation,  on  the  other 
hand,  judgment  should  be  rendered  according  to  the  principles 
observed  in  cases  of  suppuration  and  pyemia  (see  "Pyemia  "). 

Individual  cases  of  mammary  inflammation  in  cows  have  occa- 
sionally attained  significance  from  the  fact  that  they  produced  meat 
poisoning  (meat  poisoning  in  the  towns  of  Gotta,  Wurzen  and  Kiesa). 
Johne  and  Gartner,  who  investigated  the  first  mentioned  case  of 
meat  poisoning,  assumed  thac  the  case  in  question  was  caused  by 
mastitis  due  to  Bacillus  enteritidis  of  Gartner.  This  case  of  mastitis, 
as  well  as  those  which  have  become  known  on  account  of  cases  of 
meat  poisoning  in  Wurzen  and  Eiesa,  were  distinguished  from 
ordinary  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  udder  by  their  serious  effect 
upon  the  general  health  of  the  animal.  The  health  was  so  affected 
that  slaughter  was  necessary. 

Etiology  of  mastitis. — On  the  etiology  of  mammary  inflammations 
•we  have  the  following  investigations  :  Kitt,  following  the  teachings 


URINO-GENITAL  APPAEATU8 

of  Ludwig  Franck,  that  parenchymatous  mastitis  arises  by  infection, 
tested  the  effect  of  several  bacteria  by  injection  into  the  udder.  f  In 
these  experiments  it  was  found  that  the  organism  of  malignant 
edema,  Oidium  lactis,  Micrococcus  tetragenus,  and  cultures  of  soor 
could  be  injected  into  the  milk  cisterns  without  harm.  Even 
Staphylococcus pyogenes  aureus  produced  only  a  temporary  swelling  of 
the  udder.  In  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue,  however,  the 
bacilus  of  malignant  edema  produced  an  acute  inflammatory  edema. 
An  injection  of  the  bacilli  of  blue  milk  and  of  fowl  cholera  caused  a 
catarrhal  mastitis.  The  "bacteria  of  mastitis"  isolated  by  Kitt 
from  udders  spontaneously  affected  with  mastitis,  invariably  pro- 
duced an  acute  indurative  purulent  mastitis.  Kitt's  mastitis 
bacteria  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  the  cause  of  the  ordinary 
mammary  inflammations.  The  disease  can  neither  be  transmitted 
to  rabbits  and  mice  subcutaneously,  nor  to  hogs  and  guinea  pigs  by 
feeding. 

Bang  succeeded  in  isolating  specific  streptococci  as  the  cause  of 
a  chronic  mammary  inflammation  and  from  other  inflarnmed  udders 
he  made  cultures  of  streptococci,  diplococci,staphylococci  and  bacilli, 
which,  when  injected  into  the  milk  cisterns,  produced  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  udder.  Bang  demonstrated  the  same  effect  for  the 
streptococci  of  contagious  coryza.  Guillebeau  found  Staphylococcus 
mastitidis,  also  Galactococcus  versicolor,  G.  flavus,  and  G.  albus  to  be 
the  pathological  organisms  of  mammary  inflammations.  Jonge  suc- 
ceeded in  causing  an  acute  mastitis  by  injecting  Bacillus  enteritidis 
(Gartner)  into  the  milk  cisterns.  In  so-called  "yellow  going  dry," 
which  almost  invariably  leads  to  atrophy  of  the  udder,  Nocard,  Mol- 
lereau,  Hess,  Borgeaud,  and  recently  Zschokke,  demonstrated  long 
streptococci  (Streptococcus  mastitidis  contagiosae)  as  the  cause  of  the 
disease.  The  streptococcus  is  not  pathogenic  for  mice,  guinea  pigs, 
rabbits,  dogs,  or  hogs. 

All  the  mastitis  bacteria  mentioned  above  are  characterized  by 
strict  localization  in  the  udder.  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  with 
Micrococcus  mastitidis  gangrcenosce  ovis1  which  Nocard  isolated  in 
gangrenous  mastitis  of  sheep.  This  organism  has  the  power  to 
produce  in  the  udder  a  septicemia  which  spreads  and  causes  the 
death  of  the  animal  within  a  few  days. 

TUMORS  in  the  udder  are  common  in  only  one  domestic  animal 
— the  dog.  They  occur  as  chondrofibroma,  lipoma,  osteoma, 
myxoma,  sarcoma,  and  carcinoma.  The  latter  may  arise  primarily 
in  the  udder  and  may  cause  the  form  ition  of  metastases.  Accord- 


316 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


ing  to  Kitt,  in  the  larger  domestic  animals,  mixed  tumors,  usually 
adenofibromata,  occur  in  the  udder.  Babe  also  described  a  case  of 
hard  cancer  of  the  udder  in  a  cow,  with  the  formation  of  metastases 
in  the  lungs.  It  is  well  known  that  in  white  horses  the  udder  is  the 
most  frequent  seat  of  melano-sarcoma.  Finally,  in  cows  we  fre- 
quently observe  papilloma  upon  the  integumentary  covering  of  the 
udder. 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — The  udder  is  frequently  the  seat  of 
infectious  granulations.  In  the  horse  botryomycoma  is  most  com- 
mon, while  in  cattle  tuberculous  alterations  and  actinomycomata 

FIG.  75. 


Mammary  tuberculosis.     Affection  of  both  left  quarters. 

are  most  frequently  developed.  In  the  hog  the  mammary  gland 
must  be  considered  as  the  most  common  seat  of  actinomycotic 
affections. 

Botryomycosis  of  the  udder  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
hard,  firm,  knotty  swellings  in  the  mammary  parenchyma,  by 
adhesion  of  the  skin  with  the  affected  parts,  and  by  the  formation  of 
fistulse  with  a  slight  discharge  of  pus  mixed  with  minute  structures 
resembling  grains  of  sand. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  udder  occurs  in  from  two  to  four  per  cent, 
of  all  tuberculous  cows  and  may  appear  in  two  chief  forms  :  Tuber- 


TIRING-GENITAL  APPARATUS  317 

cular  and  diffuse  mammary  tuberculosis.  In  the  first  named  form, 
tubercles  up  to  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  may  be  found  in  the  other- 
wise healthy  mammary  tissue.  The  tubercles  are  hard,  firm, 
papillated  on  the  surface,  and  exhibit  caseation  and  calcification. 
Moreover,  the  tuberculous  areas  are  readily  distinguished  from  the 
pure  white  or  yellowish-white  mammary  tissue  by  their  pronounced 
gray  color.  The  diffuse  affection,  which  was  well  described  by 
Bang  in  his  classical  treatise  on  tuberculosis  of  the  udder,  leads  to 
enormous  enlargement  and  induration  of  single  quarters  of  the 
udder.  The  whole  udder  rarely  appears  to  be  involved  in  the 
tuberculous  processes.  One  or  more  quarters  of  the  udder  are 
usually  healthy  and  in  advanced  stages  of  the  disease  hang  like 
appendices  upon  the  affected  quarters. 

In  the  tubercular  as  well  as  diffuse  form  of  mammary  tubercu- 
losis, a  pronounced  specific  change  regularly  occurs  in  the  supra- 
mammary  lymph  glands,  and  this  is  especially  well  marked  in  diffuse 
mammary  tuberculosis.  Tuberculosis  of  the  udder  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  pathological  conditions  of  this  organ  by  the  constant 
sympathetic  affection  of  the  supramammary  lymph  glands. 

Actinomycosis  is  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  udder  of  cattle.. 
Basmussen  observed  four  cases  of  actinomycosis  in  the  udder  of 
cows,  either  as  firm,  isolated  tubercles  or  as  diffuse,  acute  inflamma- 
tion. In  two  of  these  cases  the  disease  terminated  with  calcification 
of  the  fungus  before  the  process  had  become  greatly  extended. 
Other  cases  of  mammary  actinomycosis  have  been  described  by 
Phail  and  Maxwell. 

In  the  mammary  region  of  the  hog,  on  the  other  hand,  actino- 
mycosis is  a  comparatively  frequen,t  process.  This  is  probably 
due  to  the  greater  vulnerability  of  the  integument  over  the  mammary 
region  of  the  hog.  The  organisms  of  actinomycosis,  carried  on 
straw,  thus  effect  an  entrance  more  easily.  For  example,  in  the 
slaughterhouses  of  Copenhagen  Basmussen  found  fifty-two  cases  of 
mammary  actinomycosis  in  hogs  inside  of  three  months.  Mammary 
actinomycosis  in  the  hog  is  characterized  either  by  the  appearance 
of  tumors  or  occurs  more  rarely  in  the  form  of  a  tumor  than  as  cold 
abscesses  (mixed  infection  with  pyogenic  bacteria). 

Among  PARASITES,  echinococci  have  been  demonstrated  in  the 
udder. 


318  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

4.— Respiratory  Apparatus. 

(a)  Nasal  Cavity. 

It  is  only  in  the  horse  that  alterations  in  the  nasal  cavity- 
occur,  of  such  importance  that  an  examination  must  be  made  in  the 
case  of  each  slaughtered  animal  after  splitting  open  the  head.  In 
other  domestic  animals,  inspection  of  the  nasal  cavity  may  be 
restricted  to  such  cases  as  present  phenomena  during  life  which 
indicate  disease  of  the  nasal  cavity. 

The  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  cavity  of  the  horse  may 
exhibit  the  following  alterations :  Petechiae,  serous,  slimy,  slimy- 
purulent  and  simple  purulent  catarrh  ;  croupous  inflammations,  the 
so-called  follicular  inflammation;  fibrous  and  sarcomatous  neo- 
morphs,  and,  especially,  glanderous  processes. 

Fm.  76. 


Nasal  septum  of  horse  with  glanderous  ulcers  and  cicatrix. 

Petechise  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  constitute  an  impor- 
tant symptom  of  petechial  fever  (morbus  inaculosus).  Purulent 
inflammation  is  the  chief  symptom  of  contagious  coryza.  Both 
diseases  are  infectious  and  will  be  discussed  under  that  head  along 
with  glanders.  In  this  connection  merely  the  macroscopical  differ- 
ence between  the  mechanical  lesions  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane 
and  glanderous  alterations  may  be  noted.  Mechanical  lesions  of 
the  mucous  membrane  are  always  found  in  the  entrance  to  the  nasal 
cavity  and  heal  either  without  cicatrization  (in  superficial  injuries) 
or  with  a  smooth  cicatrix  (in  deeper  injuries).  In  glanders,  on  the 
other  hand,  one  observes  tubercles,  ulcers  with  a  lardaceous 
floor,  eruption  of  tubercles  in  the  peripheral  parts,  and  also  stellate 
cicatrices  (Fig.  76).  Croupous  rhinitis  may  arise  through  chemical 
irritation  or  through  a  specific  infection.  Croupous  rhinitis  due  to 


RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  81JJ 

chemical  irritation  has  no  significance  for  the  inspection  of  horse 
meat  on  account  of  its  benign  course  as  a  local  affection.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  so-called  follicular  inflammation  in  which  tubercles, 
vescicles  and  rapidly  healing  ulcers  appear,  and  may  spread  from 
the  nasal  mucous  membrane  upon  the  general  integument.  More- 
over, catarrh  of  the  nasal  and  communicating  cavities  has  no  special 
significance  in  meat  inspection. 

In  cattle  the  nasal  cavities  are  to  be  closely  inspected  in  case 
of  symptoms  of  malignant  catarrhal  fever ;  in  sheep,  in  so-called 
ovine  glanders  (malignant  catarrhal  fever  of  sheep),  and  in  affections 
caused  by  the  larvae  of  oestrus  ;  and  in  hogs,  in  so-called  snuffles. 

The  last-named  disease  is  characterized  during  life  by  a  wheez- 
ing respiration.  This  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  nasal 
passages  and  may  be  due  to  various  processes.  The  most  frequent 
cause,  however,  is  a  rachitic  swelling  of  the  upper  jaw,  from  which 
snuffles  derived  its  name.  In  a  large  number  of  cases  the  author 
observed  only  rachitis  of  the  upper  jaw  as  the  cause  of  snuffles. 

Judgment  should  be  the  same  as  for  rachitis. 

Schneider  reported  a  form  of  snuffles  caused  by  the  rudimentary 
development  and  curvature  of  the  turbinated  and  ethmoid  bones. 
This  may  lead  to  a  bloody  purulent  nasal  discharge  with  emaciation 
and  even  death  by  cachexia  or  asphyxia.  If  such  animals  are 
emaciated,  the  meat  is  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food.  Nothing 
is  known  concerning  its  possible  harmf ulness.  Moreover,  in  cattle, 
tuberculosis  and  actinomycosis  appear  on  the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
branes ;  and  in  dogs,  Pentastomum  taenioides  in  the  nasal  cavities  and 
frontal  sinuses. 

(b)  Larynx  and  Trachea. 

The  larynx  and  trachea  are  rarely  the  seat  of  independent  dis- 
eases aside  from  catarrh.  Attention  should  merely  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  croupous  inflammation  of  these  parts  may  be  caused  by 
chemical  irritation  (for  example,  pungent  gases),  or  may  be  observed 
iis  a  symptom  of  malignant  catarrhal  fever  and  rinderpest. 

Glanderous,  actinomycotic  and  tuberculous  alterations  show  a 
predilection  for  the  larynx.  The  laryngeal  actinornycomata  which 
frequently  appear  as  primary  affections  in  cattle  are  located  on  the 
mucous  membrane  and  are  either  pedunculate  or  with  a  broad  base 
(Fig.  77).  In  the  trachea  of  cattle  tuberculous  alterations  occur  on 
the  mucous  membrane  and  also  in  the  submucosa  of  the  posterior 
wall. 


320 


NOTEWORTHY  OEGANIC  DISEASES 


The  statement  concerning  the  trachea  applies  also  to  the  larger 
bronchial  tubes.  As  pathological  curiosities,  mention  should  be 
made  of  bronchiectases  and  peribronchitic  processes  which  arise  in 
connection  with  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane. 

In  the  trachea  of  fowls,  Syngamus  trachealis  is  found  as  a  para- 
site. Eaillet  described  another  species  of  Syngamus,  S.  laryngeus, 
as  occurring  frequently  in  the  larynx  and  in  the  upper  portions  of 
the  trachea  of  cattle  in  Anarn  (farther  India.). 

FIG.  77. 


Bovine  larynx  with  an  actinomycoma  on  the  epiglottis. 


(c)  Lungs. 

ATELECTASIS. — Atelectasis  is  frequently  observed  in  the  lungs  of 
food  animals.  As  a  rule,  it  is  a  congenital  peculiarity  and  confined 
to  small  pulmonary  areas.  The  parts  of  the  lung  thus  affected  are 
brownish-red,  firm,  and  do  not  contain  air.  The  bronchial  tubes 
leading  to  the  affected  parts  are,  as  a  rule,  in  a  catarrhal  condition 
in  older  animals. 

DISSOLUTION  OF  CONTINUITY. — In  addition  to  gross  dissolutions  of 
continuity  in  the  lungs  (from  stabs,  shot  wounds,  broken  ribs,  etc.), 
a  less  extensive  form  should  be  mentioned ;  namely,  interlobular 
emphysema.  This  arises  by  rupture  of  the  alveoli.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  this  rupture,  air  appears  between  the  alveoli  in  vesicles- 
varying  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  pea.  The  air  vesicles  under 
the  pleura  are  most  sharply  distinguished  from  the  pulmonary 


,    KESPIRATOBY   APPARATUS  321 

tissue.  In  animals  which  exhibited  acute  dyspnea  during  life  and 
were,  therefore,  slaughtered,  there  may  be  accumulations  of  air  in 
large  cavities  which  are  partly  filled  with  blood.  Furthermore,  in 
violent  respiration  the  air  may  be  forced  into  the  mediastinal  spaces 
and  thence  under  the  parietal  pleura  as  well  as  into  the  connective 
tissue  surrounding  the  trachea  and,  finally,  from  these  locations  even 
under  the  general  integument. 

DEPOSITS  OF  PIGMENT  AND  LIME. — Partial  or  complete  melanosis 
of  the  lungs  frequently  occurs  in  calves.  Calcareous  deposits,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  exceedingly  rare.  In  one  such  case  observed  by  the 
author,  the  lung  had  only  partly  collapsed.  Numerous  hard  struc- 
tures of  irregular,  angular  form  could  be  felt.  They  could  not  be 
removed  from  the  lungs  except  with  the  attached  pulmonary  tissue. 
After  dissolving  the  lime  salts  by  means  of  acetic  acid,  the  pul- 
monary tissue  appeared  merely  as  an  organic  basis  for  the  calcareous 
deposits.  This  true  calcification  of  the  lungs  is  essentially  distinct 
from  zooparasitic  and  phytoparasitic  calcifications,  which  are 
observed  in  the  lungs  in  a  variety  of  forms. 

DISTURBANCES  OF  THE  CIRCULATION. — Among  the  circulatory 
derangements  which  occur  in  the  lungs,  especial  interest  centers  in 
hypostasis  as  a  means  of  recognizing  natural  death  and  slaughter 
performed  during  the  crisis  of  the  disease.  The  pulmonary 
hypostasis  which  develops  on  the  lowest  portion  of  that  side  of  the 
body  upon  which  the  animal  lay  while  dying  is  not  to  be  confused 
with  so-called  blood  aspiration  (see  p.  331). 

A  brown  induration  may  appear  in  the  lungs  in  consequence  of 
a  persistent  increase  in  blood  pressure  in  the  right  ventricle.  This 
is  not  infrequently  observed  in  hogs  (perhaps  in  connection  with 
the  frequency  of  endocarditis  in  swine  erysipelas,  as  shown  by  Bang). 
The  indurated  lungs  do  not  collapse  ;  they  are  brownish-red  instead 
of  rose-red  and  feel  firm.  Judgment  should  be  the  same  as  in  pro- 
liferating inflammations. 

Since  the  lungs  are  provided  with  terminal  arteries,  hemorrhagic 
infarcts  may  occur  in  them  as  in  the  kidneys.  In  the  lungs,  however, 
there  is  the  possibility  of  the  occurrence  of  extensive  infarcts.  The 
fate  of  pulmonary  infarcts  is  generally  the  same  as  that  of  renal 
infarcts.  In  the  lungs,  only  infected  infarcts  with  a  tendency 
toward  softening  are  of  importance. 

Pulmonary  edema  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  a 
frothy  fluid  in  the  alveoli,  bronchioles,  and  bronchi.  This  condition 


322  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

has  no  special  pathognomonio  significance,  since  it  is  a  common 
phenomenon  accompanying  the  decreasing  cardiac  powers  immedi- 
ately preceding  death.  The  animals  do  not  die  because  they  are 
affected  with  pulmonary  edema,  but  pulmonary  edema  arises 
because  the  animals  are  approaching  death  (Cohnheim). 

HEMORRHAGES. — Pulmonary  hemorrhages  may  be  associated 
with  lacerations  of  the  pulmonary  tissue,  or  by  diabrosis  as  a  conse- 
quence of  pulmonary  cavities.  In  the  horse,  wandering  larvae  of 
Strongylus  armatus  have  occasionally  given  rise  to  pulmonary  hem- 
orrhages. 

Subpleural  hemorrhages  are  observed  under  the  same  patho- 
logical conditions  as  retro-peritoneal  hemorrhages  (see  under 
"  Intoxications  and  Infections  "). 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Thickening  of  the  pulmonary  tissue  in  conse- 
quence of  the  filling  of  the  alveoli  with  an  exudation,  so-called 
hepatization,  is  the  anatomical  criterion  of  pulmonary  inflammation 
(pneumonia). 

The  etiology  of  the  different  forms  of  pneumonia  which  occur 
in  food  animals  is  a  varying  one.  Pulmonary  inflammations  arise 
from  a  spreading  of  inflammatory  processes  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  bronchial  ramifications  to  the  pulmonary  tissue 
(broncho-pneumonia),  or  in  consequence  of  certain  toxic  substances 
circulating  in  the  blood  (hematogenous  pneumonia).  Traumatic 
pneumonia,  which  is  caused  by  foreign  bodies,  for  example,  pene- 
trating from  the  reticulum  in  cattle,  plays  only  an  unimportant 
role.  Hematogenous  pulmonary  inflammations  are,  without  excep- 
tion, of  bacterial  nature.  Broncho-pneumonia  may  be  caused  by 
mechanical  irritation  (inhalation  of  dust,  parasites)  and  thermic  and 
chemical  inflammation  (inhalation  of  smoke  and  irritating  gases). 
Pathological  micro-organisms  (bacteria  and  mold  fungi)  constitute 
the  chief  causes  of  broncho-pneumonia.  Aside  from  the  forms  of 
broncho-pneumonia  caused  by  bacteria  and  mold  fungi,  verminous 
pneumonia  alone  possesses  great  importance.  Finally,  with  regard 
to  etiology,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  organisms  of  infectious 
granulations  (tubercle  bacilli,  glanders  bacilli,  actinomyces  and 
botryomyces),  which  may  obtain  entrance  into  the  lungs  by  inhala- 
tion or  from  a  primary  focus  already  existing  in  the  body  and  may 
give  rise  there  to  their  specific  granulations  accompanied  by  inflam- 
matory phenomena. 

Judgment  on  pulmonary  inflammations  from  a  sanitary  stand- 


BESPIBATORY  APPARATUS  323 

point  will  vary  (1)  according  to  etiology  ;  (2)  according  to  the  degree 
of  inflammation. 

With  regard  to  pulmonary  inflammations  it  may  be  said  in 
general  that,  if  we  disregard  the  forms  of  inflammation  caused  by 
the  organisms  of  infectious  granulations  (tuberculous,  glanderous,, 
actinomycotic,  and  botryomycotic),  they  do  not  render  the  meat 
liarmful  according  to  our  present  state  of  knowledge.  This  may  be 
considered  as  demonstrated  for  pleuro-pneumoniaof  cattle  as  well  as 
for  the  other  typical  pulmonary  inflammations  of  domestic  animals  by 
the  fact  that  the  meat  of  these  animals  has  been  eaten  in  innumer- 
able cases  without  any  ill  effects.  This  fact  has  led  to  the  passage 
of  laws  (Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law)  permitting  the  general  con- 
sumption of  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  pneumonia.  With 
regard  to  a  number  of  other  frequently  occurring  pulmonary 
inflammations  which,  from  a  bacteriological  study,  are  known  to  be 
infectious  diseases,  as,  for  example,  swine  plague,  it  is  commonly 
believed  that  the  meat  of  affected  animals  may  have  an  injurious 
effect.  This  belief,  however,  finds  no  support  in  veterinary  experi- 
ence. Swine  plague  was  formerly  regarded  as  a  simple  cold  and 
this  assumption  brought  it  about  that  the  meat  of  animals  affected 
with  this  disease  was  sold  in  the  market  without  any  restriction. 
An  extensive  feeding  experiment  with  the  meat  of  animals  affected 
with  swine  plague  was  thus  instituted  and  no  injurious  effects  were 
observed.  In  the  literature  of  the  subject,  no  unexceptionable  case 
«an  be  found  of  meat  poisoning  from  eating  the  meat  of  animals 
"which  were  affected  with  pulmonary  inflammation.  Infectious  pul- 
monary inflammations  behave  in  this  regard  exactly  as  other  acute 
Infectious  diseases  of  domestic  animals,  such  as  rinderpest,  black 
leg,  and  erysipelas  of  hogs,  which  are  well  known  not  to  be  trans- 
missible to  man. 

The  meat  in  cases  of  pneumonia  may,  however,  become  dangerous 
to  health  when,  following  upon  pulmonary  inflammations,  processes 
develop  which  have  tho  power  of  "  poisoning  "  the  blood  (pyemia 
and  septicemia).  Pyemia  may  be  associated  with  primary  purulent 
pulmonary  inflammations,  as,  for  example,  traumatic  pneumonia,  or 
with  suppuration  of  specific  pneumonic  areas  (complication  of  pneu- 
monia of  cattle  and  horses,  and  swine  plague).  Septicemia  occurs, 
on  the  other  hand,  when  septic  organisms  have  opportunity  to 
"become  located  in  the  inflamed  pulmonary  tissue  in  association  with 
the  organism  which  caused  the  original  inflammation.  This  appears 
to  be  possible  only  in  cases  of  necrosing  inflammations.  Septicemia 
following  pulmonary  inflammations  is  rare.  In  hogs,  at  any  rate,. 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

pyemia  is  more  frequently  associated  with  the  specific  pneumonia  of" 
this  animal  (swine  plague,  compare  "  Septicemia  "  and  "  Pyemia"). 

The  greater  number  of  pulmonary  inflammations  will  be- 
discussed  under  "Infectious  Diseases,"  since,  as  already  indicated,, 
they  are  merely  the  chief  symptom  of  specific  infections  (pneumonia 
of  horses  and  cattle ;  infectious  pneumonia  of  calves,  sheep  and 
goats  ;  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle  ;  and  swine  plague).  More- 
over, under  the  head  of  "  Infectious  Diseases,"  glanderous  and 
tuberculous  pneumonia  will  also  be  considered. 

In  this  connection  we  shall  discuss  merely  those  pulmonary- 
inflammations  which  do  not  owe  their  origin  to  specific  bacteria. 
To  this  group  belong  broncho-pneumonia  in  consequence  of  the 
aspiration  of  foreign  material,  verminous  pneumonia,  mycoses,  and 
traumatic  inflammations  of  the  lungs,  which  may  arise  in  cattle 
from  the  penetration  by  foreign  bodies  from  one  of  the  anterior 
stomachs. 

Aspiration  Pneumonia. — In  a  broad  sense,  pneumonia  of  aspira- 
tion should  include  all  forms  of  broncho- pneumonia  which  arise- 
from  inhalation  of  foreign  material  as  well  as  those  which  are  caused 
by  inhaled  microorganisms.  In  a  stricter  sense,  pneumonia  of 
aspiration  includes  only  those*  inflammations  which  are  caused  bjr 
larger  corporeal  particles.  The  prototype  of  these  forms  is  repre- 
sented by  so-called  pneumonia  due  to  foreign  bodies  or  to  the- 
passage  of  fluids  down  the  trachea.  The  latter  terminates,  as  a  rule,  „ 
in  gangrene  of  the  lungs,  and  in  the  horse,  in  which  animal  it  is  most 
frequently  observed,  in  death  from  putrid  intoxication  (see  this 
subject).  While  aseptic  foreign  bodies  or  such  as  are  not  contam- 
inated with  pathogenic  organisms  become  included  in  the  lung 
tissue  in  the  healing  processes,  the  pathogenic  organisms  which  are- 
carried  into  the  lungs  in  fluids  through  the  trachea  cause  primary- 
necrosis  and  thereby  offer  an  opportunity  for  the  secondary  localiza- 
tion and  development  of  putrefactive  bacteria.  According  to- 
observations  made  on  slaughtered  animals,  the  form  of  pneumonia 
due  to  the  entrance  of  fluid  through  the  trachea  runs  a  more  favor- 
able course  in  cattle  and  hogs  and  more  frequently  heals  by 
encapsulation  than  in  the  horse. 

For  judgment,  see  under  "  Sapremia"  and  "  Septicemia." 

Verminous  Pneumonia. — Lung  worms,  as  a  rule,  are  found  in  the 
small  bronchial  tubes,  in  which  they  cause  no  serious  alterations,,, 
except  catarrh.  In  case  of  an  extensive  invasion,  however,  the- 


RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS 


325 


-parasites  may  cause  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  This  is  most  fre- 
quently the  case  in  infestations  of  sheep  by  Strongylus  filaria  and 
of  young  cattle  and  deer  by  S.  micrurm:  Moreover,  in  sheep,  there 
Is  another  special  form  of  verminous  pneumonia,  the  so-called  pul- 
monary hair  worm  disease,  due  to  8.  capillaris  (Fig.  78). 

The  pulmonary  inflammations  due  to  Strongylidse  exhibit  all 
the  symptoms  of  acute  broncho-pneumonia.  At  first  there  is  a 
•marked  bronchitis.  Associated  with  this,  and  in  consequence  of  the 
lesions  produced  by  the  wandering  embryos,  is  an  inflammation  of 
the  pulmonary  tissue  in  the 
form  of  lobular  areas.  The  FlG- 

pneumonic  areas  may  degen- 
erate in  case  death  does  not 
occur  from  asphyxia  or  cach- 
exia.  In  pulmonary  hair 
worm  disease,  there  are  also 
lobular  inflammations  which, 
however,  as  a  rule,  run  a  be- 
nign course  and  leave  only 
an  inconsiderable  residue  in 
the  form  of  small  tubercular 
"  neomorphs  or  larger  areas  of 
infiltration  in  the  pulmonary 
tissue. 

Judgment  on  verminous 
pneumonia,  in  so  far  as  the 
meat  is  concerned,  will  de- 
pend entirely  on  whether  the 
inflammatory  processess  in 
the  lungs  have  seriously  dis- 
turbed the  general  condition 
and  whether  emaciation  has 
begun  at  the  time  of  slaugh- 
ter. In  the  latter  case  the  meat  is  to  be  considered  unfit  for  food ; 
while  it  is  to  be  excluded  from  the  market  as  highly  unfit  for  food 
when,  in  consequence  of  pneumonia,  hydremic  cachexia  has  de- 
veloped with  serous  exudation  in  the  body  cavity. 

Mycosis  of  the  Lungs  Due  to  Mold  Fungi. — It  must  be  considered 
as  demonstrated  by  numerous  observations  and  by  the  experiments 
of  Schiitz  and  List,  that  mold  fungi  may  produce  pulmonary  diseases 
In  animals.  This  is  most  frequently  the  case  in  birds  ;  occasionally 


Verminous  pneumonia  due  to  Strongylus  capil- 
laris (after  A.  Miiller).  a,  embryos;  &,  parts 
of  sexually  mature  specimens.  The  whole  tis- 
sue is  filled  with  embryos.  As  a  result  of  des- 
quamative  pneumonia,  the  alveoli  contain  no 
air. 


326 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


also,  no  doubt,  cases  of  pneumo-mycosis  are  observed  in  mammals^ 
Hockl,  Martin,  Lucet  and  Bournay  described  cases  in  horses  and 
cattle ;  and  Mazzauti  a  case  in  sheep. 

These  cases  are  commonly  clue  to  infection  by  pathogenic 
species  of  aspergillus,  A.fumigatus  and  A.  niger. 

Aspergillosis  of  the  lungs  may  be  confused  with  tuberculosis, 
since  it  is  ushered  in  with  the  formation  of  tubercles.  However^ 
protection  against  such  an  error  is  afforded  by  an  examination  of 
the  bronchial  glands  (they  are  intact  in  infection  by  mold  fungi), 
and  by  a  microscopic  study.  According  to  Rockl,  a  closely-matted 

FIG.  79. 


Pneumonomycosis  of  cattle  (after  Rockl). 
A,  center  of  a  pulmonary  tubercle  with  fungous  mycelia;  £,  isolated  hyphse. 

mycelium  is  observed  in  the  tubercles,  caused  by  aspergillus.  On 
the  borders  of  the  tubercles,  however,  relatively  short  hyphae  are 
observed  lying  closely  together  like  sheaves  radially  arranged.  A 
very  characteristic  structure,  not  unlike  an  aster,  is  thus  produced 
(Fig.  79).  Aspergillosis  may  also  be  readily  distinguished  from 
pleuro-pneumonia,  to  which  it  has  a  great  similarity,  by  microscopic 
investigation. 

In  the  case  described  by  Eockl,  the  lungs  were  in  part  infested 
•with  tubercles  of  the  size  of  hemp  seed  and  in  part  exhibited  the 
symptoms  of  extensive  hepatization.  The  hepatized  areas  were 


RESPIRATORY   APPARATUS  327 

conspicuous  for  their  marbled  appearance.  Furthermore,  ulcers 
were  found  on  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane  and  stratified 
thrombi  in  the  region  of  the  hepatized  portion. 

The  cases  observed  by  Lucet  ran  a  course  with  symptoms  of 
septicemia,  with  hemorrhagic  pneumonia,  and  ecchymoses  in  all 
organs.  In  the  case  described  by  Bournay,  tubercles  of  the  size  of 
nuts  were  found  with  central  cavities  which  were  infected  with 
fungi.  Finally,  in  Mazzanti's  case,  the  lungs  were  permeated  with 
softened  tubercles  surrounded  with  red  areas  varying  in  size  from 
that  of  poppy  seed  to  that  of  hemp  seed.  The  tubercles  contained 
rnycelia  and  spores. 

Diffuse  hepatization  is  observed  in  birds ;  and  in  the  hepatized 
areas,  which  at  first  are  colored  red,  are  small  gray,  poorly  defined 
specks.  In  microscopical  preparations  it  is  observed  that  not  only 
the  bronchioles,  alveolar  branches,  and  alveoli  are  filled  with  a  sep- 
tate and  much-branched  fungus  mycelium,  but  that  the  interlobular 
tissue  is  also  attacked  by  the  indiscriminate  proliferation  of  the 
fungus. 

Judgment. — Aspergillosis  appears  not  to  be  capable  of  trans- 
mission to  man  by  way  of  the  alimentary  tract  The  mycotic  organs, 
however,  are  to  be  excluded  from  sale  as  highly  unfit  for  food,  while 
no  restriction  should  be  placed  on  the  meat,  since  aspergillosis  of 
the  lungs  is  a  purely  local  disease. 

Traumatic  Inflammations  of  the  Lungs  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  cattle.  They  are  purulent  inflammations  which  develop  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  foreign  bodies.  Later  the  foreign  bodies,  as 
a  rule,  become  encapsulated  in  tough  connective  tissue  which  lies 
about  the  foreign  bodies  in  the  form  of  a  tube.  These  processes 
are  especially  noteworthy  since  an  infiltration  of  the  interlobular 
connective  tissue,  similar  to  that  in  pleuro-pneumonia,  may  develop 
in  the  first  stages  of  traumatic  pneumonia,  beyond  the  purulent 
zone  which  surrounds  the  foreign  bodies. 

TUMORS  AND  INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — Among  the  tumors 
which  are  observed  in  the  lungs,  mention  should  be  made  of 
adenoma,  chondroma  and  metastatic  sarcoma.  Of  the  infectious 
granulations,  we  should  mention  the  neomorphs  of  glanders 
(tubercles  and  lobular  infiltration),  tuberculosis  (primary  tubercu- 
lous broncho-pneumonia  and  embolic  pulmonary  tuberculosis), 
botryomycosis  and  actinomycosis.  Pulmonary  actinomycosis  is 
not  rare.  As  a  rule,  it  develops  secondarily  in  consequence  of 


328  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

aspiration  of  portions  of  disintegrated  pliaryngeal  or  laryngeal 
actinomycomata.  In  this  case  tubercles  are  found  in  the  lungs 
varying  in  size  from  lentils  to  peas  and  sometimes  of  the  size  of  a 
man's  head.  Moreover,  actinomycotic  cavities  and  tubercular 
actinomycomata  are  found  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bronchi. 
By  transportation  in  the  blood  circulation,  embolic  pulmonary 
actinomycosis  may  arise  in  the  form  of  disseminated  tubercles  lying 
in  the  interstitial  pulmonary  tissue.  Pflug  observed  a  case  of  this 
sort  which  was  apparently  without  primary  alterations  in  any  other 
organ.  Occasionally,  pearl-like  actinomycomata  are  also  found  on 
the  pulmonary  pleura  (Rasmussen). 

PARASITES. — The  lungs  of  domesticated  animals  and  wild  game 
are  parasitized  more  or  less  frequently  by  (1)  different  species  of 
lung  worms  (Strongylus  micrurus)  in  cattle,  roebuck  and  fallow  deer  ; 
S.filaria  in  sheep  and  goats  ;  S.  paradoxusiu  hogs  ;  S.  comrtiutatus  in 
hare  and  rabbits,  also  in  sheep  and  goats  ;  S.  capillaris  in  sheep 
and  goats ;  (2)  echinococci  in  the  form  of  vesicles  varying  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  the  fist ;  (3)  wandering  liver  flukes  (Distomum  liepati- 
cum)  in  cysts  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  and  larger,  with  tough,  partly 
chondrified  walls,  and  brown,  oleaceous  contents.  The  liver  flukes 
which  are  found  in  the  lungs  are,  as  a  rule,  degenerated. 

In  addition  to  these  frequently  occurring  parasites  we  occasion- 
ally observe  in  the  lungs  the  larvae  of  Pentastomum,  Cysticercus 
tenuicollis,  C.  bovis  and  C.  cdlulosae  ;  the  latter,  however,  as  a  rule, 
only  when  large  numbers  of  the  parasites  are  present  in  the  muscu- 
lature. 

Non-glanderous  pulmonary  tubercles  ("gray  transparent,"  "cal- 
careous fibrous,"  pulmonary  tubercles). — In  the  lungs  of  horses 
tubercles  are  frequently  found  of  an  undoubted  embolic  character, 
which  have  given  rise  to  confusion  with  pulmonary  glanders.  These 
tubercles  in  their  early  stages  possess  a  striking  resemblance  to 
frog  eggs  (Csokor).  Later  they  show  a  firm  wall  of  connective 
tissue  and  a  casefied  or  calcified  content.  The  size  of  the  tubercles 
varies.  Some  are  barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  from  this  size 
transition  sizes  are  observed  up  to  that  of  a  pea.  As  a  rule,  how- 
ever, the  tubercles  which  are  found  in  any  one  lung,  and  which  may- 
be very  numerous,  are  of  the  same  size. 

The  tubercles  in  question  are  distinguished  macroscopically 
from  glanderous  tubercles  by  the  absence  of  a  red  zone,  by  their 
tendency  to  calcify,  and  furthermore  by  the  homogeneous  character 
of  the  tubercles,  the  absence  of  small  tubercles  associated  witk 


RESPII1ATORY   APPARATUS  329 

large  ones,  the  absence  of  other  glanderous  alterations,  and  by  the 
integrity  of  the  bronchial  glands.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that 
the  tubercles  in  question  may  appear  in  the  lymph  glands. 

The  etiology  of  these  non-glanderous  pulmonary  tubercles 
appears  to  be  a  variable  one.  lu  one  case  Martin  succeeded  in 
demonstrating  fungous  inycelia  in  the  tubercles.  Willach  claims  to 
have  observed  distomes  in  the  pathological  foci.  It  was  demon- 
strated by  the  systematic  investigation  of  Olt,  Grips,  Schiitz  and 
Kiinnemann,  that  the  gray  transparent  and  later  calcareous  fibrous 
pulmonary  tubercles  represent  emboli  or  miliary  chronic  pneu- 
moniaB  which  are  produced  by  animal  parasites,  usually  the  larvaa 
of  nematodes. 

FIG.  80. 


Entozoic  pulmonary  tubercles  of  a  pneumonic  form  in  the  horse  (after  Olt). 
a,  inflamed  alveoli;  &,  part  of  a  nematode  larva;  c,  connective  tissue  capsule  of  the 

parasitic  focus,  X  30  diameters. 
The  parts  of  the  worms  are  magnified  80  diameters. 

Olt  found  at  the  abattoir  in  Stettin  that  the  non-glanderous 
pulmonarv  tubercles  which  were  very  frequent  in  that  locality  were 
caused  by  embolic  invasion  of  echinococci  which  became  prema- 
turely disintegrated  in  the  lumen  of  the  blood  vessels.  In  Pomerania, 
a  region  in  which  the  echinococcus  disease  is  very  prevalent  in  man 
and  domestic  animals,  seventy  per  cent,  of  the  slaughtered  horses, 
according  to  Olt,  were  infested  with  the  tubercles  in  question.  In 
further  investigations,  Olt  demonstrated  that  the  tubercles  usually 
contain  nematodes  (probably  the  larvae  of  Strongylus  armatus). 
Concerning  the  seat  of  these  entozoic  tubercles,  Olt  maintains  that 
they  lie  under  the  sera  or  in  the  pulmonary  parenchyma,  but  never 


330  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

upon  the  surface  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membrane.  The  color 
of  the  tubercles  is  commonly  gray  or  light-gray.  Occasionally  they 
are  furnished  with  a  pure  white  or  light-yellow  capsule.  The  most 
recently  formed  tubercles  possess  a  reddish  zone.  The  older  ones 
are  sharply  delimited  from  the  neighboring  tissues.  The  consistency 
varies  according  to  age.  Tubercles  of  more  recent  origin  constitute 
a  thickened  mass  inside  the  otherwise  normal  pulmonary  tissue. 
Later  the  tubercles  become  uniformly  tough  and  finally  present 
stony,  calcareous  kernels  inside  of  a  stratified  fibrous  capsule  which 
is  sharply  marked  off  from  the  surrounding  tissue.  Parasitic 
tubercles  which  develop  in  the  meantime  in  the  lymph  glands  are 
distinguished  by  the  fact  that  they  are  likewise  surrounded  by  nor- 
mal glandular  tissue  and  never  cause  acute  lymphadenitis,  indura- 
tions, or  ulcerative  processes. 

Schiitz  repeatedly  inoculated  the  tubercles  in  question  into 
rabbits  and  horses  without  producing  glanderous  infection  in  any 
case.  Kiinnemann  and  Troster  obtained  the  same  negative  results 
in  inoculation  experiments  with  guinea  pigs  and  cats.  Moreover, 
Schiitz  made  a  microscopic  examination  of  the  gray  transparent 
tubercles  and  pure  cultures  without  finding  any  glanders  bacilli. 
On  the  other  hand,  Kiinnemann,  in  accord  with  Olt,  found  that 
nematodes  are  occasionally  present  in  the  tubercles. 

For  the  microscopic  differential  diagnosis  of  entozoic  and 
glanderous  tubercles  in  the  lungs  of  horses,  see  under  "  Glanders.'* 

Finally,  attention  should  be  called  to  other  alterations  which 
are  caused  by  certain  processes  during  the  act  of  slaughter  or  dur- 
ing the  death  struggle  ;  viz.,  aspirations  of  stomach  contents  and 
so-called  blood  aspiration. 

ASPIRATION  OF  THE  STOMACH  CONTENTS. — During  the  act  of 
slaughter,  the  contents  of  the  stomach  may  pass  into  the  pharynx 
and  thence  by  violent  inspiration  may  be  drawn  into  the  trachea 
and  bronchi. 

Aspiration  of  tlte  stomach  contents  is  most  frequently  observed 
in  the  lungs  of  cattle.  This  fact  depends  upon  the  peculiar  position 
and  character  of  the  esophagus,  in  consequence  of  which  the  stom- 
ach contents  of  recumbent  animals  must  from  mechanical  reasons 
pass  into  the  esophagus.  The  regurgitation  of  the  stomach  contents 
into  the  Esophagus  is  increased  by  trampling  upon  the  abdomen,  as 
is  practiced  by  butchers  in  accelerating  the  flow  of  blood. 

In  slaughtering  by  the  Jewish  method,  the  stomach  contents 
flow  directly  from  the  esophagus  into  the  trachea,  since  both  organs 


RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  331 

are  severed  simultaneously.  A  portion  of  tlie  stomach  contents  is 
therefore  almost  always  found  mixed  with  blood  in  the  lungs  of 
animals  slaughtered  in  this  manner.  This  result  is  brought  about 
partly  by  the  fact  that  after  the  throat  is  cut  the  inspirations  per- 
sist for  some  time  with  undiminished  force.  The  material  which 
flows  into  the  trachea  is  violently  drawn  into  the  ramifications  of 
the  trachea  and  may  be  so  firmly  wedged  in  the  bronchial  tubes  that 
it  can  not  be  driven  out  again  by  expiration.  The  aspirated  stom- 
ach contents  may  thus  lead  to  agonal  emphysema,  in  consequence 
of  the  obstruction  of  the  air  passages. 

Recognition. — Aspiration  of  the  stomach  contents  may  be  easily 
recognized  by  making  a  cross  section  of  the  lungs  below  the  bifur- 
cation of  the  trachea. 

Judgment. — Lungs  containing  aspirated  stomach  contents  are 
highly  unfit  for  food  and  are  to  be  excluded  from  sale  if  the  abnor-. 
mal  contents  are  not  confined  simply  to  the  trachea  and  larger 
bronchial  tubes,  so  that  the  foreign  material  may  be  entirely 
removed  by  cutting  open  these  tubes. 

On  account  of  the  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  aspirated 
stomach  contents  in  bovine  bronchi,  meat  dealers,  by  means  of 
knobbed  scissors,  commonly  open  and  clean  these  structures  in  the 
preparation  of  the  lungs. 

ASPIRATION  OF  BLOOD. — So-called  blood  aspiration  in  the  lungs 
occurs  during  slaughter  in  cases  where  the  trachea  and  the  blood 
vessels  of  the  neck  are  severed.  The  blood  may  thus  be  drawn  into 
the  finest  bronchial  ramifications  as  long  as  the  animal  continues  to 
breathe. 

Blood  aspiration  is  observed  most  frequently  in  cattle  and  hogs 
killed  by  the  Jewish  method.  To  be  sure,  the  latter  animals  are 
stunned  before  sticking  and  inspiration  during  bleeding  is  therefore 
less  frequent.  Nevertheless,  as  shown  by  W.  Eber,  a  phenomenon 
analogous  to  blood  aspiration  is  frequently  observed  in  hogs,. but 
this  depends  on  the  peculiar  method  of  bleeding  hogs.  The  blood 
of  hogs  is  a  valuable  material ;  so  valuable,  indeed,  that  the  blood 
of  cattle  is  falsely  substituted  and  sold  as  hog  blood.  The  blood 
of  hogs,  therefore,  is  carefully  collected  and  the  butcher  closes  the 
wound  in  the  skin  in  order  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  blood  when 
the  vessel  utilized  for  receiving  it  becomes  fall.  By  thus  pressing 
the  lips  of  the  wound  together  the  blood  which  flows  from  the  sev- 
ered cervical  vessels  is  forced  toward  the  point  of  least  resistance — 
being  in  this  case  the  partly  severed  trachea — and  may  thus  pass 


332  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

into  the  trachea  and  bronchi  merely  from  gravity  and  without  assist- 
ance from  respiratory  movements.  The  blood  does  not  flow  out 
again  from  the  trachea,  since  the  inter-annular  bands  are  injured  in 
cutting  in  such  a  manner  that  they  open  only  inward,  like  valves. 

Recognition. — The  aspiration  of  blood  in  cattle  and  the  analo- 
gous phenomenon  in  hogs  are  characterized  by  the  appearance  of 
red-colored  lobuli  scattered  everywhere  throughout  the  pulmonary 
tissue  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  portions  of  the  lung  of  a  normal  color.  In 
this  way  blood  aspiration  is  distinguished  from  hypostasis.  Blood 
aspiration  is  easily  distinguished  from  lobular  pneumonia  by  the 
fact  that  in  the  former  the  red-colored  lobuli  do  not  project  beyond 
the  surface  of  the  lung,  and  feel,  not  like  hepatized  areas,  but  almost 
like  normal  pulmonary  tissue ;  and,  finally,  by  the  fact  that  upon 
section  the  bronchi  and  bronchioles  appear  to  be  filled  with  coagu- 
lated or  non-coagulated  blood,  while  the  pulmonary  tissue  itself  is 
still  filled  with  air  (presence  of  foam  in  stroking  the  cut  surface). 
"W.  Eber  found  that  in  blood  aspiration  the  blood  in  the  lungs 
undergoes  partial  resorption.  In  aspiration  of  blood,  a  red  colora- 
tion of  the  cortical  zones  of  the  bronchial  glands  is  frequently 
observed  and  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of  resorbed  red  blood 
corpuscles. 

Judgment. — In  moderate  aspiration  of  blood,  the  lungs  are  not  to 
be  condemned,  while  in  excessive  aspiration  they  are  to  be  consid- 
ered as  unfit  for  food,  particularly  because  they  decompose  more 
rapidly  than  normal  lungs. 

For  the  recognition  of  artificially  inflated  lungs,  see  Chap- 
ter XV. 

(d)  Pleura. 

The  pleura  exhibits  only  a  few  independent  alterations.  The 
majority  of  these  alterations  depend  upon  abnormal  conditions  and 
processes  in  the  lungs.  This  is  especially  true  of  inflammation  of 
the  pleura. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — Only  three  forms  of  primary  pleuritis  are 
observed  in  food  animals.  One  form  is  caused  by  foreign  bodies 
which  penetrate  the  thoracic  cavity  from  the  stomach  ;  a  second 
form  of  primary  pleuritis  develops  in  consequence  of  fracture  of 
the  ribs.  The  third  form  is  of  infectious  origin  and  occurs  only  in 
hogs  ;  it  has  a  chronic  character  and  is  ushered  in  with  multiple 
formation  of  abscesses  (see  "  Infectious  Pleuro-peritonitis  of  Hogs  "). 


RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  333 

A.11  oilier  pleural  inflammations  develop  secondarily  in  association 
with  pneumonia. 

Primary  inflammations  of  the  pleura  of  food  animals  are,  in 
general,  benign  affections.  They  usually  do  not  cause  death  or 
forced  slaughter  and  are  thereby  essentially  different  from  similar" 
peritoneal  inflammations.  Traumatic  inflammation  of  the  pleura  as 
well  as  that  caused  by  fracture  of  the  ribs  without  complication 
heals  in  the  majority  of  cases  by  proliferation  of  connective  tissue 
at  the  point  of  irritation  after  the  formation  of  the  fibrinous  or  sero- 
fibrinous  exudation.  In  slaughtering  animals  we  often  unexpectedly 
^nd  evidences  of  such  inflammation  in  connective  tissue  capsules 
and  adhesions  extending  from  the  folds  of  the  pleura.  Even  the 
specific  alterations  of  infectious  pleuritis  of  hogs  are,  as  a  rule,  dis- 
covered unexpectedly  in  animals  which  showed  no  symptoms  of  the 
disease  during  life. 

The  secondary  inflammations  of  the  pleura  in  pneumonia  of 
horses  and  cattle,  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle,  and  swine 
plague,  run  exactly  the  same  course  as  that  of  primary  pneumonias. 
It  is  only  in  case  of  necrosis  of  superficial  portions  of  the  lungs  that 
putrefactive  and  septic  bacteria  from  the  outside  world  may  gain 
entrance  to  the  pleuritic  exudation  and  thereby  cause  the  complica- 
tion of  sapremia  and  septicemia.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
pleuritic  process  heals  simultaneously  with  the  pneumonia  and 
leaves  only  such  connective  tissue  adhesions  as,  for  example,  are  so 
frequently  observed  in  hogs  after  recovery  from  swine  plague.  In 
consequence  of  the  connective  tissue  adhesions,  pulmonary  abscesses 
which  extend  to  the  surface  may  be  prevented  from  opening  into 
the  pleural  cavity  and  may  be  rendered  harmless  to  the  organism 
after  complete  encapsulation. 

The  anatomical  forms  of  pleuritis  are  the  same  as  those  of  peri- 
tonitis. Judgment  on  them  should  be  governed,  therefore,  by  the 
same  rules  as  judgment  of  peritonitis. 

Beside  inflammations,  the  following  alterations  of  the  pleura 
deserve  consideration : 

HYPOSTASIS. — In  natural  death  and  in  slaughtering  during  the 
crisis  of  disease,  hypostatic  congestion  appears  on  the  low-lying 
parts  of  the  pleura  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  lungs.  The  red 
coloration  of  the  pleura,  however,  which  may  appear  when  the  blood 
passes  into  the  pleural  sac  during  bleeding,  must  be  distinguished 
from  hypostasis.  In  the  former  we  find  small  and  large  blood  clots- 
on  the  pleura  and  a  diffuse  red  coloration  of  this  structure. 


334: 


NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 


TUMORS. — In  addition  to  sarcomata,  false  neuromata  01  the 
Intercostal  nerves  (myxo-fibromata)  may  occur  quite  frequently 
under  the  pleura  of  cattle.  These  neomorphic  structures  occupy  a 
position  corresponding  to  the  course  of  the  intercostal  nerves  in  the 
intercostal  spaces  underneath  the  pleura.  They  are  conspicuous, 
therefore,  when  they  occur  in  large  numbers,  for  their  regular 
arrangement. 

False  neuromata  of  the  intercostal  nerves  in  their  early  stages 
may  be  confused  with  tuberculosis  and  in  their  later  stages  with 
echinococci.  At  first  they  form  gray,  firm  tubercles  varying  in  size 
from  a  hemp  seed  to  a  pea  and  surrounding  the  nerve  like  a  ring 
•(Fig.  81).  In  the  large  tubercles — they  sometimes  reach  the  size  of 


Fm.  81. 


False  neuroma  of  the  intercostal  nerves  in  cattle. 

a  potato— the  myxomatous  tissue  is  more  conspicuous.  In  this 
manner  structures  arise  which,  to  the  naked  eye,  possess  great 
resemblance  to  echinococci.  Section,  however,  immediately  demon- 
strates to  the  inspector  the  true  nature  of  the  alteration,  for  only 
a  slight  quantity  of  slime-like  tissue  and  no  fluid  oozes  from 
the  spherical  or  elongated  structures.  Myxo-fibroma  of  the 
intercostal  nerves  is  distinguished  by  the  complete  absence  of 
caseation. 

False  neuromata  of  the  intercostal  nerves  are  but  rarely 
observed  in  slaughtered  cattle.  Moreover,  they  exercise  no  influ- 
ence over  the  character  of  the  meat.  It  is  necessary  merely  to 
remove  them  and  this  may  be  done  in  connection  with  the  nerve, 
strands. 


RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS  335 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — In  cattle,  tuberculosis  of  the  pleura 
is  of  unusually  frequent  occurrence.  In  hogs  it  is  very  rare.  Pleural 
tuberculosis  of  cattle  begins  with  proliferation  of  small  red  connec- 
tive tissue  papillae  and  filaments  which  give  the  pleura  a  velvety 
appearance.  Later,  casefyiug  and  calcifying  tubercles  are  observed 
in  the  larger  connective  tissue  proliferations  (Fig.  82).  Pleural 
tuberculosis  is  also  characterized  in  the  advanced  stages  by  the 
strongly  developed  connective  tissue  framework  of  the  tubercle. 
Tuberculous  neomorphs  on  the  pleura  may  reach  a  considerable 
thickness  (up  to  20  cm.  and  over),  and  this  without  the  subjacent 
parts,  ribs,  and  intercostal  muscles  showing  even  the  slightest  trace 
of  disease  per  continuifatem.  This  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
rendering  judgment  on  serous  tuberculosis  with  reference  to  the 
neighboring  musculature.  Attention  should  again  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  the  corresponding  lyinph  glands 
of  the  pleura  are  the  retro-pleural,  thoracic 
and  mediastinal,  and  -not,  as  has  been 
erroneously  assumed,  the  lymph  glands  of 
the  anterior  extremity,  axiliary  and  pre- 
scapular  glands. 

"We  should  not  confuse  incipient 
pleural  tuberculosis  with  proliferating  in- 
flammations of  the  pleura  which  develop 
from  friction  from  echinococci,  and  which 
extend  to  the  pleura. 

Besides    tuberculosis,  actinomycosis 

J  Serous  tuberculosis  of  cattle 

may  exceptionally  occur  on  the  pleura  of  (pearl  disease). 

cattle.     The  infection  arises  either  from 

the  lung  or,  in  pleura  phrenica,  from  the  liver.  In  the  latter  case 
actinomycotic  tissue  penetrates  the  diaphragm.  When  all  other 
characters  are  disregarded,  actinomycotic  tubercles  are  distin- 
guished by  the  soft,  myxoma-like  oozing  surface  on  section,  showing 
numerous  yellow  granules,  as  well  as  by  the  strongly  developed 
neomorphs  of  connective  tissue  in  the  neighborhood  of  all  other 
similar  alterations. 

In  chickens  and  pheasants,  the  air  sac  mite  (Cytodites  nudus) 
is  frequently  found  in  the  air  sacs  of  the  thorax,  neck  and  abdomen. 
The  mites  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  as  yellowish  or  brownish 
points.  They  may  cause  inflammatory  alterations  of  the  membranes 
of  the  air  sacs  in  the  form  of  yellow  gelatinous  effusions  or  mem- 
branous deposits  (Kitt).  In  cases  of  extensive  invasion  of  the  lungs 
and  trachea,  death  may  result  from  inflammation  of  these  air  pas- 


336  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC    DISEASES 

sages  and  from  asphyxiation  (Gerlach,  Zschokke,  Megnin).  Holzen- 
dorff  also  found  the  mites  in  miliary  abscesses  of  the  liver,  lungs 
and  kidneys  of  chickens. 

PARASITES  are  only  occasionally  found  in  the  sub-pleural  tissue. 
In  one  instance  the  author  found  under  the  pleura  of  a  hog  an 
Ecliinococcus  multilocularis  which  presented  the  appearance  of 


a,  Echinococcus  under  the  costal  pleura  in  a  hog. 

tuberculosis  (Fig.  83).  A  similar  case  was  recently  observed  by 
Benedictis  in  cattle.  The  dangerous  cysticercus  of  cattle  and  hogs 
has  a  special  predilection  for  the  intercostal  muscles  which  are 
covered  by  the  pleura. 


5.  —  Circulatory  Apparatus. 
(a)  Heart. 

In  the  heart  the  following  parts  require  special  discussion  :  The 
epicardum  with  the  pericardum  ;  the  inner  lining  of  the  heart  (endo- 
cardium) ;  the  cardiac  muscle  (myocardium). 

Epicardium  and  Pericardium. 

HEMORRHAGES.  —  The  epicardium  is  frequently  the  seat  of 
petechisB  which  appear  as  sympathetic  symptoms  of  toxic,  infectious, 
general  diseases  under  the  serous  membranes.  For  example,  in 
anthrax,  Texas  fever,  and  fowl  cholera,  the  epicardium  shows  black 


CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS  337 

spots  or  petechise  in  an  almost  pathognomonie  manner.  Large 
quantities  of  blood  are  found  in  the  pericardial  cavity  in  rupture  of 
the  heart,  or  of  the  coronary  artery. 

INFLAMMATIONS  of  the  pericardium  arise  primarily  from  wounds. 
Furthermore,  they  may  develop  secondarily  under  the  same  condi- 
tions which  cause  secondary  pleuritis.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
inflammation  of  the  pericardium  represents  merely  a  complication 
of  primary  pulmonary  inflammations.  Traumatic  pericarditis  is  a 
typical  disease  of  cattle.  It  will  be  discussed  in  greater  detail 
under  "  Sapremia."  It  should  be  noted  that  occasionally  in  hogs  a 
serous  or  sero-fibrinous  pericarditis  is  observed  as  the  only  phe- 
nomenon of  swine  plague.  More  frequently,  however,  a  simultane- 
ous inflammation  of  the  pleura  and  lungs  is  observed. 

Connective  tissue  proliferations  of  the  epicardium  and  of  the 
inner  layer  of  the  pericardium,  sometimes  leading  to  adhesions  of 
these  parts,  are  observed  after  recovery  from  acute  pericarditis. 
This  condition  is  most  frequently  observed  in  hogs  after  swine 
plague  and  in  cattle  after  recovery  from  traumatic  pericarditis. 

Connective  tissue  adhesions  between  the  epicardium  and  the 
inner  layer  of  the  pericardium  interfere  with  a  careful  inspection  of 
the  surface  of  the  heart,  especially  for  cysticerci.  In  inspecting  the 
heart,  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  remove  the  pathologically  altered 
epicardium  with  a  knife. 

TUMORS. — Tumors  may  project  into  the  pericardial  cavity  either 
from  the  pericardium  or  from  the  epicardium.  According  to  Kitt, 
fibromata  and  fibro-sarcomata  occur  most  frequently. 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — Among  the  specific  neomorphic 
formations,  tuberculosis  of  the  pericardium  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  cattle.  The  pericardium  as  well  as  the  pleura  and  peritoneum 
may  apparently  be  affected  with  primary  tuberculosis.  Ordinarily, 
however,  tuberculosis  of  the  pericardium  is  associated  with  pul- 
monary and  pleural  tuberculosis. 

When  the  epicardium  is  affected,  it  is  a  striking  fact  which  is 
sufficiently  explained  by  the  centripetal  course  of  the  lymphatic 
vessels  that  even  the  most  serious  cases  of  epicardial  tuberculosis 
begin  with  complete  integrity  of  the  myocardium. 

Endocardium. 

The  inner  lining  of  the  heart  may  exhibit  petechise  under  the 
already  frequently  noted  conditions,  and  also  insignificant  cloudiness 


338 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC    DISEASES 


in  consequence  of  partial  fatty  metamorphosis  or  proliferating  inflam- 
mation. 

According  to  Glage,  cysts  varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  bean 
and  resembling  cysticerci  occur  quite  frequently  on  the  auriculo- 
ventricular  valves  in  hogs.  Gibson  also  observed  similar  cysts  in 
sheep. 

For  the  differential  diagnosis  of  endocardial  petechise,  attention 
should  again  be  called  in  this  connection  to  the  systolic  hyperemic 
conditions  of  the  myocardium  and  to  the  valvular  hemorrhages  iu 
fasting  calves  (compare  page  174). 


FIG.  84. 


INFLAMMATIONS. — Inflammations  of  the  duplicatures  of  the  endo- 
cardium or  the  so-called  car- 
diac valves  are  not  without 
importance  for  meat  inspec- 
tion. Two  forms  are  distin- 
guished: Verrucose  and  ulcer- 
ous valvular  endocarditis. 
Verrucose  valvular  endocar- 
ditis may  reach  such  a  con- 
dition that  the  death  of  the 
animal  is  brought  about  by 
mechanical  obstruction  of  the 
circulation.  Furthermore, 
thrombi  may  be  formed  upon 
the  greatly  thickened  cardiac 
valve  so  as  to  exercise  the 
same  influence  upon  them  as 
strong  connective  tissue  pro- 
liferations upon  the  valvular 
apparatus.  With  regard  to 
the  etiology  of  the  verrucose 
form  of  valvular  inflamma- 
tion, it  may  represent  a 

simple  proliferating  inflammation  or  an  infectious  process.  Cocci 
and  bacilli  have  been  found  in  the  proliferating  valves.  A  special 
and  frequent  form  of  infectious  verrucose  valvular  endocarditis  is 
caused  by  the  bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas  (Fig.  84). 

Ulcerous  or  diphtheritic  valvular  endocarditis  begins  with  a 
desquamation  of  the  superficial  layers  of  the  cardiac  valves.  Later 
the  desquamating  areas  are  modified  into  ulcers.  Large  thrombi 
arise  in  the  ulcerous  spots  (Fig.  85).  The  loosening  of  the  thrombi 


Heart  of  a  hog  with  valvular  verrucose  endo- 
carditis as  a  sequela  of  swine  erysipelas. 
a,  warty  thickenings. 


CIRCULATORY   APPARATUS 


339 


may  give  rise  to  hemorrhagic  infarcts  in  the  liver,  lungs,  spleen  and 
ludneys. 

Ulcerous  inflammation  of  the  cardiac  valves  is  either  of  toxic  or 
infectious  origin.  In  the  latter  case  pyogenic  organisms  are  of  special 
importance.  For  this  reason  ulcerous  valvular  endocarditis  may 
serve  as  a  starting  point  in  pyemic  processes  (see  under  "  Pyemia  "). 

FIG.  85. 


Beef  heart  with  valvular  ulcerous  endocarditis,  a,  cut  surface  of  the  thrombus  on 
the  ulcerous  cardiac  valve;  b,  base  of  the  thrombus  after  artificial  separation 
from  the  substratum*  c,  ulcerous  part  of  the  cardiac  valve. 


TUMORS. — Tumors  of  the  character  of  fibromata  and  fibro- 
sarcomata  may  arise  upon  the  endocardium  as  well  as  on  the  peri- 
cardium and  epicardium.  According  to  Kitt,  the  tumors  take  their 
origin  from  the  sub-endocardial  tissues,  are  commonly  pedunculate, 
and  connected  with  a  trabecula,  papillary  muscle,  or  tendon.  Tumors 
which  project  into  the  cardiac  cavity  may  reach  the  size  of  the  fist* 


340 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


Myocardium. 

DISSOLUTIONS  OF  CONTINUITY  in  the  myocardium  cause  deaths 
They  are  produced  by  injuries  from  the  outside  (stabs  and  shot 
wounds)  and  by  spontaneous  rupture.  Spontaneous  rupture  is 
observed  as  a  sequela  of  fatty  metamorphosis  of  or  infestation  of 
the  myocardium  with  parasites  (echinococci).  In  old  horses,, 
atheromatosis  of  the  auricles  sometimes  leads  to  rupture  of  the* 
heart.  Death  occurs  from  hemorrhage  into  the  pericardium. 


FIG.  87. 


FIG.  86. 


Incipient  fatty  metamor- 
•  phosis    of    the    cardiac 
muscle. 


Heart  of  a  hog  infected  with  Cysticercus 
cellulosaei. 


DEGENERATIONS. — The  most  important  alterations  of  the  myo- 
cardium are  cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  metamorphosis  (grayish-re^ 
or  grayish-yellow  discoloration,  cloudy  and  soft,  friable  consistency). 
Both  forms  of  degeneration  arise  under  the  same  conditions  as- 
those  of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

CIRCULATORY  DISTURBANCES  AND  INFLAMMATIONS.— Embolic  in- 
farcts  are  observed  in  the  myocardium  in  malignant  foot  and  mouth 
disease  of  cattle  (Johne).  Miiller  observed  a  case  of  the  formation 
of  multiple  abscess  in  the  myocardium  of  a  cow  which,  one  year? 


CIRCULATORY  APPARATUS  341 

previously,  suffered  from  an  acute  attack  of  foot-and-mouth  disease. 
Metastatic  abscesses  may  develop  in  the  myocardium  in  association 
with  other  processes  which  are  ushered  in  with  suppuration.  This 
is  quite  frequent  in  cases  of  metritis  and  is  occasionally  observed 
also  in  consequence  of  contagious  coryza  and  suppurative  ompha- 
lophlebitis  (Kitt).  The  abscesses  may  also  arise  from  necrotic  foci 
in  the  myocardium  which  are  due  to  embolic  transportation  of  the 
necrosis  bacilli  (Bang  and  the  author). 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — In  rare   cases  tuberculosis  of  the 
myocardium  develops  in  food  animals.      In  the   few  cases  which 
have  been  seen  by  the  author,  the  tuberculous  areas  exhibited  the 
^characteristic  form  of  hemorrhagic  infarcts. 

PARASITES. — In  the  myocardium  there  is  frequently  observed 
injurious  cysticerci,  especially  C.  bovis  in  cattle  and  C.  celluloscv  in 
hogs  and  sheep.  The  parasites  show  a  predilection  for  a  position, 
under  the  epicardium  and  endocardium.  They  may,  however,  pene- 
trate the  whole  musculature  of  the  heart.  Furthermore,  echino- 
cocci  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  myocardium.  They  may 
occasion  sudden  death  by  rupture  of  the  connective  tissue  capsule 
and  the  escape  of  the  encysted  worms  into  the  ventricles.  Large 
echinococci,  however,  may,  in  and  of  themselves,  and  without  rap- 
ture of  their  capsules,  produce  threatening  symptoms  and  sudden 
death  from  cardiac  paralysis,  especially  when  they  have  their  seat 
in  the  septum  of  the  heart. 

(b)   Blood  Vessels. 

As  a  noteworthy  local  disease  of  the  blood  vessels,  attention 
should  be  called  to  verminous  aneurisms  of  the  branches  of  the 
abdominal  aorta,  especially  of  the  trunk  of  the  anterior  mesenteria 
artery  in  the  horse.  This  verminous  aneurism,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  is  caused  by  Strongylusarmatw,  may  reach  quite  considerable 
proportions  without  causing  any  disturbances  in  the  health  of  the 
horse.  Occasionally  a  fatal  hemorrhage  is  observed  in  consequence 
of  the  rupture  of  the  wall  of  the  aneurism. 

Calcification  is  sometimes  observed  in  the  aorta  of  cattle.  The 
intima  of  the  vessel,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  inflexibility,  is 
permeated  with  cloudy-white,  sharply-delimited,  leaf-shaped  deposits 
of  lime,  the  middle  portion  of  which  is  concave.  Rough,  sand-like 
deposits  may  exist  at  the  same  time  (Kitt).  For  purulent  inflamma- 
tions of  the  walls  of  tho  blood  vessels,  see  under  "  Pyemia." 


342  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


6.— Lymphatic  Glands. 

The  lymphatic  glands  have  an  important  physiological  role.. 
They  act  as  a  filtering  apparatus  and  thereby  purify  the  lympk 
stream  from  admixtures  of  foreign  substances  before  it  passes  into 
the  blood  circulation.  The  larger  corpuscular  elements  are  cer- 
tainly filtered  out  of  the  lymph.  The  filter  is  likewise  effective 
even  for  bacteria,  in  different  degrees  in  different  animals.  Thus, 
in  cattle  and  hogs  the  lymph  glands  may  for  a  long  time  restrict  a 
tubercular  process  to  the  point  of  origin  and  prevent  an  infection 
of  the  blood.  Pyogenic  bacteria  are  also  prevented  from  entering 
the  blood  circulation  by  the  lymph  glands  of  food  animals.  In  the 
smaller  animals — for  instance,  in  the  experimental  animals  of  the 
laboratory — this  protective  function  is  much  less  effectively  per- 
formed. 

INFLAMMATIONS. — The  lymph  glands  react  very  readily  to  irrita- 
tion. They  are  therefore  regularly  inflamed  when  inflammatory 
processes  occur  in  their  tributary  area.  In  ordinary  inflammatory* 
swelling,  the  lymphatic  glands  are  enlarged  and  on  cross  section 
more  fluid  exudes.  In  more  advanced  stages  of  lymphadenitis, 
hemorrhages  into  the  tissue  of  the  lymphatic  glands  are  associated 
with  the  original  process  (hemorrhagic  lymphadenitis). 

A  swelling  of  all  the  lymphatic  glands  is  observed  in  acute 
infectious  diseases  and  in  chronic  '  diseases  which  have  become 
acute  ;  for  example,  in  sepsis,  pyemia,  and  chronic  tuberculosis  after 
the  entrance  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood. 

Inflammations  of  the  lymphatic  glands  usually  disappear  as 
rapidly  as  they  arise.  Yellow-colored  spots  may  remain  as  evidence 
of  the  hemorrhages  which  sometimes  accompany  inflammations. 

SPECIFIC  ALTERATIONS. — In  contrast  with  simple  adenitis  as  a 
sequela  of  ordinary  inflammatory  processes,  all  inflammations  of 
other  sorts  are  due  to  the  effect  of  specific  pathogenic  micro- 
organisms. Thus,  indurating  lymphadenitis  is  produced  by  the 
glanders  bacillus,  lymphadenitis  with  abscesses  by  the  streptococci 
of  contagious  coryza ;  casefying  lymphadenitis  by  the  bacilli  of 
tuberculosis,  pseudo-tuberculosis,  and  hog  cholera.  The  ray 
fungus  (Adinomyces  bovis)  produces  in  domestic  animals  no  true 
inflammation,  but  simply  typical  granulations  in  lymphatic  glands. 
It  is  of  special  importance  in  making  a  differential  diagnosis  to 


LYMPHATIC   GLANDS  343 

know  that  purulent  processes  in  domestic  animals  are  not  capable 
of  producing  suppurations  in  the  lymphatic  glands  arid  that  casea- 
tion  of  the  lymph  glands,  the  important  criterion  in  tuberculous 
processes,  occurs  only  in  tuberculosis,  pseudo-tuberculosis  .and  hog 
cholera. 

In  glanderous  lymphadenitis,  tubercles  are  found  in  the  swollen 
lymphatic  glands  which  disintegrate  in  the  center  and  become  case- 
fied  but  not  calcified  (Csoker,  Kitt  and  Schiitz).  Glanderous  lymph 
glands,  according  to  Schiitz,  become  enlarged  at  first  and  shiny  011 
cross  section,  with  a  reddish  or  pale-gray  color  ;  later  they  become 
somewhat  dryer  and  of  a  more  velvety  or  roughish  feel  upon  cross 
section.  The  size  of  the  swollen  gland  does  not  exceed  that  of  a 
walnut  or  plum,  as  a  rule.  A  whole  cluster  of  lymph  glands  is 
rarely  affected.  As  a  rule,  the  glanderous  alterations  are  restricted 
to  a  portion  of  the  lymph  glands.  The  lymphatic  glands  are  pene- 
trated by  callous-like,  white,  connective  tissue  strands  which  project 
inward  from  the  thickened  capsule.  On  cross  section  there  appear 
indistinctly  marked,  small,  grayish-yellow  and  yellow  spots  which 
lie  very  close  to  one  another,  or  scattered  in  the  glandular  tissue. 
These  spots  in  cases  of  fresh  infection  are  often  difficult  to  recognize. 
They  present  in  such  cases  minute  particles  with  a  puriform  disin- 
tegration. If  the  alterations  are  of  longer  standing,  the  spots 
become  cloudy,  white,  dryish,  caseous  and  mortar-like.  Simulta- 
neously the  induration  and  cicatricial  contraction  of  the  newly 
formed  connective  tissue  proceeds  in  the  lymphatic  glands,  arid  the 
cloudy  deposits,  which  often  possess  an  angular  form,  appear  like 
foreign  particles  which  have  been  inserted  into  the  cicatricial  mass. 
Total  caseation  of  the  lymphatic  glands  does  not  occur  in  glanders, 
according  to  Schiitz.  Exceptionally,  in  consequence  of  glanderous 
infection,  they  may  be  modified  into  white,  callous,  bacon-like 
masses  of  the  size  of  a  goose  egg,  which  inclose  cavities  containing 
an  oily,  fluid,  gray  pus  (Kitt). 

In  actinomycosis  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  a  macroscopically- 
visible,  roughened,  hard  character  of  the  lymphatic  glands  is 
observed.  Under  the  microscope,  on  the  other  hand,  a  uniform 
accumulation  of  the  epithelioid  and  giant  cells  is  observed  around 
the  mycelium  of  the  ray  fungus. 

Finally,  in  tuberculosis,  which  is  the  most  important  disease  of 
the  lymphatic  glands  in  meat  inspection,  there  is  at  first  a  simple 
swelling,  enlargement  and  increase  in  the  fluid  content ;  then  minute 
tubercles,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  tissue  by 
their  gray  color,  are  demonstrable.  Later,  larger,  round  tubercles 


344  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

are  found,  the  centers  of  which  appear  to  be  cloudy  in  consequence 
of  caseation.  (Compare  Fig.  73,  a  arid  b).  And,  lastly,  a  calcifica- 
tion usually  appears  in  the  place  of  the  caseation.  The  individual 
foci  either  remain  separated  or  fused  together.  In  the  first  place, 
isolated  tubercles  are  observed  in  the  lymphatic  glands,  and  in  the 
latter  case  a  uniform  replacement  of  the  normal  tissue  of  the 
lymphatic  glands  by  casefied  or  calcified  masses.  Calcification  may 
progress  so  far  that  the  lymphatic  glands  can  no  longer  be  cut 
with  a  knife.  At  the  same  time  the  lymphatic  glands  are  enlarged 
to  twenty  or  more  times  their  original  volume. 

FIG.  88. 


Miliary  tubercle  with  numerous  giant  cells,  X  75  diameters. 

Diagnosis  of  tuberculous  alterations  in  the  lymphatic  glands. — In 
the  practice  of  meat  inspection,  one  sometimes  makes  the  highly 
astonishing  observation  that  only  those  glands  which  are  casefied 
and  calcified  are  considered  and  treated  as  tuberculous.  The  danger 
to  the  public  from  such  a  method  of  treatment  is  evident  from  the 
preceding  discussion,  without  further  argument.  The  incipient 
swellings  of  the  lymphatic  glands  with  eruption  of  minute  tubercles 
are  more  dangerous  than  the  old  alterations  in  which  calcification 
has  already  occurred.  The  experienced  inspector  readily  distin- 
guishes macroscopically  and  with  certainty  simple  lymphadenitis 
from  tuberculous  swelling.  In  the  former  the  color  of  the  cufc 
surface  is  usually  white  ;  in  the  latter,  more  grayish.  Further- 
more, the  author  has  found  that  an  examination  of  the  cut  surface. 


LYMPHATIC    GLANDS 

-with  a  hand  lens  may  offer  much  assistance  in  the  establishment  of 
a  diagnosis  (recognition  of  minute  tubercles).  A  still  better  pro- 
cedure, however,  consists  in  an  examination  of  a  teased  preparation 
from  the  suspected  lymph  glands  with  a  magnification  of  about 
forty  diameters  (the  author).  It  is  thereby  possible  in  cases  of 
simple  hyperplasia  to  observe  a  uniformly  transparent  tissue.  In 
tuberculosis,  on  the  other  hand,  transparent  tissue  is  interrupted 
by  cloudy  areas  which,  as  a  rule,  appear  roundish  and  under  a, 
•somewhat  greater  magnification  exhibit  in  their  interior  necrotic 
giant  cells  in  the  form  of  dark,  roundish  or  oval  structures  (Fig.  88). 
For  details  on  this  point  and  on  the  important  differential  diagnosis, 
from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  between  the  alterations  in  tuberculosis 
and  in  hog  cholera  in  the  lymphatic  glands,  see  under  "Tuber- 
culosis." 

TUMORS. — Sarcomata,  carcinomata,  and  so-called  lymphomata 
occur  in  the  lymphatic  glands.  The  latter  are  the  most  important 
tumors  of  the  lymphatic  glands  in  so  far  as  their  frequency  and  sig- 
nificance in  meat  inspection  are  concerned. 

Sarcomata  may  develop  primarily  in  the  lymphatic  glands. 
Carcinomata,  on  the  other  hand,  always  penetrate  into  the  organs  in 
question  in  consequence  of  metastases.  Lymphomata  are  distin- 
guished as  soft  and  hard.  We  are  chiefly  interested  here  with  soft 
lymphomata  on  account  of  their  frequent  occurrence  in  food  ani- 
mals. They  represent  soft,  "almost  fluctuating"  tumors  which 
may  attain  an  enormous  volume  (the  size  of  a  man's  head  and 
larger).  Under  the  microscope,  one  finds  the  same  elements  which 
are  present  in  the  normal  lymphatic  gland.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
soft  lymphomata  may  occur  simultaneously  in  a  number  of 
lymphatic  glands,  also  in  the  lymphatic  follicles  of  different  organs, 
in  the  spleen,  and,  in  young  animals,  in  the  thymus.  On  the  other 
hand,  organs  which  do  not  belong  to  the  lymphatic  apparatus,  like 
the  liver  and  kidneys,  may  be  affected  with  lymphomata  by  meta- 
stasis. 

Soft  lymphomata  are  a  symptom  of  constitutional  disease. 
According  as  the  blood  is  affected  or  not,  we  speak  of  leukernic 
lymphornata  in  cases  of  pronounced  leukemia  (increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  white  blood  corpuscles),  or  of  pseudo-leukemia  (Cohnheim), 
in  cases  where  the  blood  shows  no  alteration  in  the  numerical 
relation  between  the  red  and  white  blood  corpuscles.  For  judg- 
ment, see  under  "Leukemia"  and"  Pseudo-leukemia." 


346  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

PARASITES. — Among  the  animal  parasites,  there  frequently 
occur,  in  the  lymphatic  glands,  pentast'omum  larvse  (mesenterie 
glands),  more  rarely  cysticerci  (in  cases  of  excessive  invasion),  and, 
occasionally,  echinococci.  All  three  parasites  may  become  casefied 
and  calcified.  In  this  condition  the  alterations  of  parasitic  origin 
may  be  confused  with  tuberculosis.  Casefied  parasites,  however, 
may  be  easily  distinguished  from  tuberculous  areas  by  simple 
microscopic  examination  (a  teased  preparation  with  a  slight  magnifi- 
cation). During  this  examination  one  finds  in  the  parasitic  altera- 
tions either  the  whole  body  of  the  worm  or  characteristic  portions 
of  it,  viz.:  claws  in  the  case  of  pentastomes,  and  calcareous  bodies 
in  the  case  of  cysticerci ;  (in  the  case  of  C.  cellulosse,  also,  hooks) ; 
and  striated  portions  of  membranes  in  the  case  of  echinococci. 
Leuckart  reports  the  finding  of  a  round  worm  larva  in  the 
mesenterie  glands  of  a  beef  animal.  The  parasite  was  surrounded 
by  a  connective  tissue  capsule  and  lay  rolled  up  in  it. 

7.— Spleen. 

The  serous  peritoneal  covering  of  the  spleen  may  exhibit  the 
same  alterations  as  the  peritoneum.  In  tuberculosis,  the  peritoneal 
covering  of  the  spleen  is  often  more  decidedly  affected  than  the 
remainder  of  the  peritoneum. 

The  parenchyma  of  the  spleen  is  the  site  of  various  important 
alterations.  We  find  in  the  splenic  parenchyma  metastatic  tumors 
(sarcomata  and  carcinomata),leukemic  and  pseudo-leukemic  enlarge- 
ment of  the  follicles,  metastatic  abscesses  (in  pyemia),  and  embolic 
masses  of  roundish  form  and  varying  size  in  tuberculosis  and 
glanders.  Among  the  animal  parasites,  the  spleen  may  be  infested 
with  echinococci,  wandering  liver  flukes  in  cysts,  as  in  the  lungs, 
and  pentastomum  larvae. 

The  most  important  alteration  of  the  spleen  is  acute  splenic 
tumor.  This  is  pathognomonic  for  Texas  fever,  anthrax  and  swine 
erysipelas.  To  a  lesser  extent,  splenic  tumor  may  appear  also  in. 
other  infectious  diseases.  In  these  cases,  however,  it  possesses  less 
significance  than  in  Texas  fever,  anthrax  and  erysipelas. 

A  considerable  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  spleen,  which  may 
be  confused  with  infectious  splenic  tumor,  arises  in  consequence  of 
the  multiple  formation  of  infarcts  in  the  branches  of  the  splenic 
artery.  The  inciting  cause  to  this  condition  is  found  in  endocarditis. 
An  infarct  in  the  spleen  consists,  as  in  the  case  of  a  renal  or  pul- 
monary infarct,  of  round  or  wedge-shaped  masses  which  are  at  first 


LYMPHATIC    GLANDS  347 

dark-red,  but  later  appear  yellowish  or  white  in  consequence  of  a 
modification  and  resorption  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  blood. 
The  infarcts  of  the  spleen  are  raised  above  the  surrounding  tissue 
in  the  form  of  a  tumor.  In  cases  of  occlusion  of  several  small 
branches  or  one  large  arterial  branch,  the  spleen  may  enlarge  to 
two,  three,  or  more  times  its  normal  size.  The  sequela  of  such  an 
extensive  formation  of  infarcts  is  usually  a  considerable  shrink- 
ing of  the  spleen  after  the  necrotic  iufarcted  masses  have  been 
resorbed. 

The  essential  characteristics  of  splenic  infarcts  are  the  round 
or  wedge-shaped  contour,  harder  consistency,  and  discoloration  of 
the  delimited  areas — an  evidence  of  ernbolic,  thrombic  occlusion  of 
individual  branches  of  the  splenic  artery. 

Alterations  similar  to  those  caused  by  the  formation  of  hemor- 
rhagic  infarcts  may  occur  in  hogs  in  consequence  of  a  rotation  of 
the  spleen  around  its  longitudinal  axis  (Glage).  The  spleen  in 
hogs  is,  as  an  appendix  to  the  large  omentum,  not  so  securely  fixed 
in  its  position  as  is  the  spleen  of  cattle  and  sheep.  If  the  spleen  is 
rotated  in  consequence  of  external  agencies  or  variations  in  the 
degree  of  fulness  of  the  internal  organs,  violent  stoppage  of  the 
circulation  in  the  spleen  may  occur  in  consequence  of  torsion  of  the 
splenic  blood  vessels.  This  is  most  likely  to  occur  in  old  animals 
with  ligaments  devoid  of  fat.  If  the  spleen  remains  in  its  abnormal 
position,  thrombosis  occurs  in  the  vascular  trunks  of  the  ligaments 
at  the  point  of  torsion  and  consequently  at  first  an  anemic  necrosis, 
and  later,  after  resorption  of  the  disintegrated  mass,  a  shrinking  of 
the  spleen,  as  in  the  case  of  the  formation  of  infarcts. 

As  a  means  of  distinguishing  between  splenic  tumor  due  to  tor- 
sion and  infectious  tumor  in  anthrax,  Glage  considers  it  an  impor- 
tant fact  that  in  torsion  of  the  spleen  the  pulp  of  the  organ,  in  spite 
of  its  high  blood  content,  is  not  softened. 

In  hogs,  as  a  sequela  of  the  above  described  alterations,  we 
frequently  find  completely  shrivelled  spleens  with  organized  thrombi 
in  the  splenic  artery.  In  such  cases,  which  are  otherwise  without 
significance  for  meat  inspection,  we  may  occasionally  observe  a  new 
formation  of  small  accessory  spleens  on  the  omentum. 

T.  Adam  observed  swellings  in  the  spleen  up  to  four  times  ita 
original  volume  in  cattle  which  before  slaughter  appeared  to  be  in 
perfect  health.  Adam  suspected  a  horn  thrust  as  the  cause.  Per- 
haps, however,  they  were  cases  of  physiological  swelling  in  animals 
which  had  been  fed  and  watered  immediately  before  slaughter 
(compare  page  170)  ;  for,  after  traumatic  injuries,  extensive  hemor- 


318  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

rhages  may  occur  in  the  tissue  of  the  spleen,  but  not  a  uniform 
swelling  of  the  spleen. 

With  reference  to  chronic  splenic  tumor  in  leukemia  and 
pseudo-leukemia,  compare  page  371. 

8. — Nervous  System. 
(a)  Central  Nervous  System. 

The  diseases  of  the  central  nervous  system,  brain  and  spinal 
cord  are  of  slight  importance  from  a  sanitary  police  standpoint,  for 
they  do  not  lend  the  meat  of  animals  any  dangerous  property.  The 
only  diseases  of  interest  in  this  connection  are  wounds,  inflamma- 
tions, tumors  and  parasites  of  the  organs  of  the  centra]  nervoua 
-system  as  causes  of  natural  death  or  emergency  slaughter. 

Brain. 

Of  the  pathological  processes  in  the  brain,  the  more  important 
are  acute  meningitis  and  hydrocephalus  chronicus,  as  well  as 
so-called  cholesteatomata  on  the  basis  of  the  cranium  and  in  the 
ventricles ;  abscesses  in  consequence  of  contagious  coryza  ;  menin- 
geal  tuberculosis,  which  appears  in  the  form  of  tubercles  from  the 
size  of  a  millet  seed  to  that  of  lentils  in  the  pia  mater,  especially  at 
the  base  of  the  brain,  and  may  be  ushered  in  with  inflammatory 
sj^nptoms  (tuberculous,  basilar  meningitis) ;  also  Gcenurus  cerebralis 
and  occasionally  echinococci,  Oysticercus  lovis  and  C.  cellulosce.  The 
last  two  parasites  are  occasionally  found  in  the  brain,  even  when  the 
musculature  shows  only  a  slight  invasion.  Acute  meningitis,  men- 
ingeal  tuberculosis,  and  Ccenurus  cerebralis,  as  a  rule,  produce  such 
serious  motor  disturbances  that  an  inspection  of  the  living  animal 
indicates  pathological  processes  in  the  brain. 

Spinal  Cord. 

In  the  spinal  canal  of  cattle,  in  regions  where  grazing  herds  aro 
regularly  infested  with  warble  flies,  the  young  larvae  of  oestrus  very 
frequently  occur,  according  to  the  investigations  of  Hinrichsen. 
This  author  found  the  larva?  in  from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  all  cattle 
which  grazed  on  pasture  during  the  summer.  The  larvaa  are  from 
5  to  13  mm.  long,  1  to  2  mm.  wide,  are  located  in  the  subdural  adi- 
pose tissue,  and  have  been  found  isolated  or  in  numbers  up  to  forty 
or  more.  In  the  months  of  December  to  March,  these  parasites 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM  349 

may  be  demonstrated  much  more  frequently  in  the  spinal  canal  than 
in  other  months.  Koorevaar  observed  oestrus  larvae  especially 
abundant  from  October  to  January  in  the  subdural  fat  tissue,  while 
they  appeared  to  be  absent  from  April  to  September. 

In  sheep,  coenurus  bladders  may  occur  in  the  spinal  cord  and 
may  produce  the  clinical  symptoms  of  so-called  turn  sick. 

(b)  Peripheral  Nerves. 

In  certain  peripheral  nerves  we  observe,  as  was  already  stated 
on  page  334,  tumor-like  thickenings  in  consequence  of  fibrous  or 
myxo-fibrous  neomorphs  (Fig.  89).  The  differential  diagnostic 
value  of  these  myxo-fibromata  on  the  intercostal  nerves  has  already 

FIG.  89. 


False  neuroma  of  the  intercostal  nerves  in  cattle 

been  discussed  elsewhere.  We  should  mention  the  plexiform  neuro- 
mata which  are  occasionally  found  in  cattle  on  the  facial  nerve  and 
brachial  plexus.  These  neuromata,  when  extensively  developed, 
penetrate  the  intercostal  muscles  and  may  then  be  recognized  in  the 
ordinary  inspection  of  slaughtered  animals  without  separating  the 
anterior  extremity. 

9.— Skeleton. 


In  the  bony  framework  of  food  animals  there  may  occur  general 
•diseases  and  alterations  which  are  restricted  to  one  bone. 


,550  •       NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

(a)  General  Diseases. 

The  most  important  general  diseases  of  the  bony  skeleton  are 
rachitis,  osteomalacia  and  osteomyelitis.  The  last  named  disease 
is  a  special  form  of  pyemia  and  will  be  discussed,  therefore,  under 
that  head. 

BACHITIS. — This  is  a  disease  of  young  animals  and  among 
food  animals  is  most  frequently  observed  in  hogs.  It  consists  in  an 
extensive  proliferation  of  the  cartilaginous  epiphyses  and  in  a  pro- 
longed condition  of  softness  in  the  growth  of  new-forming  bone,  a 
process  which  is  explained  by  defective  deposition  of  lime.  The 
consequences  of  this  disturbance  in  the  growth  of  the  bones  are  the 
well-known  swellings  and  curvatures  in  the  skeleton. 

Judgment. — According  to  all  experience  and  according  to  the 
present  status  of  eur  knowledge  concerning  the  nature  of  rachitis, 
the  meat  of  rachitic  animals  can  not  be  regarded  as  injurious.  How- 
ever, the  meat  of  animals  which  are  affected  with  rachitis  of  the 
whole  skeleton  and  not  one  or  several  bones,  as  in  the  snuffle  dis- 
ease, is  to  be  excluded  from  the  market  for  the  reason  that  in  acute 
stages  of  the  disease  serious  internal  disturbances,  even  cachexia, 
may  be  ushered  in. 

OSTEOMALACIA,  friability  of  the  bones,  in  contrast  with  rachitis, 
is  a  disease  of  old  age.  It  is  to  be  considered  as  calcareous  inanition. 
The  essential  symptom  of  osteomalacia  consists  in  a  decalcification 
and  progressive  attenuation  of  the  compact  cortical  substance  of  the 
bones  in  consequence  of  resorption.  An  abnormal  softness  and 
friability  is  thereby  produced,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  is  bone  fractures 
which  lead  to  a  recognition  of  the  disease  and  to  emergency  slaugh- 
ter of  osteomalacic  animals.  Multiple  fractures  of  the  pelvis  are 
especially  frequent.  Maris  counted  fifteen  fractures  in  the  pelvis 
of  a  cow.  The  bone  marrow  in  osteomalacia  is  dark,  yellowish-red 
and  of  a  more  or  less  fluid  consistency  (fluidity  of  the  marrow). 
Moreover,  the  spongy  portion  »of  the  bone  is  rich  in  blood  and  is, 
therefore,  dark-colored  and  softer  than  normal.  Finally,  the  peri- 
osteum is  readily  separated  from  the  bones.  During  life  one  may 
observe  in  animals  with  friable  bones  a  difficulty  in  getting  up  and  a 
straddling  gait. 

Judgment  of  the  meat  is  determined  according  to  the  character 
of  the  latter.  So  long  as  emaciation  does  not  exist,  the  meat  may 
be  permitted  to  go  upon  the  market  without  restriction,  provided 


NERVOUS   SYSTEM  351 

that  no  wouud  infection  has  developed  at  the  point  of  fracture  of 
some  broken  bone.  In  case,  on  the  contrary,  emaciation  has  already 
set  in,  the  meat  is  spoiled  (of  inferior  value),  and  if  cachexia  is  pres- 
ent, it  is  highly  unfit  for  food.  In  the  latter  case  the  fat  marrow  of 
the  tubular  bones  disappears  and  is  replaced  by  gelatinous,  so-called 
jelly,  marrow. 

(b)  Local  Diseases. 

FRACTURES. — These  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  food  animals 
and  are  observed  especially  in  highly  fattened  hogs  in  the  tubular 
bones  of  the  posterior  extremities.  Moreover,  fractures  frequently 
occur  in  the  pelvis  of  cows  and  in  the  ribs  of  all  food  animals. 

Judgment. — Fresh  bone  fractures  lend  the  adjacent  meat  a 
spoiled  or  inferior  quality  in  consequence  of  the  infiltration  of  blood. 
Old,  healed  bone  fractures,  on  the  other  hand,  are  without  signifi- 
cance. In  complicated  fractures  in  process  of  healing  (in  which  the 
skin  has  also  suffered  lesions)  an  examination  should  be  made  to 
determine  whether  an  infection  of  the  wound  exists. 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — With  the  exception  of  fractures,  the 
specific  granulations  of  tuberculosis  and  actinomycosis  are  the  only 
diseases  of  the  skeleton  of  significance  in  meat  inspection.  Gland- 
erous alterations  in  the  bone  are  of  no  consequence  from  a  sanitary 
police  point  of  view,  since  they  occur  merely  as  complications  of 
primary  glanderous  processes  in  other  organs.  In  cases  of  glanders, 
however,  the  consumption  of  the  meat  is  absolutely  forbidden.  The 
case  is  quite  otherwise  in  tuberculosis  and  actinomycosis.  In  these 
diseases  embolic  processes  in  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  should  lead 
to  an  exclusion  of  the  meat  from  market. 

Tuberculosis  may  occur  in  all  of  the  bones.  Tuberculous  alter- 
ations, however,  are  most  frequently  observed  in  cattle  and  hogs  in 
the  dorsal  vertebra,  sternum  and  ribs.  Tuberculosis  of  the  bones 
of  the  extremities  is  less  frequent.  An  affection  of  these  organs  is 
indicated  to  the  expert  by  specific  alterations  of  the  superior 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  extremities  (prescapular  and  axillary  or 
popliteal  and  inguinal  glands).  The  diseases  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae 
and  sternum,  in  the  ordinary  method  of  cutting  up  animals  in  the 
slaughterhouse,  may  be  demonstrated  directly,  since  the  dorsal  ver- 
tebrae and  the  sternum  are  cut  through  the  middle  with  a  saw  or  an 
ax,  and  thereby  the  tuberculous  masses  are  immediately  brought  to 
view,  since,  as  a  rule,  they  take  their  origin  from  the  middle  o£ 
those  -bones. 


352 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


The  tuberculous  areas  appear  in  the  form  of  grayish-red,  soft 
granulations  which  are  plainly  distinguished  from  the  surrounding 
bony  tissue.  At  first,  however,  they  are  not  easily  separated  from 
It  (demonstration  of  the  tuberculous  nature  of  such  small  areas  by 
means  of  an  identification  of  giant  cells)  (see  page  344).  In  older 
and  larger  masses  which  are  located  in  sinuous  cavities  with  smooth. 

FIG.  90. 


Tuberculosis  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  in  a  hog.  a,  caseous  focus ;  5,  deposition  of  lime 
in  the  caseous  focus;  c,  bony  bands  and  islands  on  the  border  of  the  caseous 
focus ;  d,  section  of  a  vertebra  after  removal  of  the  tuberculous  products. 

"walls  and  which  are  not  easily  separated  from  these,  the  grayish- 
yellow  color  is  more  conspicuous.  Furthermore,  we  observe  in  the 
larger  masses  a  partial  calcification  which,  however,  is  never 
especially  far  advanced.  The  larger  masses  in  the  bones,  therefore, 
, possess  the  character  which  has  previously  been  designated  as 
fungous.  Tuberculous  granulations  may  attain  such  a  volume  that 
finally  only  a  seam-like  residue  of  the  normal  bone  tissue  remains. 


NERVOUS    SYSTEM  353 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  addition  to  the  vertebral  bodies  the 
spinous  processes  are  also  frequently  affected  with  tuberculosis 
(Fig.  90). 

In  tuberculosis  of  the  ribs,  which  never  arises  by  an  outgrowth 
from  tuberculous  processes  in  the  pleura,  but  exclusively  in  a  hema- 
togenous  manner,  one  observes  a  thickening  as  the  first  alteration. 
By  making  a  cross-section  through  the  thickened  portion  with  a 
saw  we  may  immediately  become  convinced  of  the  tuberculous 
nature  of  the  thickening,  especially  from  the  presence  of  the  above- 
described  granulations.  In  more  acute  stages  of  costal  tuberculosis, 
the  external  layer  of  the  bone  is  so  attenuated  that  it  may  be  cut 
through  with  a  knife.  This  is  of  importance  in  distinguishing 
between  costal  tuberculosis  and  callous  thickenings  following  frac- 
tures of  the  ribs. 

Actinomycosis  of  the  bones  is  in  cattle  an  unusually  frequent 
primary  affection.  The  lower  jaw  is  most  frequently  attacked. 
However,  primary  actinomycosis  of  the  bone  may  occur  on  the 
upper  jaw.  The  author  observed  an  interesting  case  of  primary 
actinomycosis  of  the  sternum  in  a  beef  animal.  In  this  case  infec- 
tion was  brought  about  by  a  sharp  wire  which  had  penetrated 
outwardly  from  the  stomach  into  the  sternum.  The  ray  fungus,  by 
its  continued  multiplication,  causes  an  enlargement  and  rarefaction 
of  the  bones.  Simultaneously  an  extensive  swelling  and  later  a 
perforation  of  the  bones  at  one  or  more  points  occur.  At  the  points 
of  perforation  the  actinornycomata  project  outwardly  in  the  form  of 
plugs.  Embolic  actinomycosis  of  the  bones  is  of  rare  occurrence. 
Hertwig  described  a  case  of  this  sort  in  a  hog.  In  the  animal  in 
question,  in  addition  fb  primary  actinomycosis  of  the  mammary 
gland,  softened  masses  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  appeared  in  several 
dorsal  vertebrae.  In  the  softened  masses  was  found  the  ray  fungus, 
the  presence  of  which  was  evident  in  a  macroscopic  examination, 
from  the  existence  of  yellowish  granules. 

PARASITES. — Exceptionally,  echinococci  occur  in  the  bones. 
Casefied  echinococci  may  resemble  tuberculosis  of  the  bones.  The 
demonstration  of  the  characteristic  striated  membrane  of  the 
echinococci  will  protect  one  from  such  a  mistake  in  diagnosis. 

Diseases  of  the  Joints. — Local  diseases  of  the  joints  do  not 
require  any  special  discussion.  With  reference  to  penetrating 
wounds  of  the  joints  and  polyarthritis  of  sucking  animals,  compare 
the  chapter  on  "Pyemia"  and  "  Septicemia." 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

Articular  tuberculosis,  which  is  rarely  met  with,  appears  in 
two  forms :  (1)  As  tuberculous  articular  empyemia,  characterized 
by  slimy  purulent  exudation,  and  (2)  as  so-called  fungous  arthritis, 
in  which  the  articular  cavity  is  filled  with  tuberculous  granulating 
tissue  which  grows  but  from  the  synovial  membrane. 

Presternal  Calcification. — Underneath  the  sternum  and  sympa- 
thetically affecting  this  bone  in  part,  a  peculiar  calcification  process 
occurs  in  fattened  cattle  and  sheep.  This  deserves  to  be  mentioned 
on  account  of  its  scientific  interest  and  the  possibility  of  its  being 
mistaken  for  tuberculosis.  In  the  animals  in  question  one  observes, 


Presternal  calcification. 
a,  section  of  the  sternum ;  &,  normal  sternal  pad ;  c,  lime  deposits. 


in  the  pad  formed  of  elastic  and  fat  tissue,  tumors  with  a  roughened 
surface  and  hard  consistency,  frequently  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut 
or  that  of  the  fist.  After  making  a  cross-section  of  the  sternum 
with  a  saw,  it  is  apparent  that  the  tumors  consist  of  a  strong  con- 
nective tissue  framework,  in  the  cavities  of  which  a  pure  white 
gypsum-like  mass  is  deposited.  This  mass  consists  of  carbonate 
and  phosphate  of  lime.  The  periphery  of  the  tumors  is  delimited 
by  strongly-developed  connective  tissue.  In  some  cases,  but  not 
regularly,  the  tumor  penetrates  into  the  sternum  in  consequence  of 
a  proliferation  of  the  part  of  the  sternum  which  is  directly  in  con- 
tact with  the  tumor. 


SKELETAL  MUSCULATURE  355 

No  parasitic  cause  has  been  discovered  for  the  above  described 
^deposition  of  lime  underneath  the  sternum.  It  has  rather  the 
appearance — and  this  is  indicated  by  the  exclusive  occurrence  of  the 
al  teration  in  fat  animals — that  it  arises  after  a  crushing  of  the  ster- 
nal pad  while  the  animals  are  lying  and  is  due  to  a  simple  deposi- 
tion of  lime  in  the  crushed  parts.  The  enlargement  and  progressive 
character  of  the  "  tumor  "  might  be  explained  by  the  pressure  of 
the  primary  calcareous  deposit  upon  the  surrounding  tissue. 

10.— Skeletal  Musculature. 

DISSOLUTION  OF  CONTINUITY. — Dissolutions  of  the  continuity  of 
muscles  are  often  observed  in  food  animals.  They  occur  most  fre- 
quently as  secondary  ruptures  in  cases  of  bone  fractures.  Further- 
more, one  may  observe  in  hogs  an  independent  rupture  of  the 
psoas  muscle  (from  violent  pressure  upon  the  animal),  as  well  as  in. 
the  point  of  union  of  the  musculi  graciles  (from  slipping).  In  calves 
Tvhich  are  roughly  pulled  about  by  the  tail,  extensive  hemorrhages, 
according  to  Ellinger,  may  occur  in  the  pelvic  connective  tissue  as 
far  up  as  the  adipose  capsule  of  the  kidneys. 

The  author  has  already  called  attention  to  the  frequency  of  the 
fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  in  fat  hogs.  Since  all  ruptures  of  muscles 
are  accompanied  by  bleeding,  these  ruptures  cause  so-called  multiple 
hemorrhages  in  the  musculature  of  fattened  hogs. 

Fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  and  the  associated  multiple  hemor- 
Thages  are  observed  chiefly  in  the  muscular  portion  of  the  diaphragm 
and  in  the  muscles  of  the  abdomen  and  loins,  as  well  as  in  certain 
muscles  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  extremities,  and  more  rarely 
in  the  whole  musculature,  in  a  more  or  less  uniform  manner.  The 
number  of  hogs  which  show  hemorrhages  only  in  the  diaphragm  is 
a  large  one.  Without  including  isolated  cases  of  hemorrhages,  it 
amounts  to  about  8  per  cent,  of  all  slaughtered  animals. 

The  animals  in  question  show  no  pathological  symptoms  during 
life  and  the  internal  organs  do  not  differ  in  their  condition  from 
those  of  healthy  animals.  My  investigations  indicate  the  deposition 
of  fat  in  the  contractile  portion  of  the  muscle  fibers  in  the  form  of 
granules,  such  as  occur  in  fatty  metamorphosis,  as  the  cause  of 
fibrillar  muscle  ruptures.  As  a  rule,  the  muscular  portion  of  the 
diaphragm  is  most  affected.  In  consequence  of  the  deposition  of 
fat,  the  muscles  become  softer  and  more  easily  torn.  Associated 
this  condition  is  a  defective  use  of  the  musculature  in  fattened 


356  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

hogs  which  favors  their  easy  rupture.  In  the  hemorrhagic  areas,, 
the  red  blood  corpuscles  are  in  general  well  preserved.  This 
indicates  that  the  immediate  cause,  the  occasion  of  fibrillar  muscle 
ruptures  in  our  cases,  is  to  be  sought  in  the  excessive  muscular 
work  which  was  required  of  the  animal  shortly  before  slaughter. 
For  fat  hogs  which  in  the  last  months  of  the  fattening  process  get 
upon  their  feet  only  for  the  purpose  of  moving  to  a  full  trough,  the 
transportation  to  the  slaughterhouse  is  the  first  heavy  muscular 
work  and  the  longer  or  forced  d living  of  the  hogs  is  sufficient  to 
produce  a  rupture  of  the  weakened  muscular  fibers. 

This  assumed  mode  of  origin  of  fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  iu 
fattened  hogs  stands  in  complete  harmony  with  the  series  of  events 

FIG.  92. 


Diaphragm  of  a  hog  with  fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  and  consecutive  multiple 

hemorrhages. 

which  are  observed  in  connection  with  the  involvement  of  individual 
muscles  and  muscle  groups.  For,  even  in  case  of  easy  transporta- 
tion, a  certain  degree  of  dyspnea  appears  in  fattened  animals 
whereby  an  excessive  strain  is  put  upon  the  diaphragm  and  abdom- 
inal muscles  which  function  in  inspiration,  while  the  muscles  which 
are  used  in  locomotion  are  only  moderately  exercised.  The  more 
frequent  occurrence  of  affections  of  individual  muscles  of  the- 
extremities  by  the  alterations  in  question  is  partly  explained  by  ih& 
more  extensive  deposition  of  fat  granules  in  the  fibrillae  and  partly 
by  their  especial  significance  for  locomotion. 

Ellinger  observed  the  following  sequence  in  muscles  affected 
with  fibrillar  ruptures  :  (1)  Diaphragm,  (2)  obturator  interims,  (3)> 


SKELETAL  MUSCULATURE  357 

lumbar  muscles,  and  (4)  gracilis  and  neighboring  muscles.  The 
other  muscles  (of  the  trunk,  anterior  extremities  and  neck)  were 
also  rarely  affected  in  the  cases  observed  by  Ellinger,  viz.:  in  only 
3  to  5  per  cent,  of  all  hogs  which  were  affected  by  fibrillar  muscle 
ruptures. 

The  influence  of  defective  exercise  of  hogs  upon  the  occurrence 
of  fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  breeding 
animals,  boars  as  well  as  breeding  sows,  which  enjoy  a  natural  mode 
•of  life  and  especially  a  freer  movement  than  auimals  which  are 
intended  for  fattening,  muscle  hemorrhages  are  not  observed.  At 
least  the  author  has  never  observed  them  in  boars  and  breeding 
sows.  The  fatty  cloudiness  of  the  striated  muscle  fibers  may  be 
demonstrated,  on  the  other  hand,  in  many  cases  of  breeding  sows 
^vhich  are  fattened  late  in  life. 

Judgment  of  fibrillar  muscle  ruptures. — Multiple  hemorrhages 
caused  by  fibrillar  muscle  ruptures  lend  the  affected  muscular  parts 
quite  an  abnormal  appearance.  The  muscles  appear  to  be  spotted 
with  black.  This  is  especially  conspicuous  after  boiling  and  roast- 
ing pieces  of  the  meat.  Such  meat,  therefore,  in  spite  of  its  perfect 
harmlessness,  can  not  be  considered  as  a  marketable  food  material. 
In  slight  cases  in  which  we  have  to  deal  merely  with  alterations  of 
the  diaphragm  or  other  favorite  locations  of  hemorrhages  caused  by 
fibrillar  muscle  ruptures,  the  remainder  of  the  meat  may  be  allowed 
upon  the  market  without  restriction  after  the  removal  of  the  affected 
part.  In  addition  to  the  above  described 'hemorrhages,  due  to 
fibrillar  muscle  ruptures,  there  may  also  appear,  in  the  musculature 
of  food  animals,  hemorrhages  which  are  due  to  toxic  and  bacterial 
diseases  (phosphorus  poisoning,  anthrax,  black  leg,  morbus  macu- 
losus  and  septicemia).  In  these  cases  there  are,  in  addition  to 
other  characteristic  alterations,  hemorrhages  in  the  internal  organs. 

DEGENERATIONS. — Cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  metamorphosis  of 
the  musculature  are  less  frequent  than  similar  alterations  in  the 
parenchyma  of  the  internal  organs,  since  they  occur  only  in  cases  of 
serious  toxic  and  infectious  diseases  of  long  standing.*  Besides 
these  two  conditions  of  degeneration,  however,  one  observes  in  the 
musculature  hyaline  or  wax-like  degeneration  (Figs.  94  and  96). 
This  alteration,  according  to  the  excellent  investigations  of  Zschokke, 
occurs  in  domesticated  animals  more  frequently  than  has  previously 


*  For  this  reason,  even  in  serious  infectious  diseases,  alterations  of  the  muscu- 
lature may  be  wanting  if  the  affected  animals  are  seasonably  slaughtered. 


358 


NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 


assumed.  As  was  first  shown  by  Frohner,  it  is  a  symptom  of 
hemoglobinuriain  the  horse;  Moreover,  Zschokke  observed  hyaline 
degeneration  of  the  musculature  in  parturient  paresis  and  morbus 
maculosus.  According  to  Zschokke,  the  muscles  do  not  necessarily 
show  any  conspicuous,  gross  anatomical  changes  in  hyaline  degener- 
ation; merely  the  affected  fibers  are  somewhat  thickened.  The  sarco- 
lemma  is  preserved,  but  the  protoplasm  shows  extensive  alterations. 
The  striation  becomes  less  conspicuous,  the  strise  are  more  widely 
separated  from  one  another  and  strongly  arched.  Finally,  the  trans- 
verse and  longitudiiml  striation  disappears  entirely.  The  protoplasm 
then  appears  to  have  ruptured  in  the  form  of  meshes,  or  homogene- 
ous, glistening,  quadrate  and  roundish  masses  are  formed  whick 


FIG.  93. 


Cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  musculature.     «,  normal  muscle  fiber* 
b,  cloudy  swelling;  c,  slight,  and  d,  extensive  fatty  degeneration. 


occupy  the  breadth  of  the  muscle  fiber.  The  muscle  fiber  is  thereby 
interrupted  in  its  continuity  and  hiatuses  appear  between  the 
masses.  Furthermore,  Zschokke  demonstrated  that  the  masses 
possess  a  greater  affinity  for  stains,  especially  hematoxyliri.  Macro- 
scopically,  musculature  affected  with  hyaline  degeneration  does  not 
show  a  striking  discoloration  until  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  fibers 
are  diseased.  Then  the  affected  muscles  appear  pale,  like  the 
muscles  of  fish.-  Their  cut  surface  soon  becomes  brick-red  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  probably  in  consequence  of  the  increased  power 
of  oxidation  of  the  methemoglobin  (Zschokke). 

A  considerable  hyaline  muscle  degeneration,  with  a  fish-like 
appearance  of  the  musculature,  may  be  observed  in  cattle  as  well  as 
in  the  horse.  Thus  the  Miinchener  Jahresberichte  report  several 


SKELETAL   MUSCULATURE 


359 


cases  of  pronounced  hyaline  degeneration  in  cattle  and  young 
calves.  Furthermore,  Hiittner  described  a  case  in  a  steer  in  which 
the  whole  musculature  was  altered,  arid,  finally,  Bepiquet  described 
two  cases  in  calves.  Bepiquet  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
musculature  of  "white"  or  "boiled"  calves  the  fibrillae  are  much 
more  conspicuous  than  normally,  are  swollen,  opaque,  and  tinged 
with  yellow  or  gray.  Bepiquet  compared  the  cut  surface  with  rotten 
wood.  The  alteration,  in  both  cases  investigated  by  Bepiquet,  was 
shown  in  all  parts  of  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  affected  from 
one-tenth  to  two-fifths  of  the  total  musculature. 

FIG.  94. 


Hyaline  degeneration  of  the  musculature  in  the  horse  in  case  of  hemoglobinuria  (after 
Zschokke).  a,  hyaline  fragments ;  6,  cleavage  and  beginning  of  hyaline  disin- 
tegration, X  100  diameters. 


Judgment. — Among  the  degenerations  of  the  musculature,  it  is 
only  the  hyaline  which  possesses  an  independent  significance.  Meat 
altered  by  hyaline  degeneration,  on  account  of  its  abnormal  appear- 
ance and  poor  keeping  quality  (Bepiquet),  is  undoubtedly  a  spoiled 
(inferior)  food  material.  According  to  Hiittner,  beef  affected  by 
hyaline  degeneration  roasts  and  boils  like  veal  and,  according  to  the 
statements  of  consumers,  is  not  of  good  flavor.  Hiittner  therefore 
favors  the  admission  of  the  meat  to  the  market  under  declaration. 


360  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

This  procedure,  however,  is  justified  only  when  during  the  inspec- 
tion of  the  slaughtered  animals  alterations  other  than  hyaline  muscle 
degeneration  are  not  found  and  when  the  latter  must  be  considered 
as  an  independent  alteration  incident  to  the  death  agony. 

Hyaline  musde  degeneration  in  the  hog. — A  partial  hyaline  degen- 
eration of  the  musculature  is  frequently  seen  in  hogs.  Duncker 
first  called  attention  to  this  fact.  He  considered  the  alteration  as 
originally  due  to  infection  by  the  ray  fungus.  The  assumption  of 
Duncker,  however,  immediately  met  with  vigorous  opposition. 
Especially,  Johne  insists  that  the  depositions  in  the  musculature 
described  by  Duncker  can  not  be  identical  with  Actinomyces  bovis, 
for  the  reason  that  they  never  exhibit  the  well-known,  club-shaped 
end  swellings  of  the  radial  hyphsB.  Furthermore,  in  the  tissue 
surrounding  the  structures  described  by  Duncker,  the  acute  inflam- 
matory reaction  which  occurs  in  infection  by  Actinomyces  bovis , 
immediately  after  penetration  of  its  minute  mycelia,  is  wanting. 
Ziirn  went  further  and  expressed  a  doubt  whether  the  structures  in 
question  were  of  a  fungous  nature  at  all. 

Olt  deserves  credit  for  having  studied  the  muscular  disease 
in  question  and  for  having  demonstrated  that  the  supposed  fungous 
mycelia  were  nothing  more  than  broken  pieces  of  the  specifically 
altered  contractile  content  of  the  muscle  fibers.  They  show  a 
stronger  affinity  for  stains  than  intact  sarcoplasm,  and  in  the  prepar- 
ations which  Duncker  stained  with  cochineal  may  have  been 
considered  as  deposits  of  foreign  substance. 

Macroscopically,  the  specifically  degenerated  musculature  is 
conspicuous  for  its  pale-red  or  grayish  color,  sprinkled  with  white, 
its  softer  consistency  and  high  fluid  content.  The  white  sprinkling 
is  in  the  form  of  minute  points  and  follows  the  course  of  the  muscle 
fibers.  The  consistency  of  the  degenerated  musculature  is  so 
reduced  that  a  moderate  pressure  with  the  finger  is  sufficient  to 
penetrate  it.  The  abnormal  fluid  content  in  the  favorite  points  for 
location  of  the  degeneration  (muscular  part  of  the  diaphragm  and 
abdominal  muscles)  is  so  great  that  one  could  speak  of  a  regular 
muscle  edema.  This  edema  is  of  diagnostic  value.  It  is,  moreover, 
noteworthy  that  the  fluid  which  permeates  the  altered  muscle  tissue 
after  cooling  of  the  meat  is  pressed  out  and  appears  in  large  quan- 
tities on  the  upper  surface.  This  phenomenon  is  explained  by  the 
post  mortem  rigor  of  the  affected  muscle  fibers. 

In  a  microscopic  examination  one  observes,  according  to  Olt, 
whose  investigations  were  confirmed  by  the  simultaneous  investi- 


SKELETAL  MUSCULATURE  361 

gations  of  Davids  and  later  by  myself,  in  the  incipient  stages  the 
loosening  of  the  sarcoplasm  or  contractile  content  of  the  sarcolemina, 
a  gradual  disappearance  and  fusion  of  the  same.  Thereby,  gaps 
appear  which  enlarge  to  form  fissures  and  spherical  cavities  and 
dissolutions  of  continuity  arise  in  the  muscle  fibers  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  contractile  content  falls  into  irregular  broken  pieces  of 
varying  size  (Fig.  95).  All  disintegrated  fragments  are  uniformly 
opaque,  but  may,  however,  still  exhibit  an  evident  transverse  stria- 
tion.  Furthermore,  in  consequence  of  contraction  of  unaffected 

FIG.  95. 


Hyaline  muscle  degeneration  in  hogs,  a,  intact  fiber ;  b,  monilif orm  arrangement  of 
plasma  debris;  c,  point  of  rupture  of  a  muscle  fiber.  In  other  parts  of  the 
preparation  there  are  unaffected  muscle  fibers  together  with  plasma  debris 
of  various  forms,  rupture  of  the  muscle  fibers,  loss  of  the  sarcolemma  and  en- 
largement of  the  intermuscular  tissue.  X  35  diameters. 

fibers,  ruptures  of  the  degenerated  fibers  may  be  produced  (Fig. 
96,  c)  as  well  as  a  rounding-off  of  the  protoplasmic  debris,  so  that  in 
affected  muscle  fibers  round  or  oval  protoplasmic  balls  are  observed 
in  a  moniliform  order  (Fig.  95,  b).  The  internal  perimysium  in 
acute  diseases  of  the  muscle  fibers  is  somewhat  affected  by  serous 
infiltration  and  exhibits  a  cellular  proliferation.  Olt  was  unable  to 
demonstrate  a  thickening  of  the  sarcolemma.  The  sarcolemma  is 
found  in  the  form  of  a  thin  membrane  over  the  disintegrated  parts. 
Frequently  it  is  torn  and  in  many  affected  muscle  fibers  it  is  not  to 
be  recognized  at  all. 


362  NOTEWORTHY   ORGANIC   DISEASES 

With  regard  to  the  occurrence  of  the  above  described  process, 
it  is  observed  most  frequently  in  hogs.  It  is  also  found,  however, 
as  shown  by  P.  Falk,  quite  often  in  the  musculature  of  calves  and 
sheep.  Its  favorite  locations  are  the  muscular  parts  of  the  dia- 
phragm, the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  intercostal  muscles.  As  a 
rule,  the  disease  is  restricted  to  the  muscular  part  of  the  diaphragm. 
Alterations  of  the  whole  striated  musculature  are  exceedingly  rare. 


FIG. 


Hyaline  muscle  degeneration  in  hogs.     A  part  of  Pig.  9f>  magnified  275  times. 
«,  intact  muscle  fiber;  &,  plasma  debris  with  coccus-like  deposits;  c,  point  of  rupture 
•    of  muscle  fiber.     The  partial  solution  of  the  sarcolemma,  the  enlargement  of  the 
intermuscular  tissue,  and  the  chaotic  arrangement  of  the  plasma  debris  are 
shown  more  distinctly  than  in  Fig.  95.  j 

Opinions  differ  concerning  the  cause  of  the  alteration.  Olfc 
believes  that  he  saw  streptococci  in  the  altered  portions  of  the 
muscles.  Davids,  on  the  other  hand,  called  attention  to  the  simi- 
larity of  the  structures  in  question  to  the  sarcous  elements  into 
which  the  muscle  fibers  disintegrated.  Davids  considered  the 
whole  phenomenon  as  a  simple  hyaline  degeneration,  and,  with 
Erb,  regards  it  as  a  post  mortem  process  which  in  the  case  in 
question  is  due  to  injuries  (crushing  of  the  musculature  during 
slaughter). 


SKELETAL   MUSCULATURE  363 

Judgment. — Previously  it  WMS  customary  to  exclude  from  the 
market  only  those  hogs  in  which  so  extensive  an  alteration  existed 
that  the  whole  musculature  was  discolored  grayish-red  and  was 
strongly  infiltrated  with  water.  Even  rejected  animals,  however, 
were  tried  out  and  the  rendered  fat  was  utilized  as  a  human  food 
material.  In  cases  where  the  alterations  were  restricted  to  indi- 
vidual muscle  parts,  as,  for  example,  to  the  diaphragm  or  abdominal 
muscles,  only  those  parts  were  removed.  The  frequently-occurring 
slight  alterations  were  ignored.  When  extensive  alterations  were 
present,  it  was  customary  to  take  the  precaution  of  postponing  the 
decision  until  after  twenty-four  hours  for  the  reason  that  the  dis- 
coloration and  especially  the  watery  character  of  the  musculature- 
was  more  conspicuous  than  immediately  after  slaughter. 

This  procedure  is  fully  justified,  for  the  reason  that,  since  the- 
investigation  of  Davids,  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  assumption 
of  an  injurious  character  of  the  meat  in  question. 

Iridescent  character  of  meat. — In  highly  fattened  hogs  which 
neither  before  slaughter,  nor  during  ordinary  inspection  after 
slaughter,  exhibited  any  other  alteration,  we  find  with  comparative 
frequency  a  peculiar  alteration  of  the  color  and  appearance  of  the 
longissimus  dorsi.  This  muscle  is  either  entirely  or  partly  discol- 
ored grayish,  and  of  a  shining  appearance  upon  the  cut  surface. 
Under  the  microscope  the  muscle  fibers  appear  to  be  completely 
intact. 

Undoubtedly  we  have  in  the  anomaly  in  question  a  deficiency 
in  the  coloring  matter  of  the  muscle.  The  discoloration  of  the 
muscle  favors  this  view,  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  iridescent 
property  in  boiled  and  pickled  normal  meat,  in  which  an  artificial 
destruction  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  muscle  has  taken  place. 
Legge  called  attention  to  the  iridescence  of  boiled  and  pickled 
meat. 

The  gray  discoloration  and  the  iridescence  of  the  longissimus 
dorsi  are  apparently  due  to  the  unhygienic  surroundings  and  nutri- 
tion of  the  hogs. 

Judgment. — Iridescent  muscles  are  found  in  perfectly  healthy 
highly  fattened  animals  and  are  distinguished  merely  by  the  lack  of 
the  red  color  in  normal  muscles.  Since  the  alteration  is  sufficiently 
evident  from  its  conspicuous  character  and  since  the  buying  public,, 
according  to  past  experience,  takes  no  exception  to  the  abnormal 
appearance  of  iridescent  musculature,  we  may  abstain  from  placing 
any  trade  restrictions  upon  the  meat  in  question. 


364:  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

Pale  condition  of  musculature. — Faucon  found,  in  a  well-nourished 
iour-year-old  cow,  which  before  slaughter  had  been  perfectly 
liealthy,  that  the  musculature  was  pale  and  of  a  white  color  as  iu 
milk-fed  calves.  The  white  beef  differed  from  veal  only  in  its  dryer 
condition  and  stronger  development  of  the  muscle  fibers. 

A  similar  case  was  observed  by  Baillet  in  a  beef  animal  in  1878. 
Moreover,  Villain  described  a  similar  case  in  sheep. 

Tallow-like  alteration  ("  steatosis  ")  of  the  musculature. — Castellant 
iound  in  a  beef  animal  nearly  one-third  of  the  musculature  trans- 
formed into  a  tissue  resembling  adipose  tissue. 

Inflammations. — Parenchymatous  myositis  associated  with  hem- 
orrhage is  found  in  cases  of  muscular  rheumatism.  In  calves  an 
interstitial  myositis  occurs  which  is  probably  associated  with 
primary  degenerative  processes  of  the  muscle  fibers.  This  alteration 
has  been  called  "chicken-meat  formation"  for  the  reason  that  the 
musculature  shows  a  grayish- white  color  resembling  that  of  chicken 
meat. 

Stoss  described  a  case  of  this  sort  in  which  the  whole  muscula- 
ture of  a  young  beef  animal  possessed  a  pale  yellowish-red  ground 
color  and  exhibited  yellowish  or  yellowish-green  spots  at  intervals 
of  about  1  cm.  All  of  the  lymphatic  glands  were  enlarged.  By  a 
microscopic  examination  Stoss  found  an  extensive  proliferation  of 
the  intramuscular  tissue  and  an  atrophy  of  the  muscle  fibers,  which 
was  especially  pronounced  in  the  yellowish-green  areas. 

Bayersdorfer  observed  a  similar  case  in  a  bull.  The  whole 
musculature  exhibited  a  white  color  and  at  the  same  time  a  tough 
consistency. 

Judgment. — Meat  which  exhibits  the  phenomenon  of  intersti- 
tial myositis  must  be  considered  as  a  spoiled  (inferior)  food  material 
and  as  such  must  be  excluded  from  free  traffic. 

TUMORS. — Primary  tumors  in  the  musculature  are  rare.  Second- 
arily, however,  sarcomata  and  also  carcincrnata  may  occur  in  the 
musculature.  Moreover,  in  the  musculature  of  cattle  we  may 
observe  a  peculiar,  thus  far  insufficiently  investigated,  tumor  forma- 
tion. 

In  all,  the  author  has  seen  four  such  cases  of  muscle  tumors  in 
cattle.  In  these  cases  the  whole  musculature,  but  in  the  most 
pronounced  manner  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  sides  of  the  chest 
and  tail,  were  filled  with  innumerable  granules  and  tubercles  (Fig. 


SKELETAL  MUSCULATURE  365- 

97).  All  transition  stages  were  observed  between  structures  of  the 
size  of  a  lentil  and  those  as  large  as  a  walnut.  On  the  periphery  of 
the  larger  tubercles  smaller  tubercles  were  frequently  observed. 
The  color  of  the  neomorphic  tissue  was  grayish-white  and  its  con- 
sistency was  firm,  as  in  fibromata.  The  cut  surface  was  dry, 
uniformly  gray,  and  showed  punctate  yellow-colored  cavities 
in  the  center.  The  larger  the  tubercles  the  more  numerous  were 
the  punctate  cloudy  areas.  All  organs,  except  the  musculature, 
were  sound.  According  to  their  histological  structure,  the  tumors 
were  to  be  considered  as  fibro-sarcomata.  Apparently,  however, 
these  were  cases  of  neomorphic  formation  due  to  infection. 

FIG.  97. 


Beef  tail  with  fibrosarcoma-like  neomorphs. 

In  all  cases  observed  by  the  author,  the  meat,  on  account  of 
the  general  distribution  of  neomorphic  formations,  had  to  be 
excluded  from  consumption  as  highly  unfit  for  food. 

INFECTIOUS  GRANULATIONS. — Among  the  infectious  granulations 
in  the  musculature,  we  may  mention  only  those  which  are  caused 
by  the  tubercle  bacillus,  actinomyces  and  botryomyces. 

Muscular  tuberculosis  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  food 
animals,  if  we  disregard  the  otherwise  quite  rare  cases  in  which  the 
tuberculous  process  extends  secondarily  to  the  surrounding  inter- 
fibrillar  tissue  from  the  bone  or  a  lymph  gland  lying  in  the  muscu- 
lature . 

Hertwig  described  a  case  of  embolic  primary  tuberculosis  of 
the  musculature  in  a  beef  animal.  During  the  examination  of  a 
four-year-old  steer,  a  pronounced  tuberculous  alteration  of  the 
mesenteric  glands  was  demonstrated.  The  intestine  itself  was  not 
affected.  In  the  parenchyma  of  the  lungs,  liver  and  kidneys, 
embolic  masses  of  the  size  of  walnuts  were  found.  The  inguinal 
and  prescapular  glands  were  enlarged  to  three  or  five  times  their 
normal  size  and  contained  caseous  masses  of  varying  size.  Further- 


366  NOTEWORTHY  ORGANIC  DISEASES 

more,  in  tlie  subcutaneous  connective  tissue  and  skin  muscles,  and, 
sparingly,  in  the  deeper  lying  musculature,  especially  on  the  inferior 
portions  of  the  thorax,  on  the  shoulders,  as  well  as  on  the  interior 
surfaces  of  the  thighs,  flat  plaques  and  moniliform  strands  were  to 
be  observed,  which  consisted  of  larger  and  smaller  tubercles  and 
followed  the  direction  of  the  connective  tissue  and  muscle  fibers. 
The  tuberculous  nature  of  these  structures  was  demonstrated  by  a 
microscopic  examination  and  by  inoculation. 

Similar  cases  were  subsequently  reported  by  Godbille,  Hiittner, 
Strose,  Kezevitsch,  Mychkine  and  others. 

In  cases  of  the  extension  of  tuberculosis  from  bones  and  lymph 
glands  to  the  neighboring  musculature  (secondary  muscular  tuber- 
culosis) grayish-yellow  masses  are  formed,  varying  in  size  from  a 
walnut  to  that  of  a  child's  head  by  tubercle  formation  in  the  intra- 
muscular tissue  with  atrophy  of  the  muscular  fibrillse. 

Actinomycosis  and  botryomycosis  of  the  musculature  are  char- 
acterized by  an  interstitial  myositis  which  develops  in  the  form  of 
•masses  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  colonies  of  actinomyces  and 
botryomyces,  or  appears  in  a  diffuse  condition  and  later  affects 
larger  portions  of  the  musculature  as  in  actinomycotic  wooden 
tongue. 

The  parasites  which  occur  in  the  musculature,  namely, 
Miescher's  sacs,  cysticerci  and  trichinae,  are  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  "Invasion  Diseases." 


IX. 

ANOMALIES  OF  THE  BLOOD. 


Of  the  anomalous  conditions  of  the  blood  which  occur  in  food 
animals,  the  following  are  of  importance  for  meat  inspection : 
Deficiency  of  blood  (oligemia,  anemia) ;  increase  in  water  content 
(hydremia) ;  increase  in  the  number  of  white  blood  corpuscles 
(leukemia);  and,  finally,  the  appearance  of  abnormal  constituents 
(hemoglobinemia,  cholemia  and  uremia). 

Fluctuations  in  the  amount  of  blood  and  its  composition 
possess  little  sanitary  interest  of  themselves.  They  only  become 
important  through  certain  phenomena  which  they  may  produce  in 
the  solid  tissues.  The  alterations  of  the  blood  mentioned  above 
are,  therefore,  unimportant  so  long  as  they  remain  without  recog- 
nizable influence  upon  the  whole  organism  or  upon  the  meat. 

1.— Deficiency  of  Blood  (Oligemia,  Anemia). 

NATURE  AND  ORIGIN. — By  the  term  deficiency  of  blood  we 
understand  a  decrease  in  the  normal  quantity  of  blood.  This  may 
be  due  to  various  circumstances.  Attention  has  already  been  called 
to  the  fact  (p.  131)  that  an  excessively  fat  condition,  especially  in 
hogs,  is  usually  accompanied  with  a  striking  diminution  in  the 
quantity  of  blood.  This  sort  of  oligemia,  which  is  in  part  relative, 
may  be  characterized  as  physiological.  Pathological  deficiency  of 
blood,  however,  arises  when  the  equilibrium  between  the  income 
and  outgo  of  the  body  is  disturbed,  thus  : 

By  defective  nutrition  or  disturbances  of  assimilation ;  or  by 
unusual  loss  of  substance  (frequent  hemorrhages  and  parasites). 

These  forms  of  anemia  are  included  in  the  term  symptomatic 
anemia,  in  contrast  with  essential  or  progressive  pernicious  anemia, 
which  may  develop  from  an  unknown  cause. 

The  cases  of  pathological  deficiency  of  blood  which  are  observed 
among  food  animals  are,  with  few  exceptions,  of  a  symptomatic 
nature.  The  primary  affection  consists,  as  a  rule,  in  the  invasion  o£ 

367 


368  ANOMALIES  OF  THE  BLOOD 

parasites  (stomach,  intestinal,  liver  and  lung  worms),  which  cause  a 
diminution  in  the  quantity  of  the  blood,  either  directly,  througli 
removal  of  nutritive  materials,  or  indirectly,  througli  injury  to  the 
important  vegetative  organs  (production  of  hemorrhages  or  inflam- 
mation). Moreover,  anemia  may  occur  as  a  consequence  of  non- 
parasitic  organic  diseases,  such  as  chronic  gastric  and  intestinal 
catarrh  and  chronic  infectious  diseases,  like  tuberculosis. 

AUTOPSIES  IN  SYMPTOMATIC  ANEMIA. — The  alterations  which  are 
caused  by  symptomatic  anemia  vary  according  to  the  degree  of  the 
latter.  Mild  cases  influence  the  general  condition  only  slightly. 
In  severe  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  emaciation  is  a  constant  phe- 
nomenon. Between  these  degrees,  all  intermediate  stages  exist. 

The  blood  is  characterized  in  all  cases  by  its  diminished 
quantity  and  weak  staining  power.  In  contrast  with  pernicious 
anemia,  it  is  worthy  of  mention  that  even  in  the  severest  cases  of 
symptomatic  deficiency  of  blood,  the  parenchyma  and  skeletal  mus- 
culature is,  as  a  rule,  intact. 

Schaper  found  a  considerable  diminution  in  the  number  of  red 
blood  corpuscles  and  in  the  content  of  hemoglobin,  in  cases  of  ane- 
mia resulting  from  distomatosis.  The  blood  of  healthy  sheep 
contains  from  11,000,000  to  12,000,000  red  blood  corpuscles  per  cm.; 
in  anemic  animals  Schaper  found  only  6,000,000  to  10,000,000. 

JUDGMENT  OF  SYMPTOMATIC  ANEMIA. — The  meat  of  animals  which 
are  affected  with  symptomatic  anemia  is  not  injurious  to  health  if 
the  primary  affection  which  causes  the  deficiency  of  blood  has  not 
occasioned  a  general  disease.  This  may  be  the  case  in  certain 
forms  of  tuberculosis.  In  ordinary  cases  of  symptomatic  anemia  in 
consequence  of  infestation  by  worms,  the  above  statement  does  not 
hold  true.  In  such  cases  the  meat  may  become  highly  unfit  for  food 
if  the  deficiency  of  blood  is  accompanied  with  emaciation.  If  the 
condition  of  nutrition  of  the  animals  is  still  comparatively  good  and 
if  the  animals  are  to  be  characterized  as  poor  and  not  as  emaciated 
(compare  p.  243),  there  is  no  good  reason  for  restricting  the  free 
sale  of  the  meat. 

Essential  (progressive  pernicious)  anemia  differs  fundamentally 
from  symptomatic  deficiency  of  blood.  During  life  an  intermittent 
fever  is  observed.  Furthermore,  the  disease  usually  results  in 
death.  The  red  blood  corpuscles  exhibit  a  marked  variation  from 
the  normal  condition  (poecilocytosis).  The  parenchyma,  as  well  asi. 


HYDBEMIA  369 

the  skeletal  musculature,  becomes  cloudy  and  undergoes  fatty  meta- 
morphosis. Finally,  petechige  are  found  in  the  serous  membranes 
or  even  in  the  organs.  Although  this  disease  possesses  all  the 
symptoms  of  an  acute  general  affection,  it  is  impossible  to  discover 
any  cause  whatever  by  post  mortem  examination.  It  has  rightfully 
been  suspected,  on  account  of  the  great  similarity  of  post  mortem 
findings  with  those  which  appear  in  certain  toxic  and  infectious  dis- 
eases, that  the  cause  of  pernicious  anemia  is  some  virus  with  toxic 
action. 

Silva  asserts  that  in  two  fatal  cases  of  pernicious  anemia  in 
man  he  isolated  Staphylococcus  pyoyenes  from  the  blood  of  the  heart, 
and  he  entertains  no  doubt  that  this  micro-organism  may  be  the 
cause  of  progressive  pernicious  anemia,  for  the  products  of  the 
staphylococcus  possessed  a  hemolytic  power,  and  this  fact  may 
serve  to  explain  correctly  the  symptoms  which  appear  in  pernicious 
anemia :  perhaps  we  have  here  to  deal  with  a  micro-organism  of 
attenuated  virulence. 

Judgment. — Further  investigation  is  required  to  determine 
whether  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  pernicious  anemia  pos- 
sesses harmful  properties.  It  should  be  remembered  in  this 
connection  that  pernicious  anemia  is  also  one  of  the  diseases  of 
man.  If  the  condition  described  by  Silva  is  found  to  be  of  regular 
occurrence,  the  meat  must  be  considered  injurious  to  health.  At 
any  rate,  the  meat  in  question  must  be  characterized  as  highly  unfit 
for  food  and  must  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market  on  account 
of  the  substantial  alterations  which  are  seen,  not  only  in  the  entrails, 
but  also  in  the  skeletal  muscles.  The  harm  which  may  be  caused 
to  the  public  from  this  disease  is  exceedingly  slight,  since  thus  far 
the  disease  has  been  observed  with  certainty  only  in  horses,  and 
tiven  here  with  comparative  infrequency. 


2. — Hydremia. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Hydremia,  as  a  rule,  is  the  last 
result  of  acute  anemia.  It  consists  in  a  diminution  in  the  blood  of 
the  solid  constituents  and  in  an  increase  in  its  water  content.  The 
visible  symptoms  of  hydremia,  aside  from  the  marked  emaciation, 
consist  in  accumulations  of  fluid  in  the  subcutis,  in  the  intermus- 
cular  connective  tissue,  and  in  the  body  cavities  (hydremic  cachexia). 
The  predisposition  of  different  species  of  food  animals  to  hydremia 
varies.  The  sheep  is  the  most  susceptible  (especially  in  extensive 


370  ANOMALIES   OF  THE   BLOOD 

distomatosis  and  serious  invasions  of  Slrongylus  contortus) ;  young 
cattle  are  less  so,  and  older  cattle  and  Logs  are  rarely  affected. 

AUTOPSY. — The  shed  blood  is  thin  (like  meat  serum)  and  reddens 
the  hands  only  slightly.  During  exenteration,  clear,  colorless  and 
odorless  fluids  pour  out  from  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavities. 
The  carcass  does  not  stiffen,  the  connective  tissue  in  the  skin  and 
between  the  muscles  shows  no  trace  of  fat,  but  rather  a  more  or 
less  extensive  collection  of  the  fluids  already  described.  The 
meat  is  watery,  the  carcass  literally  drips  witb  fluid,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  muscles  are  colored  grayish-red  in  the  place  of  the 
customary  bright  red  coloration.  Furthermore,  the  muscles  are 
flabby  and  soft. 

JUDGMENT. — The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  hydremic 
cachexia  is  to  be  excluded  from  the  market  as  highly  unfit  for  food 
on  account  of  its  great  deterioration  in  quality. 

The  so-catted  cellular  dropsy  of  sugar  factory  oxen. — Among  oxen 
used  for  draft  animals  about  sugar  factories  a  hydremia  is  observed 
to  which  Piitz  has  given  the  name  "  cellular  dropsy."  The  disease 
is  observed  where  excessive  feeding  with  the  watery  diffusion 
products  of  beet  sugar  is  practiced.  Milch  cows  are  seldom, 
affected.  In  these  animals  the  excretion  of  water  seems  to  take 
place  through  the  udder.  In  affected  oxen  large  edematous  swell- 
ings appear  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  on  the  extrem- 
ities to  such  an  extent  that  the  animals  are  finally  unable  to  get  up 
("  water  men  "). 

Autopsy. — After  slaughter,  edematous  infiltration  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous and  intermuscular  connective  tissue  is  observed,  together 
with  dropsical  accumulations  in  the  body  cavities.  It  is  a  striking 
fact  that  even  in  the  more  acute  cases  of  cellular  dropsy  the  muscu- 
lature retains  its  normal  color  and  is  permeated  with  white  adipose 
tissue  which  sets  readily.  This  disease  is  thus  distinguished  from 
hydremic  cachexia. 

Judgment. — A  very  different  decision  is  to  be  rendered  on  cel- 
lular dropsy  than  on  hydremic  cachexia,  for  in  the  first-named 
disease  the  characteristic  alterations  of  the  musculature  are  wanting, 
while  in  hydremic  cachexia  they  are  always  present  Furthermore, 
the  quality  of  the  meat  in  cases  of  cellular  dropsy  improves  after 
slaughter,  in  consequence  of  evaporation  and  loss  of  water.  Never- 
theless, the  meat  is  of  inferior  quality  as  a  food  material  for 


LEUKEMIA  o71 

reason  that  its  content  of  albumen  is  diminished  and  its  keeping 
qualities  are  not  so  good  as  in  healthy  animals.  In  the  most  acute 
cases  of  the  disease,  in  which  loss  of  water  after  death  fails  to  take 
place,  the  same  procedure  is  to  be  adopted  with  regard  to  the  meat 
as  in  the  case  of  hydremic  cachexia.  With  regard  to  a  judgment  on 
cellular  dropsy,  it  should  be  further  observed  that  a  superficial 
examination  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  the  amount  of  water  in 
the  connective  tissue  between  the  muscles.  For  determining  this 
point,  it  is  necessary  to  make  deep  incisions  into  the  musculature  or 
to  cut  up  the  animal  according  to  commercial  methods.  At  the 
central  abattoir  in  Berlin,  the  animal  body  is  allowed  to  hang  in  the 
abattoir  for  twenty-four  hours,  in  order  that  the  final  decision  may 
be  based  upon  the  character  of  the  meat  at  the  end  of  that  period. 
In  mild  cases  the  meat  drys  out  within  this  time  and  resembles 
normal  meat  in  its  appearance,  while  in  acute  cases  of  the  disease 
the  meat  remains  unsightly  and  oleaginous  upon  its  surface.  The 
post-mortem  alterations  permit  meat  inspectors  to  form  a  more 
Tellable  opinion  than  could  be  reached  immediately  after  death. 

3. — Leukemia. 

NATURE, — Naturally,  by  ohe  term  leukemia  is  understood  an 
anomalous  condition  of  the  blood,  in  which  the  most  important 
symptom  is  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of  the  white 
blood  corpuscles.  In  healthy  animals  the  ratio  of  white  to  red 
blood  corpuscles  is  approximately  1  to  350  ;  in  the  blood  of  leukemic 
animals  the  ratio  is  much  closer,  viz.,  1  to  50,  1  to  20,  or  even  1  to  1. 

AUTOPSY. — Corresponding  to  the  great  increase  in  the  number 
oi  white  blood  corpuscles,  we  have  in  advanced  cases  of  leukemia  a 
striking  pale-red  color  of  the  blood  which  is  apparent  to  the  naked 
eje.  The  blood  may  even  become  purulent  (Virchow).  Wolff  in 
Oleve  described  a  case  in  a  calf  in  which  the  blood  serum  resembled 
milk.  In  the  heart  and  large  vascular  trunks  a  clay-colored  coagu- 
lum  with  purulent  accumulations  is  found  in  the  place  of  the  buff 
coat  of  fibrinous  deposits.  Peculiar  alterations  of  the  solid  tissues 
accompany  the  anomalous  condition  of  the  blood.  The  spleen  is 
considerably  enlarged  and  its  follicles  are  swollen.  The  color  of 
the  surface  of  the  spleen  is  paler  than  normal,  and  upon  cross  sec- 
tion it  is  bluish-red  or  raspberry-red.  The  consistency  of  the 
organ  is  firm.  Koch  described  a  case  of  leukemia  in  a  cow  in  which. 


372  ANOMALIES  OF  THE  BLOOD 

the  spleen  was  105  cm.  long,  39  cm.  wide  and  12  cm.  thick.  The 
weight  of  this  spleen  was  18.05  kg.  On  cross  section  the 
organ  showed  a  bright,  reddish-brown  color,  and  follicles  of  the 
size  of  peas.  In  a  case  which'  was  observed  by  Reggianti  and 
Forreggiani  in  a  hog,  the  spleen  was  85  cm.  long,  15  cm.  wide,  9 
cm.  thick,  weighed  3  kg.,  and  was  as  hard  as  a  board.  The  capsule 
showed  a  considerable  thickening  and  the  cross  section  had  a 
granitic  appearance.  In  the  myelogenous  form  of  leukemia  the  red 
bone  marrow  is  hyperplastic  and  lighter  colored  than  normal. 
Finally,  in  the  lymphatic  form  some  or  all  of  the  lymph  glands  of 
the  body  are  considerably  swollen  and  softer  than  normal  ("  almost 
fluctuating ").  The  iliac,  lumbar,  prescapular  and  axillary  glands 
are  most  affected  by  the  disease.  They  may  reach  the  size  of  a 
man's  head ;  while  the  other  groups  of  lymphatic  glands  exhibit 
swelling  only  to  about  the  size  of  a  potato,  or  a  clenched  fist. 

The  alterations  in  the  spleen,  bone  marrow  and  lymphatic 
glands  may  exist  independently  or  may  occur  one  after  another. 
Furthermore,  white  tubercles  (leukemic  tumors)  and  white  spots 
(leukemic  infiltrates)  may  appear  in  the  liver,  lungs,  kidneys,  and 
upon  the  serous  mucous  membranes.  Hemorrhages  may  also  be 
present  in  the  skin,  mucous  membranes,  and  in  the  serous  mem- 
branes. 

The  musculature  is  of  a  lighter  color  than  normal  and  occasion- 
ally it  is  permeated  with  numerous  ecchymoses. 

According  to  Caporini,  leukemia  occurs  also  in  fowls  and  is 
especially  characterized  by  alterations  in  the  liver.  The  liver  is 
yellowish-white,  much  enlarged  (weighing  200  to  300  g.),  and 
resembles  in  size  and  color  the  fat  liver  of  geese.  The  structure  of 
the  liver  tissue  becomes  partly  obliterated,  in  consequence  of  the 
filling  of  the  interacinous  tissue  with  leucocytes. 

JUDGMENT. — The  sanitary  judgment  of  leukemia  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  question  of  its  origin.  Its  origin,  however,  is  still 
quite  unknown.  There  is  a  tendency  to  consider  leukemia  as  an 
infectious  disease,  but  without  a  convincing  proof  of  this  belief.* 

Since  leukemia  also  occurs  in  man,  it  may  be  desirable,  until 
further  results  are  obtained  from  the  investigation  of  the  etiology 
of  this  disease,  to  exercise  caution  in  rendering  judgment,  and  to 


*  Pawlowsky  maintains  that  he  has  succeeded  in  demonstrating  bacilli  3  to  4  /* 
long,  in  the  blood  of  three  leukemic  patients.  He  considers  these  bacilli  to  be  charac- 
terized by  the  glistening  oval  spores  in  the  cell  body.  This  announcement  has  not  been, 
further  corroborated. 


LEUKEMIA  373 

exclude  even  those  cases  in  whicli  alterations  of  the  intermuscular 
lymphatic  glands  and  of  the  bone  marrow  are  not  observed.  The 
last  mentioned  alterations  render  meat,  under  all  conditions,  highly 
unfit  for  food. 

Otherwise,  leukemia  does  not  assume  any  great  importance  in 
meat  inspection  on  account  of  its  rare  occurrence  among  food 
animals. 

Pseudo-leukemia. — In  a  discussion  of  the  diseases  of  the  lymph- 
atic glands,  mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  difference  between 
leukemia  and  the  disease  described  by  Cohnheirn  as  pseudo- 
leukemia.  Pseudo-leukemia  occurs  more  frequently  in  food 
animals  than  true  leukemia,  and  is  quite  often  observed  in  cattle 
and  hogs.  It  may  occur  with  the  same  alterations  of  the  spleen, 
bone  marrow  and  lymphatic  glands  as  are  associated  with  leukemia; 
the  difference  consists  merely  in  the  fact  that  in  pseudo-leukemia  a 
disturbance  of  the  numeric  ratio  between  the  white  and  red  blood 
corpuscles  does  not  occur. 

Judgment. — According  to  the  investigation  of  Askanacy  and 
Watzold,  which  were  corroborated  by  Brentano  and  Tangl,  certain 
cases  of  pseudo-leukemia  appeared  to  be  of  a  tuberculous  nature. 
The  demonstration  of  their  tuberculous  nature,  however,  can  not  be 
made  histologically  or  bacteriological ly,  but  only  by  inoculation 
with  affected  tissue.  Roux  and  Lannois,  as  well  as  Fischer,  have 
shown  that  occasionally  Slapliylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  may  produce 
a  general  disease  of  the  lymphatic  glands  resembling  pseudo- 
leukemia.  Klein  has  found  the  same  to  be  true  for  Streptococcus 
pyogenes.  In  a  case  of  lymphatic  leukemia  observed  by  the  author, 
in  a  horse,  a  bacteriological  investigation  showed  the  presence  of 
Streptococcus  in  the  enormously-enlarged  lymphatic  gland.  An 
investigation  of  several  cases  in  cattle,  however,  gave  negative 
results. 

A  certain  proportion  of  the  cases  of  pseudo-leukemia  must, 
therefore,  be  judged  like  tuberculosis  ;  others  like  pyemia;  and  still 
others  like  simple  tumors.  The  sanitary  procedure,  however,  in 
pseudo-leukemia  is  a  simple  matter,  since,  even  in  cases  in  which 
only  simple  tumor  formation  occurs,  the  meat  becomes  highly  unfit 
for  food  ou  account  of  the  extensive  affection  of  the  intermuscular 
lymph  glands,  and  it  must  therefore  be  absolutely  excluded  from 
the  market, 


974:  ANOMALIES   OF  THE   BLOOD 


4.— Hemoglobinemia. 

NATURE  AND  ORIGIN. — By  hemoglobinemia  we  understand  an:: 
accumulation  of  red  blood  coloring  matter,  hemoglobin,  in  the  blood 
serum.  This  phenomenon  occurs  whenever  a  considerable  number 
of  red  blood  corpuscles  are  suddenly  disintegrated  ;  the  excretion, 
of  the  hemoglobin  with  the  urine  (hemoglobinuria)  takes  place 
when  more  than  one-sixtieth  of  the  total  quantity  of  hemoglobin 
becomes  dissolved  (Ponfick). 

Hemoglobinemia  and  hemoglobinuria  are  merely  symptoms. 
The  primary  affection  is  the  destruction  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles, 
which  may  be  due  to  very  different  causes.  Bed  blood  corpuscles 
may  become  disintegrated  and  dissolved  as  a  result  of  colds  in  cer- 
tain individuals  (rheumatic  hemoglobinemifi) ;  or  by  burns  on  the 
skin,  or  by  certain  poisons  (for  example,  chloride  of  potash,  pyro- 
gallic  acid)  ;  or,  finally,  by  parasites,  as  in  Texas  fever  and  related 
diseases  of  cattle  and  sheep. 

The  judgment  of  hemoglobinemia  must  therefore  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  etiology. 

Among  native  domesticated  animals  there  are  two  common  dis- 
eases in  which  hemoglobinemia  is  a  regular  symptom,  viz.:  Black. 
ischuria  of  the  horse  and  so-called  hematuria  of  cattle. 

Black  Ischuria  of  the  Horse. 

NATURE. — Opinions  differ  concerning  the  nature  of  this  disease. 
It  has  been  considered  a  nephritis  (Hering) ;  auto-intoxication 
(Bellinger);  as  an  effect  of  increased  metabolism  in  the  muscula- 
ture (Siedamgrotzky  and  Hofmeister)  ;  and  finally,  as  a  rheumatic 
myositis  with  dissolution  of  the  coloring  material  of  the  muscles 
(Frohner).  The  external  conditions  under  which  the  disease  appears 
(quite  likely  in  unaccustomed  rest  in  stalls),  make  it  probable  that 
so-called  black  ischuria  is  auto-intoxication  due  to  the  products  of 
metabolism.  Moreover,  it  has  been  shown  that  the  disease  disap- 
pears in  consequence  of  exercise  and  colds.  Concerning  the  nature 
of  the  toxic  products  of  metabolism,  we  have  nothing  but  supposi- 
tions. 

AUTOPSY. — Upon  post  mortem  examination  we  find  a  shellac- 
colored  noncoagulating  or  poorly  coagulating  blood;  a  white,  pale 
color  and  an  edematous  infiltration  of  the  musculature  of  the  hiudL 
quarters.  On  microscopic  investigation  there  appear,  as  first  stated- 


CHOLEMIA  375 

t>y  Frohner,  and  later  corroborated  by  Zschokke,  a  granular  cloudi- 
ness, fragmentation,  loss  of  cross-striation,  and,  finally,  a  marked 
hyaline  degeneration  of  the  fibers  of  affected  muscles  (p.  357). 

JUDGMENT. — The  Kegierung  president  at  Arnsberg,  on  account 
of  an  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Altena  in  which  a  number  of 
persons  were  affected  and  some  workmen  died  as  a  result  of  eating 
the  meat  of  a  horse  slaughtered  for  sanitary  reasons,  called  attention 
to  the  dangers  which  may  be  associated,  under  certain  conditions, 
with  the  consumption  of  such  meat.  In  the  decree  it  was  assumed 
that  the  horse  in  question  was  suffering  from  hemoglobinemia  and 
it  was  therefore  ordered  that  in  future  the  meat  of  horses  slaugh- 
tered on  account  of  this  disease  should  be  absolutely  excluded  from 
consumption  by  man. 

It  was  further  stated  in  the  decree,  however,  that  if  the  horse 
in  question  had  recovered,  but  still  exhibited  a  partial  paralysis  in 
a  mild  form,  and  if  a  question  had  arisen  regarding  the  slaughter  of 
the  animal  on  account  of  its  uselessness  or  loss  of  value,  that  the 
danger  of  the  transmission  of  the  original  disease  was  no  longer 
present.  Under  such  conditions,  therefore,  the  use  of  the  meat  may 
be  permitted,  in  case  it  is  not  prohibited  for  other  reasons.  With 
regard  to  the  wording  of  this  decree,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  according 
to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  hemoglobinemia  in  horses,  it  is 
improbable  that  this  disease,  in  and  of  itself,  can  render  the  meat 
injurious  to  health.  Harmful  properties  may,  however,  appear  in 
the  meat,  if  secondary  septic  processes  have  developed  in  conse- 
quence of  decubitus. 

For  hematuria  of  cattle,  see  under  "  Texas  Fever,"  p.  533. 

5.— Cholemia  (Icterus). 

NATURE. — In  cholemia  the  constituents  of  the  bile  circulate  in 
the  blood.  Cholemia  appears  clinically  and  in  the  carcass  as  a 
yellow  coloration  of  the  solid  tissues  (deposition  of  bilirtibin) ; 
consequently  the  disease  is  commonly  called  jaundice  (icterus)  from 
its  chief  symptom. 

The  cause  of  cholemia  is  a  partial  or  total  obstruction  of  the 
ductus  choledochus  (in  consequence  of  duodenitis,  bile  concretions, 
and  parasites — especially  wandering  nematodes).  In  this  manner 
hepatogenous,  or  retention,  icterus  arises. 

The  second  form  of  icterus  is  known  as  hematogenous  or 
anhepatogenous,  and  is  caused  by  an  excessive  disintegration  of  red 


376  ANOMALIES   OF  THE   BLOOD 

blood  corpuscles.  Hematogenous  icterus  accompanies  certain  intox- 
ications; for  example,  poisoning  from  phosphorus,  as  well  as  certain, 
infectious  diseases,  especially  pneumonia  of  horses  and  swine 
plague.  Anhepatogenous  icterus  may  also  arise  in  connection  with 
extensive  hemorrhages  (hematoidin  being  identical  with  bilirubin). 
Hematogenous  icterus  is,  therefore,  a  concomitant  phenomenon  and 
does  not  possess  the  independent  significance  which  attaches  to 
hepatogenous  icterus. 

AUTOPSY. — In  severe  cases  of  cholemia,  all  the  tissues  are  col- 
ored yellow  or  yellowish-green.  Upon  microscopic  examination 
deposits  of  bilirubin  crystals  are  found  in  the  yellow  colored 
tissues ;  these  crystals  are  especially  abundant  in  the  tissues  of  the 
liver  and  kidneys.  Normal  conditions  prevail  with  the  exception  of 
the  yellow  color.  Moreover,  the  complete  retention  of  the  bile  may 
lead  to  considerable  disturbance  of  nutrition  (emaciation) ;  the 
latter  condition  is  associated  with  a  marked  yellow  coloration.* 

JUDGMENT. — Cholemia  does  not  render  the  meat  dangerous  to 
health,  but  merely  lessens  its  value.  The  deterioration  in  quality 
results  from  the  abnormal  coloration  of  the  tissues.  The  utilization 
of  jaundiced  meat  for  human  food  depends,  otherwise,  upon  the 
intensity  of  the  yellow  color.  In  moderate  cases  the  meat  is  usually 
permitted  to  be  sold  without  restriction.  Strongly  colored  meat, 
however,  is  sold  as  inferior  food  material,  under  declaration  ;  while 
meat  of  an  intensive  greenish-yellow  coloration  is  absolutely 
excluded  from  the  market. 

Hertwig  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a  decision  concerning 
icteric  animals  should  never  be  made  until  the  carcass  has  entirely 
cooled  off,  for  it  happens  quite  often  that  animals,  especially  hogs, 
which  exhibit  a  striking  yellow  coloration  immediately  nfter  slaugh- 
ter, lose  this  color  after  becoming  cold.  This  remarkable  post 
mortem  phenomenon  .is  to  be  explained  by  the  presence  of  a 
reducing  power  in  the  living  tissues  (see  page  198).  Incidentally  it 
should  be  noted  that  jaundice  can  on'y  be  recognized  with  certainty 
in  daylight  or  by  electric  light,  and  that  it  escapes  the  notice  of  the 
observer  by  gas  light. 

In  lupinosis,  which  must  be  considered  as  an  intoxication,  hepa- 
togenous icterus  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  symptoms.  Besides 

*With  reference  to  the  differentiation  of  pathological  jaundice  from  phy- 
siological yellow  coloration  of  the  adipose  tissue  in  certain  methods  of  fattening^ 
compare  p.  245. 


UREMIA  377 

this,  alterations  of  the  parenchyma  regularly  occur  (cloudy  swelling 
and  fatty  metamorphosis  of  the  liver,  kidneys,  myocardium,  and,  iri 
severe  cases,  of  the  musculature). 

Judgment  on  lupinosis  should  be  the  same  as  for  icterus.  The 
admission  of  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  this  disease  to  free 
or  restricted  sale  depends  upon  the  seriousness  or  intensity  of  the 
disease. 

6.— Uremia. 

ORIGIN. — The  accumulation  of  the  constituents  of  the  urine  in. 
blood  may  arise  from  defective  excretion  or  by  the  resorption  of 
excreted  urine.  The  first  cause  is  rare  in  food  animals  ;  according 
to  my  experience  it  appears  only  in  the  most  acute  cases  of  bilateral 
pyelonephritis  of  cattle.  The  second  method  of  origin  of  uremia  is 
more  frequent.  A  retention  of  the  urine  may  arise  in  steers  and 
wethers  if  the  concretions  become  wedged  in  the  urethra.  A  favorite 
location  for  these  obstructions  is,  as  is  well  known,  the  S-shaped 
flexure  of  the  urethra.  If  the  concretion  is  not  removed  by  opera- 
tion, rupture  of  the  bladder  occurs,  with  discharge  of  the  urine  into 
the  body  cavity,  or  a  necrosis  of  the  obstructed  part  cf  the  urethra 
with  subsequent  urinary  infiltration  of  the  surrounding  tissue. 

In  cases  of  urinary  infiltration,  with  gangrene,  Gnyon  and 
Albarran  found  StapJtyJococcus  pyogenes,  a  non-liquefying,  fluorescent 
bacillus  with  pathogenic  properties,  non-pathogenic  cocci,  and 
Bacillus  pyogenes  urcce,  to  the  last  of  which  the  discoverers  attributed 
very  offensive  properties. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS. — Uremic  animals,  even  during  life,  appear 
to  be  very  sick  and  apathetic.  In  acute  cases  uremic  convulsions 
are  always  present.  In  cases  where  discharge  of  the  urine  into  the 
body  cavity  or  into  the  subcutis  takes  place,  the  expired  air  has  the 
odor  of  urine. 

AUTOPSY. — The  blood  shed  at  the  time  of  slaughter  has  a  pro- 
nounced urinous  odor.  In  the  subcutaneous  and  intermuscular 
tissues  there  are  everywhere  considerable  accumulations  of  a 
slightly  alkaline  fluid  with  urinous  odor.  More  or  less  numerous 
and  extensive  hemorrhages  occur  in  the  connective  tissues  and 
muscles.  If  rupture  of  the  bladder  has  occurred,  a  quantity  of 
urine  is  observed  in  the  body  cavity  and  the  peritoneum  is  simulta- 
neously reddened.  In  urinary  infiltration,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
the  region  of  the  urethra  there  is  an  accumulation  of  urine  in  the 


378  ANOMALIES  OF  THE  BLOOD 

•subcutaneous  tissues  of  the  pendant  parts  of  the  abdomen  and 
thorax.* 

In  cases  where  the  urine  is  retained  and  a  resorption  of  the 
nndecom posed  urine  takes  place,  the  carcasses  possess  the  well- 
known  urinous  odor.  Where,  however,  the  resorption  of  decom- 
posed urine  takes  place,  the  odor  is  decidedly  ammoniacal,  in 
consequence  of  the  decomposition  of  the  urine  into  ammonia  and 
carbonic  acid.  This  decomposition,  however,  soon  takes  place,  even 
in  case  of  resorption  of  nndecomposed  urine,  so  that  within  a  short 
time  after  slaughter  no  difference  can  be  detected  in  the  odor  of  the 
meat. 

As  the  animal  body  cools  off,  the  urinous  odor  of  the  meat  dis- 
appears ;  the  abnormal  odor,  however,  may  be  made  to  reappear  in 
it?  original  intensity  by  warming  a  piece  of  meat  over  a  flame  or  by 
cooking. 

JUDGMENT. — It  requires  no  detailed  argument  to  show  that  meat 
•which  exhibits  such  a  marked  fundamental  alteration  as  that  of  the 
nremic  animals  is  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market  as 
highly  unfit  for  human  food. 

Attention  may,  however,  be  called  to  the  fact  that  urinary 
discharges  which  take  place  immediately  before  slaughter  in  conse- 
quence of  injuries  to  the  urinary  passages,  do  not  justify  an  exclu- 
sion of  the  meat.  I  have  occasionally  seen  such  trifling  urinary 
discharges  in  the  pelvic  cavity  of  heifers  which  were  accidentally 
injured  during  coitus  immediately  before  slaughter. 


*In  uremia  of  fowls  an  excretion  of  uric  acid  upon  the  serous  membranes,  in  the 
air  sacs  and  in  the  kidneys  is  observed.  Moreover,  considerable  accumulations  ot 
uric  acid  may  take  place  in  the  joints  and  the  tissues  surrounding  thorn. 


X. 

POISONING    (INTOXICATIONS),    EFFECT    OF    ODOR1FIC 
DRUGS  AND  SO-CALLED  AUTOINTOXICATION. 


1.— Poisoning  (Intoxications). 

OCCURRENCE. — Poisoning  of  food  animals  may  occur  front 
various  causes.  Most  frequently  it  is  the  result  of  eating  poisonous 
plants  along  with  the  fodder  (for  example,  colchicum,  cicuta,  equise- 
turn,  lupines,  buckwheat) ;  or  of  eating  other  injurious  fodder 
(infested,  mouldy  fodder,  sprouting  potatoes,  cotton  seed,  beech 
nuts,  ricinus,  mustard  cakes,  etc.) ;  or  by  the  accidental  eating  of 
poisonous  substances  (lead,  arsenic,  phosphorus,  saltpeter,  kainit,. 
salt  in  large  quantities)  ;  and,  finally,  by  irrational  medication  (tartar 
emetic,  mercury,  alkalies,  veratrin,  strychnin,  carbolic  acid,  etc.). 
With  reference  to  the  various  poisons,  the  text-books  on  toxicology 
should  be  consulted,  since  in  this  account  poisoning  will  receive 
only  a  general  discussion. 

DETECTION. — The  detection  of  poisons  is  possible  with  certainty 
only  when  a  trained  investigator  has  opportunity  to  inspect  the 
poisoned  animals,  not  only  after  slaughter,  but  also  while  alive. 
The  sudden  appearance  of  disease,  the  serious  disturbances  in  the 
realm  of  the  central  nervous  system — accompanied  or  not  by  diges- 
tive symptoms — and  sudden  death,  furnish  the  most  important 
criteria  for  the  recognition  of  poison  when  considered  in  connection, 
with  anamnestic  data. 

AUTOPSY. — The  post  mortem  findings  vary.     They  may  be  : 

1.  Completely  negative  (poisoning  from  simple  nerve  poisons, 

such  as  morphine,  eserin,  strychnin). 

2.  Alterations  in  the  alimentary  tract  (acid,  corrosive  poisons). 

3.  In  addition  to  the  two  above-named  variations,  alterations 

of  the  blood  (hemoglobinemia)  and  of  the  solid  tissues 
(icterus)  may  be  present  (blood  poisons,  like  chloride  of 
potash,  chloroform  and  phosphorus). 

379 


880  POISONING 

The  alterations  in  cases  of  poisons  in  groups  2  and  3  are  more 
pronounced  after  death,  while  in  group  1  the  expert  is  not  in  a, 
position  to  demonstrate  by  a  simple  macroscopical  examination  that 
poisoning  has  occurred.  Fortunately,  however,  this  impossibility 
does  not  carry  with  it  any  serious  hygienic  danger. 

JUDGMENT. — Concerning  the  question  of  the  sanitary  judgment 
of  poisoning,  the  experiments  of  Frohner  and  Knudsen  produced 
especially  instructive  results. 

Frohner  and  Knudsen,  in  their  important  work,  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  for  a  long  time,  but  incorrectly,  the  injurious  char- 
acter of  the  meat  of  poisoned  animals  has  been  considered  a 
veterinary  axiom.  In  this  connection  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  the  possibility  of  a  chemical  demonstration  of  a  poison  in 
meat,  and  the  possibility  of  this  poison  exercising  a  harmful  effect. 
For  example,  a  steer  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  would  be  poisoned  with 
0.5  gm.  strychnin.  For  a  man  weighing  100  Ibs.,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  fatal  dose  is  5  mg.  In  one  kg.  of  the  meat  of  a  steer  poisoned 
with  strychnin  a  man  could  find,  at  most,  1  mg.  of  the  poison — a 
perfectly  harmless  dose.  It  should  also  be  known  that  many  wild 
races  kill  the  game  which  they  use  for  food  by  means  of  poisoned 
arrows,  and,  therefore,  live  exclusively  upon  the  meat  of  poisoned 
animals.* 

Furthermore,  Frohner  and  Knudsen  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  all  experiments  which  have  been  reported  in  the  literature  on 
the  subject  and  all  observations  are  against  the  assumption  that  the 
meat  of  poisoned  animals  possesses  harmful  properties.  Harms 
proved  this  point  for  nux  vomica  and  tartarus  stibiatus  ;  Feser  for 
strychnin  and  eserin  ;  Spallanzani,  Zappa  and  Sonnenschein  for 
arsenic.t 


*  Thus,  for  example,  the  Akas,  a  mountain  race  in  the  north  of  Brahmaputra,  kill 
their  food  game  by  arrows  which,  according  to  an  investigation  by  Waddell,  arc 
poisoned  with  aconitin. 

t  The  experiments  and  observations  cited  from  the  literature  on  the  subject  by 
Frohner  and  Knudsen  concerning  the  harmlessness  of  the  meat  of  poisoned  animals 
may  be  supplemented  by  the  following  :  Gautier  reported  concerning  the  poisoning  of 
calves  with  cotton-seed  meal  cakes.  The  meat  of  calves,  which  was  of  good  appear- 
ance, "was  eaten  without  harm.  Feser  made  a  report  concerning  experiments  witli 
the  meat  of  horses  which  had  been  killed  with  apomorphine  (10  gm.  in  250  gin.  of 
water  injecteil  directly  into  the  veins)  ;  the  raw  meat  WHS  eaten  by  dogs  without  any 
ill  effect.  Likewise  a  subcutaneous  injection  of  the  meat  serum,  as  well  as  perfectly 
fresh  blood,  caused  no  tympanites  or  other  symptoms  of  disease  in  dogs.  According- 
to  Peschel,  a  dairyman  lost  four  cows  by  poisoning  with  colchicurn.  The  meat  of  tho 
animals  was  eaten  without  producing  any  ill  effects. 


INTOXICATIONS  381 

Frohner  and  Knudsen  have  recently  reported  their  own  experi- 
ments with  strychnin  and  eseriu.  On  the  basis  of  these  experiments 
they  declare  that  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  been  poisoned 
with  either  strychnin  or  eserin  is  not  harmful. 

The  following  abstract  may  be  given  of  these  experiments  : 

1.  Strychnin. — A  wether  weighing  39  kg.  and  a  ewe  weighing  24: 
kg.  were  poisoned  with  0.05  and  0.03  gm.   strychnin,  respectively. 
Death  took  place  after  20  and  19  minutes.     Pieces  of  the  muscle  (750 
and  500  gm.),  as  well  as  the  livers  (400  and  300  gm.),  were  treated 
according  to  the  method  of  Dragendorff.     The  reaction  for  strychnin, 
took  place  in  all  cases  and  a  physiological  experiment  with  white 
mice  also  gave  positive  results.     Three  dogs,  however,  weighing  15, 
17  and  18  Ibs.  respectively,  ate  2  Ibs.  each  of  the  raw  meat  without 
suffering  any  harm.     The  authors  themselves  ate  £  Ib.  of  the  cooked 
meat.     The  meat  as  well  as  the  broth  had  an  agreeable  taste,  was 
not  bitter  and  caused  no  ill  effects. 

2.  Eserin. — A  wether  weighing  32  kg.  received  0.5  gm.  eserin 
sulphate  and  died  after  13  minutes.     Eserin  could  not  be  demon- 
strated    in     the     musculature     (1,750     gm.     were    used    for    the 
investigation)  nor  in  the  liver  (500  gm.).      On  the  other  hand,  an 
examination  of  a  mixture  of  the  heart,  kidneys,  lungs  and  blood  (in 
all,  1,000  gm.)  gave  a  decided  eserin  reaction.    Frohner  and  Knudsen 
ate  ^  Ib.  of  the  cooked  meat  without  suffering  any  harm,  and  the  two 
dogs  which  were  used  in  the  previous  experiment  each  ate  2  Ibs.  of 
raw  meat  without  any  disturbance  of  their  general  condition. 

Frohner  and  Knudsen  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  especial 
significance  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  negative  results  which  have 
been  obtained  with  eserin,  since  eserin  exercises  a  comparatively 
greater  effect  upon  man  and  dogs  than  upon  other  mammals.  More- 
over, Frohner  and  Knudsen  have  recently  conducted  experimental 
investigations  upon  poisoning  by  pilocarpin  and  veratrin.  The 
plan  of  the  experiments  was  the  same  as  in  previously-mentioned 
experiments.  Sheep  and  rabbits  were  poisoned  with  fatal  doses  of 
pilocarpin  and  veratrin,  and  the  meat  of  these  animals  was  tested 
for  food,  partly  by  the  experimenters  and  in  larger  quantities  with 
dogs.  The  results  obtained  agree  completely  with  previous  results. 
"  The  meat  of  animals  poisoned  with  pilocarpin  and  veratrin  proved 
to  be  perfectly  harmless  as  food  for  man  and  animals." 

In  so  far,  therefore,  as  septic  or  pyemic  processes  do  not 
accompany  the  intoxications,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  on  the 


382  POISONING 

basis  of  experiments  made  with  the  four  most  poisonous  alkaloids 
(strychnin,  eserin,  pilocarpin  and  veratriu),  that  "the  medicinal 
treatment  of  an  animal  with  any  drug  whatever  does  not  render  the 
meat  dangerous  for  food."*  Even  the  meat  of  animals  which  have 
died  in  consequence  of  an  accidental  or  intentional  poisoning 
possesses  no  harmful  properties,  but  is  simply  unfit  for  food  in  the 
sense  of  Section  X  of  the  Pure  Food  Law  of  May  14,  1879. 

The  chemical  and  physiological  investigations  of  meat  have 
shown  that  it  either  contains  no  poison  (in  the  case  of  pilocarpiu 
and  eserin),  or  only  traces  (in  the  case  of  strychnin  and  veratrin). 
This  phenomenon  is  explained  by  the  above-mentioned  fact,  that 
the  musculature,  as  well  as  the  living  tissue,  decomposes  the  alka- 
loids which  have  been  taken  up,  principally  by  reduction  (see  p. 
198).  Frohner  and  Knudsen  consider  the  liver  as  next  in  importance 
to  the  musculature  in  the  decomposition  of  alkaloids,  while  a  weaker 
reducing  power  attaches  to  the  blood  than  to  the  muscles  and  liver. 
Excretion  of  the  alkaloids  by  means  of  the  excretory  organs  is  to  be 
•considered  as  the  second  factor  in  the  removal  of  the  poison  from 
the  organism. 

Finally,  Frohner  and  Knudsen  observed  that  the  more  easily 
decomposed  glucosids,  as,  for  example,  the  glucosids  of  digitalis, 
behave  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  the  alkaloids.  The  possibility 
of  an  injurious  effect  is  much  less  in  the  case  of  mineral  poisons 
than  with  vegetable  poisons,  for  they  exercise  a  slighter  effect. 
Arsenic,  for  example,  is  ten  times  less  poisonous  than  strychnin; 
phosphorus,  soon  after  its  resorption,  is  modified  into  nonpoisonous 
oxidation  products;  the  metallic  salts  (lead,  copper,  mercury,  zinc, 
antimony,  silver  salts,  etc.)  are  never  resorbed  except  in  small 
quantities,  so  that  in  the  case  of  these  substances,  poisoning  by 
means  of  the  meat  is  out  of  the  question.  The  same  holds  true  for 
poisoning  with  caustic  alkalies  and  acids.f 

According  to  "  Mitteilungen  aus  der  Tierarztlichen  Praxis  im 
Konigreich  Preussen,"  fifty  scabby  sheep  died  from  mercuric 
poisoning  in  1880,  in  Koln.  Only  very  small  quantities  of  quick- 


*  The  correctness  of  this  position  has  been  corroborated,  since  the  publication  of 
the  experiments  of  Frohner  and  Knudsen,  by  a  manifold  experience.  Thus,  on  tha 
basis  of  the  experiments  in  question,  Warncke  admitted  to  the  market  the  meat  of 
a  cow  which,  one  hour  before  compulsory  slaughter,  had  received  2  gm.  morphine  in. 
the  form  of  a  subcutaneous  injection.  The  tissue  around  the  point  of  injection  and 
the  entrails  were  removed.  The  meat  was  eaten  without  any  ill  effects. 

I  In  cases  of  poisoning  from  acid,  caustic  substances,  it  should  be  noted  that 
septic  processes  may  develop  if  the  action  of  the  caustic  substances  is  long  continued,! 


INTOXICATIONS  383 

silver  could  be  demonstrated  in  the  mutton.  Ludwig  made  a  report 
to  the  Society  of  Physicians  in  Vienna  concerning  the  distribution 
of  mercury  in  the  different  organs  of  man  and  animals  which  had 
died  from  corrosive  sublimate  poisoning.  Taking  1,000  as  the 
basal  number,  225  parts  were  found  in  the  kidneys,  87  in  the  liver, 
53  in  the  large  intestine,  38  in  the  spleen,  6  in  the  small  intestine,  1 
in  the  brain,  and  only  minimal  quantities  in  the  muscles  and  bones. 
Albrecht  reports  that  the  meat  of  two  cows  which  had  drunk  a 
decoction  of  lead  ore  and  had  died  as  a  result,  was  fed  to  several 
dogs  and  cats  without  causing  any  bad  effects.  A  dog  belonging  to 
Albrecht  received  120  Ibs.  without  the  slightest  ill  effects.  Accord- 
ing to  Ellenberger,  the  blood  and  musculature  contain  very  little 
lead  in  cases  of  chronic  lead  poisoning.  The  internal  organs  (spleen, 
kidneys  and  liver)  contain  more,  but  only  0.01  per  cent.  Laho  and 
Mosselmann  fed  a  young  steer,  weighing  185  kg.,  50  gm.  (daily)  of 
ji  resinous  paint,  J  of  which  consisted  of  white  lead.  The  steer  died 
on  the  sixth  day  and  a  chemical  investigation  disclosed  the  presence 
in  the  kidneys  and  liver  of  40  mg.  lead  sulphate  per  kilogram. 
Traces  of  lead  were  demonstrated  in  the  brain,  while  in  the  meat 
not  even  a  trace  of  the  dangerous  metal  could  be  detected.  The 
meat  was  fed  to  dogs  daring  a  period  of  several  weeks  and  the  ani- 
mals showed  not  the  slightest  disturbance  in  their  condition. 

ABNORMAL  CONDITION  OF  CERTAIN  ORGANS. — Frohner  and  Knud- 
sen  expressly  assert  that  their  experiments  related  only  to  meat 
(including  the  heart,  liver  and  kidneys).  The  stomach  and  the 
intestines  of  poisoned  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  are  always  dan- 
gerous on  account  of  their  poisonous  contents.*  These  facts  are  to 
be  remembered  in  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  where  powerful 
poisons  are  administered,  not  by  the  month,  but  subcutaneously, 
since  these  poisons  are  excreted  through  the  glands  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines.  Naturally,  in  cases  of  subcutaneous  injection  of 
powerful  drugs,  the  point  of  injection  must  also  be  considered  dan- 
gerous and  must  be  removed  before  the  meat  is  admitted  to  the 
market.  In  addition  to  the  stomach  and  intestines,  the  udder 
occupies  a  special  position  among  the  organs  of  poisoned  animals, 
according  to  an  observation  of  Schmidt  in  Crossen. 

A  family  of  seven  were  attacked  with  acute  pains  and  violent 
Tomiting  immediately  after  eating  the  udder  of  a  cow  which  a  few 

*  According  to  Schultz,  a  whole  family  was  made  ill  by  eating  fieldfares  whidh 
had  eaten  meat  poisoned  with  strychnin  and  intended  for  foxes.  The  stomach  of 
these  birds,  as  is  well  known,  is  always  eaten  with  the  other  edible  parts. 


884  POISONING 

days  before,  in  the  course  of  the  last  five  days  before  slaughter,  had 
received  18  gm.  of  veratrurn  album,  the  dose  on  the  last  day  before 
slaughter  being  4.5  gm.  No  evidence  was  obtained  of  any  harmful 
property  in  the  meat. 

According  to  statements  of  Lewin,  the  meat  of  fowls  which 
have  received  large  doses  of  strychnin  has  been  shown  to  be  dan- 
gerous. As  is  generally  known,  fowls  are  almost  immune  to 
strychnin  and  may  therefore  take  large  quantities  of  the  poison. 
Lewin  administered  0.2  gm.  of  strychnin  by  way  of  the  mouth  to 
fowls  during  a  period  of  14  days.  After  the  fowls  had  died  a  dog 
was  fed  upon  the  meat.  After  the  first  meal  of  125  gm.  the  animal 
showed  symptoms  of  disease  which  developed  after  further  feeding 
into  a  regular  tetanus,  resulting  in  death.  It  is  stated  that  an 
investigation  of  the  internal  organs  of  fowls  poisoned  with  strychnin 
showed  no  evidence  of  the  poison,  while  a  considerable  quantity 
was  found  in  the  muscle  meat.  According  to  Schneider,  the  meat 
of  geese,  fowls  and  pigeons  which  had  died  from  fatal  doses  of 
strychnin  proved  to  be  harmless. 

Jantzon  fed  the  internal  organs  and  some  of  the  meat  of  a  cow 
which  had  been  slaughtered  soon  after  receiving  a  subcutaneous 
injection  of  strychnin,  to  a  number  of  small  dogs  (dachshund  and 
ter-riers),  without  ill  effects,  while  a  hunting  dog  which  was  fed  the 
meat  from  around  the  point  of  injection  was  affected  with  violent 
strychnin  convulsions. 


2.— Effect  of  Odorific  Drugs  on  the  Meat. 

In  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  the  meat  inspector  often  has 
opportunity  to  inspect  animals  the  meat  of  which  possesses  an 
abnormal  odor.  Aside  from  the  foul  odor  which  meat  assumes- 
•when  processes  with  a  disagreeable  odor  have  developed  in  the  body 
(sapremia  and  septicemia),  we  may  observe  in  the  place  of  the  nor- 
mal meat  odor  various  other  odors  which  strongly  resemble  those 
of  certain  drugs. 

The  majority  of  our  aromatic  drugs  which,  contrary  to  the  rules 
of  the  veterinary  prescription  regulations,  are  administered  to  dis- 
eased food  animals,  transmit  a  very  specific  or  somewhat  modified 
odor  to  the  meat,  if  they  have  been  administered  in  large  quantities 
and  if  the  period  between  the  administration  of  the  drugs  and  the 
slaughtering  of  the  animal  has  not  been  too  long.  To  this  group  of 
drugs  belong  ether,  camphor,  turpentine  oil,  kerosene,  asafetida^. 


AUTOINTOXICATION  385 

oleum  carvi,  anise  oil,  carbolic  acid  and  chlorin  preparations.  Car- 
bolic acid  and  chlorin  are,  strange  to  say,  actively  absorbed  by  the 
body  and  retained  for  a  long  time,  if  the  drugs  are  not  administered 
"by  way  of  the  mouth  but  inhaled  along  with  the  inspired  air. 
Among  such,  cases  have  been  observed  which  have  been  transported 
in  recently  disinfected  freight  cars,  or  have  been  placed  in  freshly- 
disinfected  stalls. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  ABNORMAL  ODORS. — What  was  said  concern- 
ing the  more  conspicuous  appearance  of  ammonia  in  the  meat  of 
nremic  animals  when  subjected  to  artificial  heating  (p.  378),  holds 
true  also  for  other  abnormal  odors  of  the  meat  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals. These  odors  are  more  easily  detected  after  warming  or, 
cooking  the  meat. 

JUDGMENT. — In  all  cases  in  which  the  abnormal  odor  is  due  to 
the  administration  of  aromatic  drugs,  the  opinion  concerning  the 
utilization  of  meat  will  be  determined  as  in  cases  described  on 
p.  245  j^*.,  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  odor.  In  slight  oases 
the  meat  can  be  admitted  to  the  market  unhesitatingly,  under 
declaration.  In  other  cases,  on  the  contrary,  in  which  a  foul'stenoh; 
is  emitted  from  the  meat,  such  meat  is  to  be  considered  highly  unfit 
for  food  and  is  to  be  absolutely  prohibited  from  sale. 


3.— The  So-called  Autointoxication. 

In  the  discussion  of  blood  diseases,  three  affections  have 
already  been  named,  which  from  an  etiological  standpoint  are  to  be 
considered  as  autointoxications,  i.  e.,  as  cases  of  poisoning  due  to 
metabolic  products  of  the  body.  These  diseases  are  cholemia, 
uremia  and  the  so-called  black  ischuria.  A  suitable  discussion  has 
been  given  above  to  these  diseases.  In  cholemia  and  uremia  we 
have  to  do  with  the  retention  or  resorption  of  the  bile  and  urine. 
The  conditions  are  not  so  simple  in  black  ischuria.  We  do  not 
know  what  substances  act  in  a  poisonous  manner  in  this  case. 
However,  the  origin  and  course  of  the  disease,  as  already  mentioned, 
make  it  exceedingly  probable  that  the  so-called  black  ischuria  is  a 
form  of  poisoning  due  to  some  metabolic  products  of  the  body* 
Similar  conditions  are  found  in  parturient  paralysis.  A  special 
discussion  of  this  disease  follows. 


386  POISONING 


Parturient  Paralysis. 

Ludwig  Franck  deserves  credit  for  having  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  diseases  which  occur  immediately  after  parturition 
and  which  previously  had  been  designated  by  the  name  parturient 
paralysis,  or  milk  fever,  are  really  of  two  forms.  Franck  distin- 
guished a  septic  and  a  paralytic  parturient  fever.  The  two  diseases 
have  nothing  in  common,  except  the  fact  that  they  occur  after 
parturition.  Septic  parturient  fever  is  an  exquisite  septicemia. 
The  paralytic  form,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  marked  case  of  poison- 
ing. This  distinction  is  of  the  greatest  significance  for  meat 
inspection  and  we  must  agree  with  Friedberger  and  Frohner  when 
they  propose  to  characterize  the  difference  between  the  two  diseases 
by  the  use  of  the  term  "  parturient  paresis  "  in  the  place  of  the  less 
applicable  term  of  "  paralytic  parturient  fever." 

OCCURRENCE,  COURSE  AND  AUTOPSY. — Parturient  paresis  occurs 
most  frequently  in  cattle,  less  often  in  goats  and  hogs.  It  begins 
with  a  short  stage  of  irritation,  thereupon  a  paralysis  of  the  posterior 
extremities  follows,  and  rapidly  extends  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
body.  The  paralysis  is  both  motor  and  sensory.  Moreover,  the 
smooth  musculature  (of  the  intestines  and  bladder)  is  paralyzed. 
Even  in  acute  cases,  however,  recovery  may  take  place  with  aston- 
ishing rapidity.  Otherwise,  death  follows  in  consequence  of  cerebral 
paralysis.  Gross  anatomic  lesions  are  not  present.  The  post 
mortem  finding  is  negative,  as  in  the  case  of  poisoning.  The  uterus 
exhibits  no  injuries  or  inflammatory  symptoms  ;  it  contains  only  a. 
small  quantity  of  odorless  fluid.  This  condition  is  in  complete 
harmony  with  the  fact  that  parturient  paralysis  is  usually  associated 
with  cases  of  easy  parturition. 

It  should  be  noted  that  parturient  paresis  appears  from  twenty- 
four  hours  to  three  days  after  birth,  and  that  it  is  almost  exclusively 
the  well-nourished,  highly-fed  and  well-cared-for  animals  which  are 
attacked  by  the  disease.  . 

ETIOLOGY. — Opinions  concerning  the  cause  of  the  above  described 
phenomena  vary,  like  those  concerning  black  ischuria.  Franck 
attempted  to  explain  parturient  paresis  by  cerebral  congestion,  with 
subsequent  cerebral  edema ;  Harms,  by  the  absorption  of  air  in  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  brain  (aeremia).  The  hypothesis  of  Franck,  aa 
Schmidt-Miilheim  has  asserted,  does  not  harmonize  with  the  disease. 


AUTOINTOXICATION  387 

"The  aeremia  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain,  however,  is  an  artificial 
condition  which  is  almost  always  produced  by  removal  of  the  cra- 
nium. The  view  entertained  by  Schmidt-Miilheim,  that  in  this 
disease  we  have  to  do  with  a  substance  resembling  an  alkaloid, 
which  is  formed  in  the  body  of  animals,  is  best  calculated  to  explain 
the  acute  spinal  and  cerebral  symptoms.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  the  hypothesis  of  Schmidt-Mulheim  is  well-founded,  viz., 
that  the  toxic  substances  resembling  the  poisonous  principles  in 
cases  of  sausage  poison,  owe  their  origin  to  a  peculiar  decomposi- 
tion of  the  lochial  fluid  in  the  uterus.  According  to  the  results  of 
the  method  of  treatment  recommended  by  Schmidt  of  Kolding 
(iodin  infusions  into  the  milk  cisterns),  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
hypothetical  poisonous  principles  are  formed  in  the  udder. 

Although  we  are  not  able  to  explain  with  certainty  the  origin 
of  parturient  paresis,  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  in  this  disease, 
as  in  black  ischuria,  we  have  to  do  with  an  intoxication.  The  poison 
may  be  produced  by  the  action  of  bacteria ;  it  may  be  a  toxin ; 
there  is  no  evidence,  however,  to  justify  the  assumption  of  such  an 
origin.  The  complete  integrity  of  the  organs  argues  against  such  a 
method  of  development.  It  is  more  probable  that  parturient  paresis 
is  caused  by  leucomaines  which  arise  in  certain  animals  in  conse- 
quence of  physiological  processes.  Such  a  leucomaine,  for  example, 
according  to  the  investigations  of  Remy,  is  developed  in  a  fish 
(diodon)  which  lives  in  the  Japanese  Sea.  The  poison  appears  in 
the  glands  when  these  organs  are  in  a  condition  of  physiological 
rest. 

W.  Eber  considers  parturient  paresis,  as  well  as  black  ischuria, 
to  be  a  "  toxigen  disease."  *  He  assumed  that  toxigen  is  formed  in 
the  reproductive  organs  of  healthy  cows,  but  that  in  such  situations 
it  remains  toxigen,  or  is  excreted  as  such.  In  diseased  animals, 
on  the  contrary,  he  believes  that  we  have  to  do  with  a  trans- 
formation of  the  toxigen  into  an  active  poison  in  consequence  of 
metabolism. 


*The  general  term  "toxigen"  or  "  toxigen  ous  substances,"  according  to  W. 
Eber,  should  include  all  those  chemical  bodies  which  assume  poisonous  properties 
only  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  the  animal  organism.  Such  a  peculiar  intercon- 
nection between  a  toxigen  and  the  animal  body  is  observed,  for  example,  in  iodic  acid, 
iodid  of  soda,  and  iodin  with  iodid  of  soda.  The  intoxications  caused  by  these  sub- 
stances are  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  the  beginning  of  the  poisonous  symptoms 
occurs  after  an  incubation  period;  the  poisoned  animals  do  not  manifest  any 
symptoms  of  disease  for  several  hours  (six  to  eight)  after  intravenous  injection  of 
iodid  of  soda.  It  is  not  until  after  this  period  that  marked  symptoms  of  poisoning 
••occur. 


388  POISONING 

JUDGMENT.— Physicians  have  repeatedly  stated,  and  the  state- 
ment has  been  again  recently  repeated  in  England,  that  the  meat  of 
animals  affected  with  parturient  paresis  must  be  considered  as  a 
dangerous  food  material.  This  assumption  is  not  well  founded.  In 
the  first  place,  veterinary  experience  is  against  it.  Up  to  the  present 
time,  no  instance  of  harm  in  man  has  been  observed  from  eating 
the  meat  of  animals  which  were  affected  with  parturient  paresis. 
If  parturient  paresis  could  cause  dangerous  properties  in  the  meat, 
this  fact  could  not  possibly  have  remained  unknown,  in  view  of  the 
great  frequency  with  which  the  disease  occurs,  for  the  meat  of  ani- 
mals affected  with  parturient  paresis,  even  in  countries  with  a  regular 
meat  inspection,  is  in  the  majority  of  cases  admitted  to  the  market, 
chiefly  for  the  reason  that  gross  anatomical  alterations  are  abso- 
lutely wanting  in  cases  of  the  disease  in  question.  This  practice  is 
strengthened  by  the  hypothesis  of  Franck  and  Harms  concerning; 
the  origin  of  the  disease. 

Friedberger  and  Frohner  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  compli- 
cations with  septic  parturient  fever  may  occur  in  addition  to  simple 
cases  of  parturient  paresis.  "  Indeed,  cases  are  not  rare  in  which  we 
find  the  clinical  symptoms  of  parturient  paresis  and  the  anatomical 
symptoms  of  a  septic  inflammation  of  the  uterine  mucosa."  The 
meat  inspector  should  bear  this  fact  in  mind,  since  meat  in  process 
of  sepsis  is  to  be  judged  quite  differently  from  that  in  cases  of  par- 
turient paresis.  The  demonstration  of  a  complication  of  parturient 
paresis  with  septic  parturient  fever  offers,  however,  no  difficulties,, 
since  in  the  latter  case  the  uterus  exhibits  conspicuous  alterations 
(septic  metritis). 

Moreover,  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  been  affected  with 
parturient  paresis  is  to  be  considered  as  of  inferior  value  for  food, . 
and  should  therefore  be  sold  only  under  declaration.  The  inferior 
quality  of  the  meat  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  it  comes  from 
animals  subjected  to  compulsory  slaughter,  which  is,  as  a  rule,  good 
^vidence  of  imperfect  bleeding;  this  condition  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  slaughter  is  postponed  until  the  paralysis  is  complete. 

Finally,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  in  earlier- 
times  the  odor  of  drugs  was  not  observed  in  the  case  of  any  disease 
so  frequently  as  in  parturient  paresis.  This  fact  is  explained  by 
the  method  of  treating  the  disease,  in  which  aromatic  stimulants; 
(ether,  camphor,  turpentine  oil)  played  an  important  part. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  (INVASION  DISEASES). 


The  number  of  animal  parasites  which  have  been  observed  in 
food  animals  is  unusually  large.  .  A  sanitary  significance,  however, 
attaches  only  to  those  parasites  which  have  their  seat  in  organs 
which  serve  as  food  for  man.  For  this  reason,  the  majority  of  the 
numerous  skin  parasites  are  without  significance  for  meat  inspection, 
since  the  skin  of  food  animals,  with  the  exception  of  hogs,  is,  as  a 
rule,  not  utilized  as  human  food. 

The  sanitary  siguificauce  of  different  species  of  animal  parasites 
Taries  considerably.  Only  a  few  species  of  animal  parasites  possess 
great  significance ;  the  majority  are  unimportant.  According  to 
their  importance  in  meat  inspection,  the  greater  number  of  animal 
parasites  which  are  found  in  the  body  of  food  animals  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups  : 

1.  Parasites  which  are  not  transmissible  to  man. 

2.  Parasites  which  may  be  transmitted  to  man  by  eating  meat 

3.  Parasites  which  are  not  immediately  harmful,   but  which 
may  become  so  after  a  preliminary  change  of  host. 

As  will  be  readily  understood,  the  greatest  interest  attaches  to 
those  parasites  which  belong  to  the  second  and  third  groups.  These 
parasites,  or  rather  the  parts  of  food  animals  which  are  infested  by 
them,  must  be  excluded  from  the  market.  Meat  inspection  must 
also  take  account  of  the  parasites  of  group  1,  since  they  produce  in 
the  organs  the  characters  of  inferior  food  material ;  and  it  is,  fur- 
thermore, the  duty  of  meat  inspection  to  destroy  those  parasites 
which,  in  a  larval  condition,  are  injurious  only  to  domesticated 
animals. 

It  would  transcend  the  limits  of  a  handbook  of  meat  inspection 
if  we  were  to  go  into  a  detailed  description  of  all  the  parasites  which 
are  here  concerned.  A  detailed  description  is  justified  only  in  the 
case  of  those  parasites  which  may  offer  difficulties  in  identification. 
In  the  case  of  others,  a  short  statement  concerning  their  form  and 


390  INVASION   DISEASES 

size  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection.  With  regard 
to  further  peculiarities  of  these  parasites,  reference  should  be  made 
to  the  text-books  of  parasitology  by  Zurn,  Leuckart,  Braun,  Railliet 
and  Neumann.  The  anatomical  alterations  which  are  produced  in 
the  organs  of  domesticated  anirra1^  infested  with  animal  parasites 
will  receive  a  more  detailed  consideration. 


1. — Parasites  Which  Are  Not  Transmissible  to  Man. 

.   Of  the  parasites  included  under  this  head,  the  following  will 
receive  attention  : 

1.  The  hair  follicle  mite  in  the  skin  of  hogs. 

2.  Various  endoparasitic  dipterous  larvae. 

3.  Numerous  worms  which  occur  in  the  organs  of  food  animals. 

1.— The  Hair  Follicle  Mite  of  the  Hog. 

The  hair  follicle  mite  (Demodex  phylloides  suis),  discovered  by 
Osokor,  is  parasitic  in  the  skin  of  the  hog.  It  is  from  0.2  to  .25  mm. 
Jong  and  produces  small  swellings  of  the  hair  follicles  which  ordi- 
narily project  only  slightly  beyond  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The 
swellings  show  a  predilection  for  the  snout,  neck,  under  part  of  the 
breast,  abdomen  and  flank,  as  well  as  the  inner  surface  of  the  thigh. 
They  are  less  conspicuous  for  their  size  (from  that  of  a  mustard 
seed  to  that  of  a  lentil)  than  for  their  gray  or  yellowish  color  and 
sharp  delimitation  from  the  neighboring  tissue.  The  enlarged  hair 
follicles  contain  a  soft  semi-fluid  material,  consisting  of  disinte- 
grated epithelial  cells  and  dermal  oil,  in  which  the  follicle  mites 
may  be  demonstrated  in  large  numbers.  In  the  case  which  was 
investigated  by  Csokor,  and  which  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  para- 
site, the  swellings  of  the  hair  follicles  had  reached  the  size  of  a- 
hazelnut  and  were  partly  transformed  into  ruptured  abscesses. 

JUDGMENT. — The  judgment  of  organs  infested  wi'th  parasites: 
which  are  not  transmissible  to  man  is  very  simple ;  it  will  therefore 
be  sufficient  to  discuss  the  matter  in  a  general  way  for  group  1 
(p.  417). 

2. — Dipterous  Larvae. 

In  cattle,  the  larva  of  the  ox  warble  fly  ((Estrus  bovis)  is  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  body.  The  most  striking,  and  for  meat: 
inspection  the  most  important,  alterations  caused  by  these  larvae  are*: 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  391 

in  the  subcutis,  in  which  they  undergo  their  last  development  stage. 
In  this  position  they  produce  swellings  which  may  attain  the  size 
of  a  walnut.  In  cutting  into  the  swollen  parts,  it  is  observed  that  the 
larvae,  which,  after  attaining  complete  development,  are  28  mm.  long 
and  12-15  mm.  wide,  are  surrounded  with  pus  and  lie  in  a  granulat- 
ing membrane.  In  the  vicinity  of  these  swellings  there  are  more  or 
less  extensive  collateral  swellings.  The  first  larvae  are  observed  in 
the  subcutis  in  January.  The  migration  from  the  subcutis  begins 
in  April. 

The  oestrus  larvae  are  observed  only  in  cattle  at  pasture,  and 
most  frequently  in  young  animals.  In  regions  in  which  cattle 
remain  at  pasture  day  and  night,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  marshes  of 
Schleswig-Holstein,  the  parasites  are  extraordinarily  abundant. 
Thus  Baser  reports  from  the  abattoir  at  Kiel  that  in  that 
locality  from  one-fourth  to  one- third  of  all  the  cattle  were  infested 
with  warble  flies. 

The  parasitism  of  oestrus  larvae  causes  considerable  loss  to 
cattle  raisers.  In  England  the  injury  is  estimated  at  160,000,000 
marks  per  year.  The  chief  damage  lies  in  the  deterioration  of  the 
skins.  Furthermore,  the  parasites  cause  a  decrease  in  the  value  of 
the  meat,  since,  when  they  are  present  in  large  numbers,  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  the  subcutis  and  skin  muscles  must  be  removed. 
Butchers  fear  especially  the  edematous  infiltration  of  the  subcutis, 
which  in  England  is  characterized  as  "licked  beef,"  or  "butchers' 
jelly,"  for  the  reason  that  the  surface  of  meat  which  is  changed  in 
this  manner  possesses  a  dirty  greenish-yellow  appearance  after 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours. 

Development  Stages  of  (Estrus  Larvae. 

Formerly  the  view  was  held  that  the  development  of  oestrus  larvae 
took  place  exclusively  in  the  subcutis.  Careful  investigations,  which 
were  begun  by  Hinrichsen  and  were  carried  on  by  several  abattoir 
veterinarians,  have  shown  that  this  view  is  incorrect.  Hinrichsen, 
in  his  earlier  work,  in  connection  with  the  inspection  of  slaughtered 
and  dead  cattle  in  Husum,  found  numerous  larvae  scattered  about  in. 
the  adipose  tissue  between  the  dorsal  vertebrae  and  the  dura  mater 
of  the  spinal  cord.  The  larvae  were  10  to  15  mm.  long  and  2  to  3 
mm.  wide,  clear  and  transparent  and  partly  gray-green  in  the 
middle.  The  larvae  lay  in  a  uniformly  edematous  infiltrated  swelling. 
This  finding  was  corroborated  by  Home,  Euser,  Goltz  and  Koorevaar 
in  the  abattoirs  at  Christiania,  Kiel,  Schwerin  and  Amsterdam. 
Goltz,  Buser  and  Koorevaar  found  also  that  the  youngest  stages  of 


392 


INVASION  DISEASES 


FIG.  98. 


the  larvge  occur  as  small  hyaliii  structures  under  the  mucoua 
membrane  of  the  esophagus.  It  was,  therefore,  assumed,  in. 
harmony  with  Euser,  that  the  larvae  of  the  ox  warble  fly,  after 
hatching  from  the  eggs,  penetrate  into  the  mouth  cavity  and  pass 
thence  into  the  esophagus,  where  their  first  development  is  under- 
gone. During  the  first  months  of  the  year,  Euser  found  the  thoracic 
portion  of  the  esophagus  most  thickly  permeated  with  the  larvee 
and  concluded  from  this  fact  that  the  larvae  had  left  the  esophagus, 
had  made  their  way  upward  into  the  mediastinal  fat  tissues,  and 

had  travelled  along  the  blood 
vessels  and  nerves  partly  into  the 
spinal  canal  and  partly  directly 
into  their  final  situation,  the 
subcutis. 

This  assumption  did  not 
remain  uncontradicted.  Thus^ 
Neumann  held  it  for  certain  that 
the  larvse  which  he  had  oppor- 
tunity to  study  in  the  vertebral 
canal  were  not  those  of  (Eitrus 
'bovis.  Koorevaar,  however,  dis- 
pelled this  doubt,  since  he  was 
able  to  rear  the  ox  warble  fly  from 
larvse  which  he  obtained  in  the 
spinal  canal.  Moreover,  we  owe 
to  Koorevaar  a  thorough  investi- 
gation concerning  the  migration 
of  oestrus  larvse  in  the  body  of 
cattle. 

Toward  the  end  of  June, 
Koorevaar  found  in  the  wall  of 
the  esophagus  very  small  hyalin. 
larvse,  the  smallest  of  which  were 

scarcely  2  mm.  long,  and  the  largest  3  to  4  mm.  During  the 
succeeding  months  the  larvse  were  found  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  esophagus,  from  the  pharynx  to  the  cardiac  end. 
They  were  located  between  the  mucous  membrane  and  the  muscular 
layer.  In  July  some  of  the  larvse  penetrated  the  muscular  layer  iix 
the  cervical  portion  of  the  esophagus  and  took  up  a  position  in  the 
connective  tissue  surrounding  it.  By  the  middle  of  August,  when 
^numerous  larvse  were  present  in  and  outside  of  the  esophagus  and 
in  the  mediastinum,  some  specimens  5  mm.  long  were  found  in  th& 


Beef  esophagus  with  oestrus  larvae.     On 
the  right  a  larva  in  natural  size. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  393 

subdural  fat  tissue  of  the  spinal  canal.  During  the  autumn  months 
larvae  varying  in  length  from  5  to  13  mm.  were  still  found  in  the 
esophagus.  The  majority  of  them,  however,  had  already  wandered 
to  the  spinal  canal.  From  October  until  January,  it  was  not  a  rare 
thing  to  find  as  many  as  forty  larvae  in  the  spinal  canal  of  a  single 
animal.  In  young  cattle  as  many  as  fifty-seven  larvae  were  found, 
which  were  distributed  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  spinal 
canal  from  the  neck  to  the  cauda  equina,  but  most  numerously  in 
the  lumbar  region  of  the  spinal  cord.  Frequently  larvae  of  the  same 
size  were  found  in  the  esophagus  and  in  the  subdural  fat  tissue. 
By  the  end  of  December,  Koorevaar  observed  a  dirty  yellow,  brown, 
or  occasionally  hemorrhagic  edema  in  the  subcutis,  which  indicated 
the  arrival  of  the  larvae  at  the  point  of  their  final  development.  In 
the  winter  months,  the  simultaneous  occurrence  of  oestrus  larvae  in 
the  esophagus,  in  the  subdural  fat  tissue  and  in  the  subcutis,  in 
the  same  animal,  is  not  rare. 

According  to  Koorevaar,  the  larvae  of  the  ox  warble  flies  which 
are  on  the  wing  in  July,  are  distributed  as  follows  : 

From  July  to  September,  in  the  esophagus  ;  from  September  to 
January,  in  the  spinal  canal ;  from  January  to  May,  in  the  subcutis 
and  skin. 

The  larvae  of  the  later  appearing  flies,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
distributed  as  follows  : 

From  October  to  December,  in  the  esophagus ;  from  December 
to  April,  in  the  spinal  canal;  from  April  to  August,  in  the 
subcutis. 

It  appears  strange  that  in  cutting  up  cattle  the  oestrus  larvae 
are  so  seldom  met  with  in  their  migration  through  the  musculature. 
Home  asserts  that  in  the  months  from  February  to  April  he 
observed  dirty  green  larval  passages  in  the  musculature  on  frequent 
occasions.  Furthermore,  Kuser  reports  the  finding  of  warble 
swellings  in  the  musculature  (longissimus  dorsi).  Although  migrat- 
ing larvae  have  never  yet  been  found  in  the  musculature,  this  fact  is 
to  be  explained  by  the  rapidity  with  which  oestrus  larvae  are  able 
to  wander  to  their  resting  place.  Koorevaar  placed  eleven  larvae 
and  eight  days  later  fifteen  larvae  under  the  skin  of  a  dog.  When 
the  wound  was  opened  one  hour  after  the  operation  only  one  larva 
was  still  at  the  point  of  the  operation  ;  the  remaining  fourteen  had 
disappeared.  When  the  dog  was  killed,  fourteen  days  later,  all  of 
the  twenty-six  larvae  which  had  been  introduced  were  found  ;  five 
in  the  subcutis,  six  between  the  folds  of  the  intestines  free  in  the 


394  INVASION  DISEASES 

"body  cavity,  five  in  the  fat  tissue  of  the  spleen  and  kidneys,  three 
in  cne  psoas  muscles,  three  in  the  wall  of  the  esophagus,  two 
around  the  trachea  and  two  in  the  subdural  adipose  tissue.  The- 
parasites  had,  in  the  space  of  eight  to  fourteen  days,  completed  these 
extensive  migrations,  and  yet  no  traces  were  to  be  found  either  of 
the  larvae  or  the  passages  through  which  they  had  made  their  way. 

"With  reference  to  the  recognition  of  young  larvae,  Buser  has 
correctly  called  attention  to  the  diagnostic  value  of  the  edema  which 
accompanies  the  location  of  the  larva  (Fig.  98). 

The  sheep  bot  fly  ((Estrus  ovis)  lives  parasitically  in  the  nasal 
cavity  and  connected  passages  of  the  sheep,  and  may  cause  irrita- 
tion of  greater  or  less  severity  (catarrh  of  a  simple  or  acute  form). 
The  larvae,  which  are  at  first  very  small,  develop  finally  to  yellowish- 
brown  oval  structures  from  22  to  28  mm.  long. 

In  the  pharynx  and  stomach  of  the  horse  we  find  the  larvae  of 
Gastrophilus  equi  (19  mm.  long) ;  in  the  duodenum  of  the  horse,  G~ 
nasalis  (15  mm.  long) ;  in  the  alimentary  tract  of  horses  and  cattle, 
the  larvae  of  G.  pecorum  (13  mm.  long) ;  and,  finally,  in  the  esophagus, 
stomach  and  small  intestines,  or  occasionally  in  the  colon  of  the 
horse,  G.  hcemorrhoidalis  (16  mm.  long). 

3.— Worms. 

Among  both  groups  of  flat  and  round  worms  the  following 
parasites  are  not  transmissible  to  man  : 

(a)  All  tapeworms  of  food  animals,  with  the  single  exception  of 
Tcenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog. 

(b)  The  larval  stages  of  all  tapeworms  of  food  animals,  with  the 
exception   of    Gysticercus   bovis,    C.  cellulosce  and  Echinococcus  poly- 
•morphus. 

(c)  All  fluke  worms  (trematodes). 

(d)  All    nematodes    (Ascaris,    Eustrongylus,    Filaria^     Oxyuris^, 
Strongylus,     Trichocephalus    and    Acanthocephali),    with    the    single 
exception  of  Trichina  spiralis. 

In  the  case  of  the  majority  of  these  parasites,  the  discussion 
may  be  limited  to  the  most  important  facts. 

(a)  Tapeworms  (Cestodes). 

The  greatest  importance  attaches  to  Moniezia  expansa,  which, 
causes  the  tapeworm  disease  of  lambs,  as  well  as  to  Drepanidotcenia 
lanceolata  and  D.  setigera,  which  may  cause  extensive  losses  in  geese,. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  395 

and  filially  to  Davainea  tetragona,  which  causes  epizootic  outbreaks 
among  young  fowls. 

Moreover,  in  the  horse  we  may  observe  Anoplocephala  perfoliata 
(in  the  small  and  large  intestine,  up  to  the  length  of  80  mm.) ;  A. 
plicata  (in  the  small  intestine,  1  in.  in  length),  and  A.  mamillana  (in 
the  jejunum  and  ileum,  50  min.  in  length) ;  in  cattle,  sheep  and 
goats,  Moniezia  expansa  (4  to  5  m.*  in  lengtb)  ;  in  cattle  and  sheep, 
M.  pianissimo,  (I  to  2  m.  in  length),  M.  alba  (60  to  250  cm.  in  length), 
M.  benedeni  (up  to  the  length  of  4  in.);  in  sheep  only,  M.  neumanni, 
as  well  as  Thysanosoma  ovilla  and  T.  actinoides  ;  finally,  in  the  dog, 
Tcenia  ccenurus  (in  the  small  intestine  up  to  the  length  of  40  cm.), 
T.  marginata  (1.5  to  3  in.  in  length),  T.serrata  (in  the  small  intestine, 
50  to  60  cm.  in  lengtb),  and  Dipylidium  caninum  (in  the  small  intes- 
tine, 10  to  40  cm.  in  length). 

(b)  Larval  Stages  of  Tapeworms. 

In  sheep  and  exceptionally  in  cattle  we  find  the  preliminary 
stage  of  Tcenia  cosnurus,  known  as  Ccenurus  cerebralis.  It  is  located  in, 
the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  The  bladder  worm  is  of  a  roundish  or 
elongated  form  and  of  varying  size,  from  a  millet  seed  to  that  of  a 
hen's  egg.  On  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall  there  are  numerous, 
often  hundreds,  of  scoleces.  Ccenurus  cerebralis  causes  the  disease 
known  as  gid. 

In  rabbits  and  hare  there  is  also  a  coenurus  (C.  serialis),  but 
only  exceptionally  in  the  central  nervous  system  (spinal  cord) ;  more 
frequently,  however,  in  the  musculature  and  in  the  body  cavity. 

Cysticercus  tenuicollis  is  a  parasite  which  is  frequently  found  in 
sheep,  pigs  and  cattle.  It  represents  the  larval  condition  of  Tcenia 
marginata  of  the  dog.  This  species  is  most  often  met  with  in  sheep 
and  pigs.  For  example,  Olt,  in  Stettin,  found  it  in  132  out  of  500 
sheep  (26.4  per  cent.),  and  Schwairnair,  in  Aschaffenburg,  in  33  out 
of  2,009  pigs  (1.64  per  cent.).  C.  tenuicollis  in  its  earliest  stages  is 
elongated,  but  later  becomes  rounded  and  varies  in  size  according 
to  its  age.  Vesicles  are  observed  of  the  size  of  peas  and  as  large  as 
a  man's  fist,  with  all  intermediate  sizes.  This  larval  tapeworm  is 
most  frequently  found  under  the  peritoneum  and  pleura  and  in  the 
lateral  layers  as  well  as  under  the  serous  covering  of  the  internal 
organs.  The  preferred  location  of  this  larva  is  the  omentum,  mes- 
entery and  liver.  The  younger  parasites  are  located  on  the  surface 

*  By  some  oversight  in  the  German  edition  the  length  is  stated  as  .5  to  60  m. 
— TRANSLATOR. 


396 


INVASION   DISEASES 


FIG.  09 


of  these  organs  and  cause  a  protuberance  of  the  serous  covering* 
(Fig.  99),  while  the  older  and  larger  parasites  are  located  in 
diverticula  of  the  peritoneum  and  pleura.  C.  tenuicollis  is  thus  in 
every  instance  covered  by  the  peritoneum  or  pleura.  When  a 
^section  is  made  into  the  serous  membrane  which  covers  the  parasite, 
the  bladder  worm  emerges.  Its  chief  charac- 
ters are  a  long,  corrugated  neck  (Fig.  100), 
easily  protruded,  the  slight  pressure  in  the 
fluid  of  the  caudal  bladder,  and  the  armed 
head.  The  armature  consists  in  a  double 
crown  of  hooks  which  are  grouped  in  alternat- 

Young  Cysticercus  ten-     jugr  rOws  (Fig.  101),  the  large  hooks  are  from 
uicollis  in  situ  *  .       ,         .,  ,    .,  ,. 

(after  Leuckart).          .19  to  .20  mm.  in  length  and  the  small  ones 

from  .11  to  .12  mm.     Both  kinds  of  hooks  are 

-slender  and  furnished  with  a  strongly  bent  point  (Fig.  102). 
According  to  Schwarz,  the  protuberance  (basal  process)  of  the 
small  hooks  of  this  species  is  frequently  so  decidedly  bifurcated 
as  to  appear  like  a  thumb  nut  when  seen  from  in  front.  The 
number  of  the  hooks  in  (7.  tenuicollis  is  from  32  to  40: 


FIG.  100. 


FIG.  101. 


Cysticercus    tenuicollis    with 
artificially  protruded  scolex. 


Circle  of  hooks  from  Cysticercus  termicolis. 
From  a  photograph.'    X  45  diameters. 


In  rare  cases,  C.  tenuicollis  is  found  also  in  the  parenchyma  of 
the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  liver.  In  this  situation, 
however,  the  parasite,  presumably  in  consequence  of  the  pressure 
of  the  surrounding  substance  of  the  liver,  never  reaches  a  large  size. 
At  the  most  we  find  intact  specimens  of  the  size  of  a  pea.  Other- 

it  is  a  normal  condition  that  the  larvae  are  disintegrated  in  tha 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


397 


Interior  of  the  liver  during  their  early  developmental  stages  in 
consequence  of  caseation  and  calcification,  so  that  only  small  casefied 
or  calcified  tubercles  remain. 

Finally,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  alterations  which  C. 
tenuicollis  may  produce  in  young  animals.  The  parasite  develops 
very  rapidly.  After  twenty-six  to  twenty-eight  days  the  head  is 
observed,  and  after  thirty-five  to  thirty-eight  days  the  beginning  of 
the  hooks  and  suctorial  apparatus.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that 
bladder  worms  may  be  found  in  very  young  animals.  Calves,  lambs 
and  young  pigs,  which  by  any  chance  have  had  opportunity  to  take 
up  the  larva  of  T.  marginata,  show  quite  considerable  alterations, 

FIG.  103. 


FIG.  102. 


Large  and  small  hooks  from  C.  tenui- 
collis. From  a  photograph.  X  275 
times.  The  small  hook  shows  cleavage 
of  the  basal  process. 


Calf  liver  with  wandering  C.  tenuicoilis. 


especially  in  the  liver.  The  liver  exhibits  long,  coiled  passages 
which  are  filled  with  larvae  and  detritus  of  the  liver  cells,  and  which 
are  at  first  dark-red,  but  later  of  a  brownish  or  greenish  color  (Fig. 
103).  In  the  expanded  end  of  the  passages  we  may  regularly 
discover  the  intact  or  degenerated  parasites.  More  rarely  such 
passages  are  found  in  the  lungs.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  soft  con- 
sistency of  the  liver  tissue  of  young  animals  which  is  favorable  to 
the  migration  of  the  larval  parasites. 

C.  tenuicollis,  as  a  rule,  is  a  harmless  parasite.     It  is  only  when 
it  occurs  in  large  numbers  that  it  may  cause  death  in  young  animals,. 


398  INVASION  DISEASES 

with  symptoms  of  peritonitis  or  pleuritis.     Such  cases  occur  now 
and  then  in  young  pigs. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  immature  developmental  forms 
•of  C.  tenuicollis  may  be  confused  with  those  species  which  are  injuri- 
ous to  health  (C.  bovis  and  C.  cellulosce).  It  is  distinguished, 
however,  from  both  of  these  species  by  its  location  (in  the  subserous 
tissue  and  internal  organs),  and  by  the  strong  development  of  its 
neck.  When  examined  under  a  microscope,  the  hooks  furnish 
important  diagnostic  characters.  The  beef  cysticercus  is  without 
hooks,  while  that  of  the  hog  is  armed,  but  possesses  fewer  and 
more  compressed  hooks  (see  p.  443). 

In  casefied  and  calcified  C.  tenuicollis  a  confusion  with  tubercu- 
losis is  possible.  For  distinguishing  between  the  two,  the  condition, 
of  the  corresponding  lymph  glands  is  important.  In  cases  of  casefied 
parasites  these  glands  ara  intact,  while,  when  tuberculosis  is  present, 
they  are  specifically  altered  (see  p.  344).  Moreover,  in  the  caseated 
material  which  results  from  the  degeneration  of  C.  tenuicollis,  hooks 
and  lime  corpuscles  may  be  seen  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope  (Figs. 
101  and  125). 

In  the  hare,  the  larval  stage  of  Tcenia  serrata,  C.  pisiformis, 
causes  alterations  similar  to  those  produced  by  C.  tenuicollis  in 
domesticated  animals.  C.  pisiformis,  however,  quite  frequently 
undergoes  a  caseous  degeneration,  not  only  in  the  interior,  but  also 
upon  the  surface  of  the  internal  organs.  The  cysticercus  disease 
of  rabbits  may  appear  in  an  epizootic  form  and  may  give  rise  to 
confusion  with  tuberculosis,  in  consequence  of  the  caseation  of  the 
parasites.  Incidentally  it  should  be  noted  that  hunters  wrongly 
called  the  alteration  in  question  a  syphilitic  process,  or  a  "  venereal 
disease  of  the  hare." 

In  bony  fishes,  according  to  Guinard,  Tetrarliynchus  larvae  are 
frequently  observed,  which  may  develop  further  in  the  alimentary 
tract  of  dog  fish,  rays  and  sharks.  Guinard  made  a  study  of  cod 
iish  meat  which  was  thoroughly  infested  with  small  cysts  and 
resembled  measly  pork.  Tetrarhynchus  larvae  3.5  mm.  long  and 
1.6  mm.  wide  were  found  in  the  cysts. 

(c)  Flukes  (Trematodes). 

For  the  purposes  of  meat  inspection  the  most  important  flukes 
are  the  liver  flukes  (Distomum  Jiepaticum  and  D.  lanceolatum)* 
Amphistomum  conicum  may  also  be  mentioned  as  a  less  important 
member  of  the  group  of  flukes.  The  latter  parasite  (Fig.  104)  i& 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  399 

Irom  4  to  12  mm.  long,  1  to  3  mm.  wide,  and  usually  of  a  red  color. 
It  is  found  in  the  paunch  of  ruminants  and  is  usually  a  harmless 
parasite.  In  Germany  the  parasite  is  ordinarily  rare,  while  in  hot 
climates,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  abundant.  According  to 
Janson,  it  is  seen  in  Japanese  cattle  in  such  large  numbers  that  the 
mucous  lining  of  the  paunch  appears  to  be  plastered  over  with 
the  parasites. 

Distomum  Hepaticum. 

MORPHOLOGY  AND  OCCURRENCE. — The  large  fluke,  D.  hepaticum, 
is  a  leaf-shaped  worm  with  a  conical  anterior  end  and  a  flattened 

FIG.  105. 


FIG.  104. 


Amphistomum  conicum 
in  natural  size. 


Distomum  hepaticum.     X  2  times. 

posterior  portion  (Fig.  105).  It  is  from  16  to  40  mm.  long  and  6  to 
12  mm.  wide.  The  presence  of  scale-like  spines  upon  the  integu- 
ment is  of  special  importance  in  explaining  the  alterations  which 
D.  hepaticum  may  cause.  The  location  of  this  fluke  is  in  the  gall 
ducts  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  hogs.  Occasionally  it  is  also  found 
in  the  horse  (Sauer).  Cattle  and  sheep  are  most  frequently 
parasitized  by  this  worm.  The  majority  of  cattle  contain  liver 
flukes  or  show  evidence  of  their  presence,  and  Schaper  asserts  that 
in  the  slaughterhouse  at  Munich  he  found  no  sheep  liver  which  was 
iree  from  flukes.  Leuckart  found  similar  conditions  in  certain, 
regions  of  Holstein. 


400  INVASION  DISEASES 

Wandering  flukes. — The  liver  fluke  is  found  quite  often  in  the 
lungs  as  well  as  in  the  liver.  They  are  carried  thither  in  the  circu- 
lation, and  are  surrounded  by  a  membrane  which  is  at  first  of 
connective  tissue,  later  becomes  cartilaginous,  and  finally  incrusted. 
They  lie  in  a  cloudy,  often  bloody,  dark-brown  fluid.  The  fluke 
tubercles  in  the  lungs  may  attain  the  size  of  a  chestnut.  The 
parasites  in  the  lungs,  however,  commonly  remain  in  a  poor  condi- 
tion. Morot  found  encysted  liver  flukes  in  the  lungs  of  4  per  cent, 
of  the  cattle  which  were  inspected  by  him  during  one  half  year. 
Wandering  liver  flukes  may  also  become  located  in  the  retropleural 
and  retroperitoneal  tissue,  in  the  spleen,  subcutis,  skeletal  muscula- 
ture and  cardiac  chambers,  as  well  as  in  the  lungs. 

PATHOGENIC  IMPORTANCE  AND  DIAGNOSIS.— The  symptoms  which 
are  produced  by  this  parasite  vary  exceedingly.  When  but  few  are 
present,  they  usually  produce  no  noticeable  disturbance.  In  cases 
of  excessive  invasion,  however,  a  catarrh  of  the  bile  ducts  appears, 
and  also  an  inflammation  of  the  walls  of  the  bile  ducts,  which  may 
result  in  a  thickening  and  finally  a  calcification  of  the  latter.  We 
may  observe  upon  the  gastric  surface  of  the  liver  that  the  superfi- 
ficial,  larger  bile  ducts  are  changed  in  form  and  become  prominent, 
firm  strands  or  stiff  tubes  leading  to  the  gall  bladder.  By  making 
a  suitable  section  under  the  lobus  spigelii,  or  near  the  quadrate 
lobe,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  left  lobe,  the  deeper-lying  bile  ducts 
may  be  exposed  and  will  be  found  to  be  modified  in  the  same  way. 
The  tissue  of  the  liver  may  remain  unchanged  in  spite  of  excessive 
infestation  of  the  larger  bile  ducts.  This  must  indeed  be  considered 
as  the  usual  occurrence.  Only  exceptionally  is  the  liver  tissue  itself 
involved  in  the  disease  and  then  in  the  form  of  a  proliferation  of  the 
connective  tissue  extending  from  the  adventitia  of  the  bile  ducts. 
This  process  usually  involves  the  destruction  of  the  liver  tissue 
and  leads  to  an  increase  in  the  volume  of  the  organ.  At  the 
same  time  the  liver  loses  its  reddish-brown  color  and  becomes 
gray.  Moreover,  its  consistency  becomes  firmer,  so  .that  it  cannot 
be  readily  penetrated  with  the  finger  (hypertrophic  cirrhosis  of  the 
liver). 

Schaper  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  freshly  introduced 
flukes  may  be  found  in  the  peripheral  parts  of  the  liver,  since  they 
penetrate  into  the  smallest  bile  ducts  by  means  of  their  strong,, 
pointed  head  and  their  coating  of  spines,  which  prevents  them  from 
going  backwards.  Attention  should  be  given  to  this  point  hii 
making  an  inspection. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  401 

The  tendency  of  liver  flukes  to  penetrate  into  the  smallest  bile 
ducts,  so  far  as  this  is  possible,  is  of  interest  in  another  regard.  It 
may  occur  that  liver  flukes  penetrate  the  thin- walled  bile  ducts  and 
give  rise  to  hemorrhages  of  the  liver  (see  p.  294).  The  flukes  which 
produce  such  hemorrhages  are,  as  a  rule,  undeveloped  and  at  most 
1  cm.  long.  Occasionally  it  happens,  but  these  cases  are  rare,  that 
a  fluke  perforates  even  the  liver  capsule.  In  this  way  so-called 
biliary  peritonitis  may  be  produced  (p.  287).  The  remains  of  the 
liver  hemorrhages  caused  by  the  wandering  of  the  flukes  outside  of 
the  bile  ducts  may  exhibit  several  forms.  At  first  the  resorption  of 
the  blood  takes  place  and  this  leads  to  a  diminution  in  the  size  of 
the  liver.  Later,  however,  an  active  regeneration  of  the  liver  cells 
appears  to  take  place,  so  that  only  slight  defects  and  comparatively 
few  scars  are  to  be  observed.  Now  and  then  it  is  noticed  that  dis- 
tomatous  liver  hemorrhages  may  be  connected  with  a  multiple 
hepatitis  with  abscess,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  parasites, 
in  penetrating  into  the  tissue,  carried  with  them  putrefactive 
bacteria. 

PECULIARITIES  OP  DISTOMATOSIS  IN  DIFFERENT  DOMESTICATED 
ANIMALS. — In  the  first  place,  it  should  be  observed  that  the  majority 
of  cattle  are  infested  with  the  liver  fluke.  It  appears  that  only  such 
cattle  as  never  are  allowed  upon  pasture  are  protected  from  infesta- 
tion ;  for,  as  a  rule,  only  quite  young  cattle  and  bulls  which  are,  for 
the  most  part,  kept  in  stalls,  show  livers  which  are  free  from  the 
flukes.  It  is  remarkable  that  even  the  presence  of  a  large  number 
of  liver  flukes  does  not  ordinarily  cause  any  disturbance  in  the 
nutrition  of  cattle.  Marked  thickenings  of  the  bile  ducts  are 
observed,  so  that  the  form  of  a  medusa's  head  may  appear  upon  the 
gastric  surface  of  the  liver,  even  in  well-nourished  animals.  Even 
in  connection  with  cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  an  injurious  effect  of  liver 
flukes  upon  the  health  of  cattle  can  not  usually  be  demonstrated. 
So  long  as  a  portion  of  the  liver  of  the  size  of  a  double  fist  is  still 
unaffected,  the  nutritive  condition  of  infested  animals  may  still  be 
comparatively  good.  The  uninjured  portions  of  the  liver  are  usually 
enlarged  later,  like  a  tumor.  The  author  has  never  observed 
hydremic  cachexia  in  slaughtered  animals  in  consequence  of  disto- 
matosis,  even  in  the  youngest  animals.  The  most  marked  effects 
of  distomatous  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  are  shown  in  an  emaciation  of 
the  affected  animals. 

The  conditions  are  quite  different  iu  sheep.  In  these  animals 
it  is  a  well  known  fact,  which  has  been  substantiated  by  investiga- 


402  INVASION  DISEASES 

tions  in  abattoirs,  that  extensive  invasions  of  the  liver  fluke  cause 
serious  disturbances  in  the  nutrition,  acute  anemia  and  finally 
hydremic  cachexia.  This  occurs,  not  only  in  occasional  individuals, 
but  even  in  whole  herds  (liver  fluke  epidemic).  The  injurious  effect 
which  extensive  invasions  of  liver  fluke  may  cause  in  sheep  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that  in  Alsace-Lorraine  in  the  year  1873  not 
less  than  30  per  cent,  of  the  sheep  died  of  liver  fluke  disease  ;  while 
in  England,  as  reported  by  Leuckart,  1,000,000  sheep  annually  fall 
a  prey  to  this  parasite. 

In  hogs  the  liver  fluke  is  a  rare  occurrence,  at  least  in  so  far  as 
our  native  animals  are  concerned.  Pigs  which  are  imported  from 
Hungary,  Servia  and  Russia,  however,  are  frequently  infested  with, 
the  parasites.  Disturbances  of  the  fattening  process  in  hogs  do  not 
occur  as  a  consequence  of  distomatosis. 

Distomum  Lanceolatum. 

PATHOGENIC  IMPORTANCE,  MORPHOLOGY  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Z>. 
lanceolatum,  in  comparison  with  D.  hepaticum,  is  a  harmless  parasite, 
«ven  in  sheep ;  for,  as  a  rule,  it  produces  only  insignificant  local 
symptoms,  rarely  any  of  general  extent.  This  fact  is  explained  by 
the  smaller  size  of  the  parasite.  It  measures  only  4  to  8  mm.  in 
length  and  1  to  2.5  mm.  in  width.  Its  harmless  nature  is  further 
explained  by  the  absence  of  a  coat  of  spines.  D.  lanceolatum  is 
parasitic  in  sheep  and  cattle,  less  often  in  goats  and  hogs. 
It  is  not,  however,  so  generally  distributed  as  D.  hepaticum.  Its 
appearance  is  rather  restricted  to  certain  regions,  as,  for  example, 
southern  Germany  and  Thiiringen.  According  to  Tempel,  the 
sheep  slaughtered  in  Chemnitz  are  on  an  average  infested  to  the 
extent  of  90  per  cent,  with  fluke  worms.  Of  these  cases  of  infes- 
tation, 75  per  cent,  are  due  to  D.  hepaticum,  and  25  per  cent,  to 
D.  lanceolatum. 

DIAGNOSIS. — The  presence  even  of  numerous  D.  lanceolatum  may 
not  be  observed  by  the  inspector  for  the  reason  that  the  liver  tissue 
remains  wholly  unchanged  and  the  bile  ducts  are  only  slightly 
affected.  Only  by  the  regular  practice  of  cutting  open  the  larger 
bile  ducts  and  by  producing  lateral  pressure  upon  them  may  these 
fluke  worms  be  brought  to  notice,  for,  in  spite  of  its  small  size, 
D.  lanceolatum  is  quite  conspicuous  on  the  cut  surface  of  the  bile 
duct  on  account  of  its  partial  black  or  brown  coloring  (the  color  of 
the  ripe  eggs  in  the  unusually  well-developed  uterus,  Fig.  106). 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


403 


FIG.  106. 


From  the  important  work  of  Schaper  on  "  The  Fluke  Worm; 
Diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals,"  from  which  citations  have 
iilready  been  made,  the  following  interesting  details  are  drawn  : 

Distomes  are  pure  entozoa.  They  cannot  live  in  the  adult  con- 
dition outside  the  body  of  their  definite  host.  Their  embryonic. 
stages  are  passed,  on  the  other  hand,  partly  in  a  free  condition  and 
partly  in  smaller  host  animals  of  the  group  of  mollusks,  mostly 
water  snails  of  the  genus  Limncea  (Leuckart).  From  these  situation* 
they  make  their  way  into  the  definite  host  and  are  there  developed 
into  sexually  mature  parasites.  D.  hepaticum 
and  D.  lanceolatum  occur  in  rare  instances  even 
in  man.  Man  is  infected,  however,  not  by 
mating  distoinatous  livers,  but,  as  is  apparent 
from  the  biology  of  the  parasites,  in  the  same 
way  as  are  sheep  and  cattle.  In  contrast  with 
D.  hepaticum,  which  regularly  causes  a  glandu- 
lar hyperplasia  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
bile  ducts,  D.  lanceolatum,  even  in  large  num- 
bers, does  not  produce  any  serious  alterations 
in  the  liver.  The  pathological  changes  which 
•are  produced  by  D.  lanceolatum  are  restricted 
almost  entirely  to  catarrh  of  the  bile  ducts. 

Icterus  is  a  rare  occurrence  in  distomatosis, 
for  the  reason  that  the  parasitism  of  distomes 
rarely  leads  to  a  complete  obstruction  of  the 
bile  ducts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  bile  ducts 
become  a  "  cloacal  system,"  in  which  the  waste 
products  of  the  liver,  together  with  the  meta- 
bolic products  of  the  parasites,  are  found.  A 

-diminution  in  the  number  of  blood  corpuscles     Distomum  lanceolatum. 

n    .       .-,  »  T  i    i  •      •  11  a->  X  10  times; 

and  in  the  amount  01  hemoglobin  is  usually  £,  natural  size. 

observed  in  the  blood  (see  p.  368).  The  chief 
cause  of  the  anemic  condition  is  persistent  or  repeated  hemorrhage. 
*'  The  fluke  worm  epizootic  is  to  be  considered  as  an  especially 
malignant  form  of  the  flake  worm  disease,  which,  by  the  accidental 
concurrence  of  several  pathogenic  factors,  may  be  characterized  by 
serious  secondary  phenomena  and  by  a  rapid  course." 

Development  of  Distomes. — For  rendering  a  legal  judgment  con- 
cerning distomes,  the  statement  of  Leuckart  is  of  importance, 
namely,  that  the  development  of  the  young  distomes  to  maturity 
requires  about  three  weeks.  According  to  Lutz,  specimens  of  J?* 


404  INVASION  DISEASES 

Jiepaticum  eight  to  nine  days  of  age  were  1  to  2  mm.  long ;  twenty- 
seven  to  thirty-one  days  of  age,  3  to  8  mm.  long;  thirty-two  clays  of 
age,  10  to  15  mm.  long ;  and  forty-four  days  of  age,  20  mm.  long. 
Lutz  obtained  these  figures  from  distomes  which  he  had  reared  in 
guinea-pigs. 

JUDGMENT  ON  LIVERS  INFESTED  WITH  FLUKES. — It  has  been; 
shown  by  feeding  experiments  that  feeding  distomatous  livers 
to  susceptible  animals  does  not  bring  about  a  development  of  the 
liver  fluke  as  a  result.  These  negative  results  from  feeding  experi- 
ments are  sufficiently  explained  by  the  biology  of  the  parasites. 
The  embryos  (miracidia)  which  hatch  from  the  eggs  must  develop 
in  small  snails  and  in  the  water  into  sporocysts,  rediae  and  cercarise 
before  they  can  develop  further  in  the  body  of  their  definite  host.. 
There  can,  therefore,  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  harmlessness  of  fluke- 
infested  livers.  Therefore,  the  greatest  leniency  may  be  observed 
in  dealing  with  these  livers.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
occurrence  of  liver  flukes  in  the  liver  of  sheep  and  cattle  is  to  be 
considered  an  almost  normal  condition.  The  presence  of  these 
parasites  in  the  liver  of  sheep  and  cattle  cannot  be  characterized  in 
itself  as  an  important  defect,  so  much  the  less  so  since  in  cases  of 
slight  invasion  it  is  possible  to  remove  the  parasitized  portions  by 
careful  dissection  of  the  large,  medium  sized  and  small  bile  ducts. 
Distomatosis  is  to  be  considered  as  an  important  defect,  giving  a 
right  of  partial  or  complete  exclusion  of  the  affected  organ  from  the 
market,  when  all  of  the  bile  ducts,  including  the  small  ones,  are 
filled  with  distomes  so  that  a  separation  of  the  bile  ducts  is  impos- 
sible. The  same  condition  holds  true  in  extensive  cirrhosis — in  a 
partial  cirrhosis  restricted  to  one  portion  of  the  liver,  only  the 
affected  part  of  the  liver  needs  to  be  excluded  from  the  market — and 
finally  in  suppurative  inflammation  of  the  liver  tissue  in  consequence 
of  the  penetration  of  flukes  into  it.  Livers  which  show  hemorrhages 
from  distomes  are  to  be  considered  as  of  inferior  value  in  the  sense 
of  the  food  law,  but  may,  however,  be  admitted  to  the  market  without 
compulsory  declaration,  since  the  abnormal  condition  is  apparent  of 
itself. 

Muscle  Distomes. — In  the  musculature  of  the  hog,  Leuuis  dis- 
covered a  small  undeveloped  Agamodistomum.  This  discovery 
was  later  corroborated  by  other  investigators.  Thus  in  inspection 
for  trichinae  in  Berlin  these  peculiar  parasites  were  found  in  several 
•cases.  They  have  no  importance,  however,  since,  as  a  rule,  theyr 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


405 


FIG.  107. 


occur  only  in  isolated  examples  and  only  in  the  rarest  instances. 
According  to  Duncker,  the  muscle  distome  is  an  extremely  delicate, 
thin  structure  of  gray  color  and  of  about  the  size  and  form  of  a 
trichina  capsule  (Fig.  107).  The  favorite  location  of  this  worm 
appears  to  be  in  the  muscles  of  the  diaphragm  and  larynx.  The 
muscle  distornes  lie  between  the  muscle  fibers.  They  become  active 
when  slightly  warmed.  This  is  important 
in  diagnosis  for  the  reason  that  the  para- 
sites at  rest  show  a  certain  resemblance 
to  Sai  cosporidia.  Moreover,  Duncker  pro- 
poses the  following  method  of  inspection  : 
"In  order  to  inspect  meat  for  distonies, 
the  smallest  possible  transverse  sections 
should  be  taken  from  the  bundles  of 
muscle  fibers,  after  which  they  should  be 
placed  upon  a  slide  with  plenty  of  water 
and  covered  loosely  with  the  cover  glass. 
Then  the  water  is  studied  for  the  purpose 
of  observing  whether  it  contains  any  of 
the  worms.  If  the  worms  are  not  found 
in  ifc,  attention  should  be  directed  to  de- 
termining whether  the  amorphous  gray 
structures  resembling  psorosperms  and 
lying  between  the  muscle  fibers,  exhibit 
worm-like  movements.  If  these  are  ob- 
served the  crescent-shaped  white  shining 
gastric  membranes  will  be  seen  in  their 
interior.  They  appear  more  conspicu- 
ously if  slight  pressure  is  exerted  on  the  cover  glass,  with  move- 
ments back  and  forth. 


Muscle  distome  of  the  hog 
(Leuckart). 
X  80  times. 


Distomes  in  Foreign  Animals — In  Sicily,  Bilharzia  crassa  is  found 
:in  the  abdominal  veins  of  cattle  ;  in  America,  Distomum  magnum  in 
the  liver  of  cattle  ;  in  America  and  Japan,  Mesogonimus  Westermanni 
in  the  lungs  of  hogs  ;  and  in  Japan,  Distomum  pancreaticum  in  tha 
pancreas  of  cattle. 

(d)  Round  Worms  (Nemathelminthes). 

The  round  worms  are  divided  into  two  large  groups,  the  thread 
-worms  or  nematodes,  and  Acanthocephali,  of  which  the  only  repre- 
sentative is  the  giant  Echinorynchus  of  the  hog. 


K.I, 


:  -I 


in 


Jfohinorynchw  </»/»  (mule,  <">:,  i.«. (.u  cm,  in  length  ;  female,  \\\.y. 

l«.    I  I   (',  cm   ,    '  di  .1  in-ill  ,li.-d     by    tin-    f;mt    thai,  it   |i< 

•  nic.1.1    b«  alt    fin  m.. hed    wild    Imi  ny  b. M  b.  d    |IO.,|M  in  ,;ever.d  rows 

upon  MM-  ani.  Mm  end  of  Mm  body,     [t  lives  in  the  small  intestine 

ofllmlio^jind    OatlMS    Men-    a,    (muled    an.inl'   i  nll.i  in  nia.l  ion   wli  K'li^ 
on  account  of  i!  ;   \rllo\v    color,  may   In-  confounded    with  til  bi-rcil  1()U8 

patohe  .    I  'i  exoepl  lonal 

obi.civi  d  ili. i, i    MH-  parasite    bored    throii;di 
Mm    imieoirH    im  inln.inc    of    the     inteslim- 

.ind  .M \.-  rise  i"  p'-i itbnil •  . 

Tin'    nenialode:;,    according    lo    Sclinei 
(1()t'y  fl.rn  to   bn  <li  \  idcd    I  Ii  to   I  Ii  I  en  <>  roll  pS  ! 
(1)     TolviliN  .11  I.i.    I   .  /,<,,, 

I////"'-');    (•'!)      I  b 'lom\  ;i  i  ia,    (  .  I  inf/ii/l  tild,     7V/- 

f^//,s',  Trichoctphalut), 

(  >f   I  Im    lar«'r    nninb.-r  of   li.-nialoil 

§tic  animal  i  I  heir  r^  only  mir.  siib- 
I,  \  r/..,  (hat  of  I  Im  pahsadr  \\ornis 
X  llda-l,  \\  hicli  i|  ,ui\ 

rah.»n     in     llus    e.  -n  nrcl  ion. 
regard  lot  In-  ol  hn   ,,  a      In  >\  \    slalemriit 
I  In  ir  name,  po  ;il  ion  and 
on  account  of  their  slight  sanitary  i 


'I'll.-     A:,.- M  i.i. r    (    /s-.vn'/.s-    >n<'<f<t!oc<'}>/i<tl<f, 
in   Hi'  /.    ///wAy/o'/<A  \    in 

juul  I  n  »;•;>)  li\o  in  I  li«'  i  M  I.  -s  I  im»  ;iinl 
«»?il\     »>\co|>lloli;ill\  .    in     .'.isrs    nf    r\,T 
llilrsi.i|i..n,  ;i    tlisiMlHti    of    I  ho    a  H'crl  ,-t  1   MMI- 

Isolated  s|>.MMiii.M.s  MI. iv  l><>  lu-ra- 
f.Mind  in  Ih.^  <->MiiiMnn  l>il«>  duct 
niul  MI. i\  OaUSQ  lOterUI  I'V  n'trnt'um  of  the 
Inlf.  Siu-h  tvist's  nro  im(  i;ir»'  in  1 
rlnJr-Mii-nl  »»!'  tlio  moat  should  lu>  |lu>  s.-unc 
US  in  irl.'llis.  Alorot,  L:iul)i»>ii,  la»ilh'll«jiM-, 
li.i\.\  m»rco\»M-,  (tliscrxril  that  (lit*  lima!  ol 

\\lurli    ro.ihmi    nuiurrnus  asrai  uls  m  llu>  intrstnms  may  havo 
acul    odor   and    I.MS|»>.      Tlu^    ml*»r   doos    m>t    di^apjHMr  ovi»u  \vluMi 
\uoai  is  proHorvod    t\>r   scxi-ral    d.iy^.      In   surli    rases  tluMUfat   i- 
4o    !>.>    ronsiiloroil    us   ».!'    int\>nor    valu<>  and    is  (o    bo    sold   upon  Mm 
if  Mm  abnormal  odoi  Kvonms  eoiispmiuMis  iu  a  boiling  test 


1'*rliiM.<i  li\  in  Im  .  •  i-  .1     ,..i  I  ho 
: I  mi,-  i  in, 

\.MUI    ,1 


AN1.MAL    I'AKASITKS  1()7 

III  fowls,  diseased     areas  of  considerable  size  are  observed    in 

consequence  of  tb e  presence  of  an  abundance  of  ascarids  (Heterakia 

i,  II.  nnt<  iiln^t).  In  tin-  milieu  la  1 11  re  of  eodlish, 
is  found  as  an  encapsuled  j.aiasilc,  varying  in 
lengl  li  fr«m  kJ  I..  f>  cm.  In  ill--  stomach  of  I  lungai  ian  and  Russian 
ho;_;s  a  iiematode  OCCUl'B  which  J'Vdtseheiiko  named  (!init/in*(tnmuit 
/ti^/iidnin.  This  author  found  Hie  parasites  in  tho  sloniach  of  a 
Turkestan  wild  hog  and  a,  Hungarian  domestic  h«ig,  while  Csokor 
found  il  in  hogs  slaughtered  in  Vienna  ;  Stmso  in  liakonvi  hogs  and 
( 'oil  i  it  in  t  lie  I'; at.  tissue  of  cat  I  le.  According  to  ( 1sokor,  the  parasite 
may  can  sir  a,  stomarh  worm  disease  of  ho^s.  ]>y  means  of  its  bristle- 
bca'i-in^;  heatl  it  niay  bore  into  the  SITOUS  coat,  of  tlm  stomach  wall 
and  cause  a,  considerable  swelling  of  the  IUIKMHIS  membi'aiie  of  <  he 
.stomach.  The  Vienna  butchers  have  lon-j  known  the  jtarasite  under 
the  name  "  tJiree-c.olored  worm."  According  to  Stutse,  the  mule  is  15 
mm.  and  the  female  lili  to  _">  mm.  lon«j.  Tlio  j»arasito  is  from  1.18  to 
I.MS  mm.  thick  in  the  male  and  1.7S  to  l.Sf>  mm.  in  the  female. 

Moreover,  attention  should  be.  called  to  the  giant  palisade 
worm  (HtistroiKj/ifns  '//</"*)  in  the  renal  pelvis  of  the  dog,  horso  and 
doim-stic  o\. 

Of  the  tilariie  (ihroad  worms  in  the  narrower  sense),  the  follow- 
ing am  worthy  of  mention:  /''.  nu'rruxtuimi  and  l\  in,  <jnnloma  ill  tho 
stomach  of  tln^  horse;  /*'.  In  iit<>rr/«t</ic<t  in  the  snbcutis  and  in  the 
intermnscnlar  tissue  of  the  horse  ;  /<\  *l rnmjijliim  in  the  stomach  of 
the.  hojr ;  //T.  ticufttfii.  in  tho,  esophagus  of  cuttle  and  sheep, 
and  perhaps  also  under  the  epithelium  of  the  tongue  and  in  the 
mucous  membrane  and  esoph:i^US  of  hogs  (lvoiv.il)  ;  and  F.  uiniiid'x 
in  the  venous  system  of  the  dog. 

In  geese  and  ducks,  Dis^htn'tnjnn  •mirimifus  may  be  parasitic  in 
tubercles  in  the.  esophagus  and  may  cause  a,  so-called  ti la ria  disease 
of  fowls.  In  tin*  tubercles,  we  find  younger  and  older  parasites  from 
;{  to  is  mm.  in  length.  Hubieaux  observed  an  epidemic  among 
fouls  \\  hich  was  caused  by  Fihtr'ni  ji«-tini/<-ni  (male,  5  to  0  mm.; 
female,  '.)  to  10  mm.  in  length).  This  parasite  wus  located  in  the 
gi//ard  of  fowls.  Moreover,  tfi/n</<itirutt  /mr//m//.s'  may  produce 
epi/ootic  losses  among  fowls.  The  parasites  are  loca.t«'d.  the  male 
and  female  united,  in  the  t  rachea,  and  in  tho  esophagus.  The  males 
are  ti  to  (')  mm.  in  length  and  the  females  5  to  22  mm.  and  from  .'J 
t<>  1.1  wide.  Tho  undeveloped  worms  which  havo  not  yet  been 
differentiated  into  sexes  may  be  found  in  the  air  sacs  and  the 

bronchi. 


408  INVASION   DISEASES 

Strongylidae. 

The  StrongylidsB  or  palisade  worms  are  round,  rarely  thread- 
like or  hair-like  worms  of  varying  size.  Their  course  of  develop- 
ment, which,  aside  from  the  fact  that  the  Strongylidse  of  domesti- 
cated animals  have  not  been  found  in  man,  with  one  exception, 
presents  considerable  of  interest,  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
possibility  of  transmission  of  the  worms,  by  eating  organs  which  are 
infested  with  them,  is  absolutely  excluded.  The  embryos  pass  a 
free  worm  stage  (rhabditis  form)  outside  of  the  animal  body,  and 
are  taken  up  by  susceptible  animals  with  water  or  moist  plants. 

Among  the  palisade  worms  of  less  sanitary  importance,  mention 
may  be  made  of  S.  armatus  in  the  large  intestine  and  cecum  and  in 
aneurisms  of  the  abdominal  blood  vessels,  especially  of  the  anterior 


wm, 

Fourth  stomach  of  beef  infested  with  Strongylus  convolutus. 

mesenteric  artery  of  the  horse  ;  S.  hypostomus,  in  the  intestine  of 
sheep  and  goats  ;  S.  cernuus,  in  the  alimentary  tract  of  sheep ;  S. 
radiatus  and  ventricosus,  in  the  small  intestines  of  cattle  ;  S.  dentatus, 
in  the  large  intestine  of  hogs  ;  S.  inflatus,  in  the  large  intestine  of 
cattle ;  S.  venulosus,  in  the  intestines  of  goats ;  and,  finally,  S.  fili- 
collis,  in  the  duodenum  of  sheep  and  goats. 

Greater  importance  attaches  to  those  Strongylidse  which  may 
disturb  the  general  condition  and  the  nutrition  of  food  animals  or 
may  produce  serious  alterations  in  the  organs  which  are  utilized  as 
human  food.  To  this  group  belong  the  palisade  worms  of  the 
stomach  and  lungs. 

Palisade  Worms  of  the  Stomach. 

In  the  fourth  stomach  of  sheep  and  goats,  Strongylus  contortw 
lives  parasitically  (male,  13  to  15  mm.;  female,  20  to  25  mm. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  409 

long).  The  parasite  obtains  its  nourishment  from  the  blood  of  the 
liost,  and  in  young  animals  may  produce  emaciation  and  hydremic 
cachexia  (stomach  worm  disease)  in  cases  of  excessive  invasion. 

In  the  fourth  stomach  of  cattle,  the  author  found  S.  convolulus 
(male,  3  to  9  mm.;  female,  4  to  12  mm.  long)  (Fig.  110).  The  female 
is  characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  bell-shaped  duplicature  of 
the  skin  over  the  vulva  and  may  thus  be  distinguished  from  similar 
Strougylidre.  S.  convolutus  is  a  very  frequent  parasite  in  cattle.  In 
the  abattoir  at  Berlin,  it  was  found  in  90  per  cent,  of  all  cattle  which 
were  slaughtered,  including  all  cases  in  which  isolated  examples 
occurred.  The  coiled  worm  lies  under  the  epithelium  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  stomach  and  produces  in  that  location  small  pro- 
jections about  the  size  of  lentils  provided  with  a  central  opening 
(Fig.  109).  According  to  the  observations  of  the  author,  S.  convolutus, 
in  cases  of  excessive  invasion  of  young  cattle,  may  produce  a  con- 
siderable diminution  of  the  digestive  surface  of  the  stomach  and 

FIG.  110. 


Strongylus  convolutus,  female  on  the  left,  male  on  the  right,  X  10  times. 


thereby  cause  emaciation  or  dropsical  symptoms  in  unfavorable 
cases.  According  to  the  accounts  of  Smith  and  Stiles,  the  latter  of 
whom  proposes  the  name  S.  ostertagi  for  the  parasite,  since  S. 
convolutus  was  already  preoccupied  for  another  parasite,  the  nema- 
tode  in  question  is  very  common  in  North  America.  Furthermore, 
McFadyean  found  S.  convolutus  in  young  cattle  which  had  become 
emaciated  and  anemic  with  symptoms  of  diarrhea.  After  death,  or 
after  the  slaughter  of  the  animals,  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach  was  found,  and  in  such  locations 
S.  convolutus  was  found  not  infrequently  associated  with  S. 
retortceformis. 

According  to  Stodter,  in  addition  to  S.  contortus  and  S.  convolutus 
five  other  species  of  Strongylidae  which  have  the  power  of  producing 
serious  disease,  are  found  in  the  fourth  stomach  of  domesticated 
ruminants.  These  species  are  S.  curticei  (male,  6  to  8  mm.;  female, 
10  to  13  mm.  long),  in  cattle  and  sheep ;  S.  oncophorus  (male,  7  to  9 


410  INVASION   DISEASES 

mm.;  female,  9  to  12  mm.  long),  in  cattle  ;  S.  harJceri  (male,  8  to  9 
mm.;  female,  15  to  16  mm.  long),  in  cattle;  S.  retort cefurmis  (male, 
3  to  7  mm.;  female,  3  to  9  mm.  long),  in  cattle,  sheep,  goats  and  also 
in  the  fallow  deer,  hare  and  rabbits  ;  and  S.filicolds  (male,  8  to  15 
mm.;  female,  16  to  24  mm.  long),  in  sheep. 

Strose  found  Anchylostomum  longemucronafum  in  the  small 
intestine  of  a  hog  which  was  slaughtered  on  account  of  disturbances 
in  nutrition,  and  on  account  of  the  protuberance  (thickening)  which 
he  found  in  the  wall  of  the  intestine  was  inclined  to  consider  the 
parasite  as  responsible  for  the  nutritive  disturbances  in  the  host. 

In  hare  and  wild  rabbits,  S.  strigosus  and  S.  retor/ceformis 
may,  according  to  Eailliet,  occur  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  and 
may  produce  serious  symptoms  of  disease. 

The  Palisade  Worms  of  the  Lungs. 

To  the  palisade  worms  of  the  lungs  belong  8.  micrurus  in  cattle, 
roebuck  and  fallow  deer*  ;  ff.filaria,  S.  cnpittaris  and  8.  commutatus 
in  sheep  and  goats,  as  well  as  S.  paradoxus  in  hogs.  These  palisade 
worms,  after  being  introduced  into  the  host,  become  located  in  the 
smaller  and  minute  bronchi  and  alveoli,  and  by  means  of  the  irrita- 
tion which  is  exercised  by  them,  they  may  cause  a  bronchitis  or 
bronchiolitis.  The  embryos  of  the  palisade  worms,  which  become 
mature  in  the  bronchi  and  reproduce  oviparously  or  viviparously, 
penetrate  into  the  lung  tissue  and  thus  cause  a  lobular  or  even  a 
diffuse  broncho-pneumonia  (compare  p.  325).  Broncho-pneumonia 
may  lead  to  the  death  of  the  infected  animals.  When  recovery 
begins,  the  embryos  wander  back  into  the  bronchi  and  from  here 
pass  either  directly  or  by  way  of  the  alimentary  canal,  to  the  outside 
world.  According  to  Miiller,  the  embryos  of  the  palisade  worms 
usually  lie  nearer  the  trachea  and  larynx  as  they  become  larger  in 
size.  The  parent  animals  are  disintegrated  in  the  lungs.  They  may 
become  encysted  and  casefied  or  calcified  inside  of  the  connective 
tissue  capsule. 

STKONGYLUS  MICRURUS  is  viviparous.  The  male  is  about  30  to 
40  mm.,  the  female,  40  to  80  mrn.  long.  The  females  are  especially 
conspicuous  on  account  of  their  milk-white,  oily  appearance.  Their 
location  is  in  the  bronchi,  preferably  those  at  the  base  of  the  lungs. 
£>.  micrurus  is  in  general  a  rare  parasite  in  cattle.  Only  in  certain 


*  Miiller  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  fallow  deer  is  the  common  host  of  S.  micrurus, 
rhile  cattle  are  only  exceptionally  infested. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  4:11 

regions — for  example,  in  the  marshy  districts  of  Oldenburg  and  in  the 
lowlands  of  the  Khine — does  it  occur  abundantly  in  wet  seasons. 

In  the  case  of  slight  invasion  we  observe  in  the  superficial 
parts  of  the  lungs  which  are  infested  with  these  parasites,  white 
lobuli  with  a  sheen  like  that  of  mother-of-pearl,  which  do  not 
collapse  and  which  feel  firmer  than  the  normal  tissue  (Fig.  113). 
In  making  a  section  into  these  places,  the  parasites  are  found  in  the 
smaller  bronchi,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  pathologically  enlarged.  The 
parasites  are  surrounded  by  a  catarrhal  secretion.  The  author  haa 
frequently  observed,  in  the  lungs  of  cattle,  dead  Strongylidse  which, 
which  were  enclosed  in  greenish-colored  tubercles. 

In  cases  of  excessive  invasion  in  cattle,  roebuck  and  fallow 
deer,  acute  broncho-pneumonia  may  develop  with  fatal  results.  la 
animals  \\hich  die  in  consequence  of  acute  pneumonia  we  frequently 
find,  as  was  stated  by  Kitt,  only  a  few  developed  parasites  in  the 
trachea,  while  large  numbers  of  them  are  to  be  demonstrated  in 
microscopical  preparations  from  the  inflamed  lung  tissue. 

According  to  Tapken,  the  migration  of  the  larval  worms  into- 
young  cattle  takes  place  in  July  and  August.  The  development  of 
the  worm  is  completed  within  six  to  seven  weeks.  During  this  time 
the  invasion  of  the  worms  in  acute  cases  of  lung  worm  disease  may 
cause  the  death  of  the  affected  animals.  Winter  observed  the 
appearance  of  the  lung  worm  disease  in  the  meadows  of  the  low- 
lands along  the  Rhine.  Healthy  calves  became  seriously  affected 
within  two  weeks.  In  animals  which  died  within  a  short  time  of 
broncho-pneumonia,  no  fully  developed  worms  were  found.  They 
were  observed,  however,  in  animals  which  were  slaughtered  after 
"being  sick  for  one  to  one  and  one-half  months. 

STRONGYLUS  FILARIA,  the  lung  thread  worm  (male,  25  mm.  long, 
the  female  as  long  as  84  mm.).  With  regard  to  the  pathological 
anatomical  relations  of  this  worm,  the  same  statements  may  be 
made  as  for  S.  micrurus.  It  is  also  apparent  in  verminous  pneu- 
monia of  sheep  and  goats  caused  by  S.filaria,  that  only  a  few  mature 
specimens  of  the  worm  are  found  in  the  bronchi  and  lung  tissue  of 
the  diseased  animals,  while  immense  numbers  of  embryos  and  egg* 
are  found.  Moreover,  S.  filaria  is  a  comparatively  rare  parasite  in 
sheep  and  goats. 

STRONGYLUS  CAPILLARIS,  the  lung  hair  worm  (male,  12  mm.; 
female,  20  mm.  long  ;  very  slender,  almost  like  a  cobweb,  .04  to  .Oft 
mm.  thick).  By  microscopical  examination  the  male  is  recognized 


412  INVASION   DISEASES 

by  the  corkscrew-like  posterior  end  of  the  body  and  the  yellowish- 
brown  spicules,  while  the  female  is  distinguished  by  the  two  uteri 
filled  with  brownish  eggs  covered  with  shells.  The  mature  animals 
live  at  first  in  the  smaller  bronchi  of  the  alveoli  and  produce  an 
acute  catarrhal  or  hemorrhagic  bronchitis.  The  embryos,  after 
hatching  from  the  eggs,  migrate  in  large  numbers  into  the  lung 
tissue  and  cause  either  a  limited  lobular  or  more  extended  broncho- 
pneumonia  which  may  cause  death  within  a  short  time.  Commonly, 
however,  the  inflammatory  alterations  in  the  lungs  gradually  recover 
as  the  larvae  are  expelled  by  coughing,  and  the  parent  worms  migrate 
into  the  lung  tissue,  so  that  only  a  partial  capillary  bronchitis 
remains,  which  may  heal  by  caseation  and  calcification  of  the  worms. 

FIG.  111. 


Sheep  lung  with  lobular  infiltrations  and  residual  tubercles  as  a  result  of  invasion  toy 

Strongylus  capillaris. 

The  tubercles  enclosing  S.  capillaris  are  to  be  recognized  by  their 
yellow,  grayish-red  or  grayish-yellow  color.  The  worms  which  are 
expelled  by  coughing  are  swallowed  again  and  may  produce  in  their 
passage  through  the  alimentary  tract  an  acute  catarrh  of  the  fourth 
stomach  by  mechanical  irritation  (Schlegel). 

S.  capillaris,  according  to  Schlegel,  is  most  abundant  in  goats 
and  is  rare  in  sheep,  in  the  latter  of  which  it  is  often  associated 
with  S.  commutatus.  Schlegel  has  also  found  S.  capillaris,  S.  com- 
mutatus  and  S.  filaria  in  one  and  the  same  animal.  The  goat, 
however,  is  the  true  host  of  S.  capillaris.  Among  200  goats 
slaughtered  at  the  abattoir  in  Freiburg,  Schlegel  found  about  30 
per  cent,  to  be  infested  with  S.  capillaris.  Ruser,  in  1891,  found 
the  parasite  in  19.5  per  cent,  of  the  sheep  which  were  slaughtered, 
at  the  abattoir  at  Kiel.  In  the  course  of  the  invasion  of  S.  capillaris^ 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 

•we  find  in  the  lungs,  as  already  stated,  a  tubercular,  lobular  infil- 
tration of  a  gray  or  grayish-yellow  color.  Later,  however,  there  are 
more  or  less  numerous  tubercles,  in  size  varying  from  a  millet  seed 
to  that  of  a  lentil  or  pea,  and  of  a  yellow,  grayish-red,  or  grayish- 
yellow  color  (Fig.  111).  The  larger  of  these  tubercles  show  a 
certain  resemblance  to  the  tubercles  of  tuberculosis,  since  they 
ordinarily  possess  a  cloudy-white  or  yellow  center.  In  the  tubercles 
the  extremely  friable,  dead,  old  worms,  or  aspirated  eggs  and 
embryos,  are  found  (Schlegel),  while  the  wedge-shaped,  pneumonic 
infiltrations,  corresponding  to  the  bronchial  branches,  contain 
numerous  coiled  bodies  of  worms,  as  well  as  eggs  and  embryos,  the 
latter  frequently  lying  close  together  as  if  in  a  nest  (Fig.  78).  Koch 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  November  he  frequently  found 
eggs  and  embryos  in  the  lung  tissue  and  in  later  months  only  the 
encapsuled  parent  animals.  In  this  fact  we  have  a  characteristic 
difference  between  the  lung  hair-worm  disease  and  the  lung  thread- 

FIG.  112. 


Strongylus  capillaris  from  the  sheep  lung ;  fully  developed  specimen. 
Natural  size  at  the  right. 

worm  disease  (A.  Miiller).  S.  capillaris  always  penetrates  in  large 
numbers  into  the  lung  tissue  and  remains  there,  finally  becoming 
encapsuled  and  dying  in  the  capsules.  S.  filaria,  on  the  other 
hand,  turns  back,  in  case  it  ever  leaves  the  bronchi,  and  migrates  to 
the  outside  world  through  the  trachea. 

In  the  lungs  of  hare  and  rabbits,  S.  commutatus  is  found  as  a 
parasite.  This  thread  worm,  which  possesses  a  length  of  from  30 
to  70  mm.  and  is  distinguished  by  its  brown  color  (due  to  the  dark 
pigmented  intestine),  is  always  found  in  greater  or  less  numbers  in 
the  lung  tissue  and  causes  a  limited  area  of  inflammation.  The 
inflammatory  patches  are  of  the  size  of  a  hemp  seed  or  hazel  nut 
and  contain  yellow,  caseous  material  in  addition  to  the  parasites. 
S.  commutatus  may  cause  an  epizootic  among  hare.  As  Schlegel 
demonstrated,  S.  commutatus  is  comparatively  frequent  also  in  sheep. 
Indeed,  Schlegel  characterizes  S.  commutatus  as  the  most  frequent 
and  most  injurious  lung  worm  of  sheep.  According  to  Schlegel,  the 


414: 


INVASION  DISEASES 


^dark-brown,  black,  reddish-violet  or  reddish-brown  tubercles  in  the 
\ungs  of  sheep  always  contain  S.  commutatus  in  an  encysted 
condition. 

STKONGYLUS  PARADOXUS,  16  to  20  ram.  long  in  the  male  and  30  to 
40  min.  long  in  the  female,  is  a  very  common  parasite,  but  in  spite 
of  its  large  numbers,  causes  only  slight  disturbances  in  its  host. 

FIG.  113. 


PIG.  114. 


Hog  lungs  with  Strongylus  paradoxus. 
it,  pearly  parasitic  foci;    6,  parasites  in  a 
section  of  a  bronchus. 


Strongylus  paradoxus  in  an  opened 
bronchial  branch. 


According  to  my  investigations,  S.  paradoxus  was  present  in  about 
60  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  which  I  inspected  at  the  Berlin  abattoir. 
According  to  investigations  in  Leipsic,  Mejer  estimates  its  occur- 
rence in  native  hogs  at  19  per  cent,  and  in  Hungarian  hogs  at  52 
per  cent.  The  invasions  are  rendered  conspicuous  from  a  distance 
by  the  spots,  resembling  mother  of  pearl,  at  the  base  of  the  lungs 
(Fig.  113).  The  bronchi  which  lead  to  these  spots  are  enlarged  and 
as  a  rule  filled  with  knotted  worms  (Fig.  114).  In  about  90  per 
cent,  of  the  cases,  according  to  the  author's  observations,  the* 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  415 

invasion  is  restricted  to  tlie  base  of  the  lumgs  ;  in  the  remaining  10 
per  cent.,  larger  portions,  sometimes  even  the  greater  part  of  tho 
lung  up  to  the  apex,  are  infested  with  the  parasites.  S.  paradoxus, 
as  a  rule,  causes  only  a  catarrhal  bronchitis  and  bronchiectasis,  but 
no  pneumonia. 

Olt  described  the  finer  anatomical  changes  which  S.  paradoxus 
produces  in  the  lungs  of  hogs.  According  to  this  author,  the 
parasite  causes  a  desquamative  bronchitis  with  hyperplasia  and 
-ectasis  of  the  tubular  glands  in  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bronchi 
and  hypertrophy  of  the  bronchial  mucous  membrane.  Moreover, 
bronchiectasis  and  parasitic  tubercle  formation  occur  in  the  bronchi 
(bronchitis  and  nodular  chronic  peri-bronchitis),  as  well  as  in  the 
lung  tissues,  and  these  tubercles  resemble  in  every  particular  the 
entozoic  tubercles  in  horses'  lungs  (p.  328).  Finally,  according  to 
Olt,  in  consequence  of  the  parasitism  of  8.  paradoxus,  lobular 
desquamative  pneumonia  may  arise  with  ultimate  recovery  or  a  , 
connective  tissue  induration,  as  well  as  small  pneumonic  areas 
which  become  casefied  with  a  secondary  localization  of  vegetable 
organisms. 

Little-Known  Round  Worms  of  Food  Animals. 

Leuckart  described   a  small  encapsuled   round  worm  resem- 
bling trichina,  which  was  found  in  melanotic  lymph  glands  in  a  beef , 
animal.     The  worm  was  asexual  and  0.14  mm.  long. 

The  nematodes  which  were  discovered  by  Drechsler  in  the' 
small  intestine  of  cattle  have  already  been  described  in  connection 
with  the  parasitic    (Esophagostomum  on  page  283  ;  similarly  the ' 
round  worm  discovered  by  Natterer  in  the  kidney  fat  capsule  of  a 
hog  (Sderoslomumpinguicola),  and  the  non-glanderous  lung  tubercles 
of  the  horse,    which    were    shown    by    Olt    and  Grips  to  contain 
nematodes  (pp.  309  and  328). 

In  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines  of  hogs  there  are, 
according  to  Johue,  small  encapsuled  larval  worms  resembling 
trichina.  Johne  considered  them  as  belonging  to  the  palisade 
worms.  With  reference  to  the  Strongylidae  discovered  by  Olt  in  the 
follicles  of  the  large  intestines  in  hogs,  compare  p.  283. 

In  one  instance,  Kitt  found  a  nematode  under  the  epithelium 
and  between  the  papillae  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue  in 
a  hog.  Leuckart  considered  that  this  was  probably  a  true  filaria 
(compare  also  the  observation  of  Korzil,  p.  407). 

Finally,  Ebertz  reported  concerning  the  finding  of  a  parasite  in 
the  musculatuie  and  lungs  of  a  sheep.  This  find  requires  further. 


416 


INVASION   DISEASES 


explanation.  A  butcher  had  jokingly  requested  a  trichina  inspector, 
recently  appointed  to  office,  to  inspect  the  meat  of  a  young  sheep 
which  during  life  had  exhibited  a  poor  nutritive  condition,  muscular 
trembling  and  coughing.  The  trichina  inspector  removed  the 
diaphragm,  loin  muscles  and  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  as  well  as  the 
diseased  portions  of  the  lungs,  and  by  an  investigation  demonstrated 
the  presence  of  numerous  parasites  which  closely  resembled 
migrating  muscle  trichinae,  but  were  distinguished  from  them  by 
their  smaller  size  and  greater  transparency.  Leuckart  declared 

FIG.  116. 


FIG.  1«- 


Small  intestine  of  beef  with  subnmcous 
nematode  tubercles. 


Larva  of  Anchylostomum  DOVIS  from 
subnmcous  tubercles  of  bovine  in- 
testine (after  Strose),  X  25  times. 


that  these  parasites  were  the  larval  form  of  a  filaria  or  of  some 
strongylid,  a  nematode  which  probably  was  viviparous  when 
parasitic  in  sheep.  Concerning  the  significance  of  the  find,  Leuckart 
stated  :  "  I  do  not  believe  that  the  worm  can  be  transmitted  to  man, 
although,  on  the  other  hand,  I  would  not  desire  to  assert  the 
impossibility  of  such  transmission."  According  to  the  view  of  the 
author,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  suspecting  that  the  parasites  which 
were  alleged  to  have  been  found  in  the  musculature  of  the  sheep 


I 

ANIMAL   PARASITES  417 

came  from  the  lungs  and  were  allowed  to  get  into  the  muscles  by 
improper  preparation  of  the  material  for  inspection. 

SANITARY  SIGNIFICANCE  OF  ORGANS  INFESTED  WITH  PARASITES 
WHICH  ARE  NON-TRANSMISSIBLE  TO  MAN. — In  the  unusually  frequent 
occurrence  of  such  parasites  in  the  internal  organs  of  food  animals, 
it  is  required,  from  the  standpoint  of  national  economy — and  this  is 
never  opposed  to  hygienic  interests — that  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
parasitized  organs  should  be  put  in  a  condition  fit  for  consumption 
by  the  careful  removal  of  the  parasites.  In  cases  of  slight  invasion, 
when  the  integrity  of  the  parenchyma  of  the  organ  is  still  preserved, 
there  is  no  reason  for  restricting  free  traffic  in  the  organ.  Ouly  in 
case  of  excessive  invasion  are  the  remains  of  the  organ  to  be  con- 
sidered as  inferior  food  material,  after  the  removal  of  the  parasite. 
On  the  other  hand,  all  internal  organs  which  show  extensive  inflam- 
matory changes  in  consequence  of  invasion  by  worms,  or  which 
»show  these  changes  in  a  degree  which  render  removal  of  the  worms 
impossible,  are  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market  as  unfit 
for  food. 


2.— Parasites  Which  May  Be  Transmitted  to  Man  by  Eating 

Meat. 

There  are  three  parasites  of  ordinary  food  animals  which  may 
be  transmitted  to  man  by  eating  meat : 

(1)  Beef  bladder  worm  (Cysticercus  bovis)  ;  (2)  pork  bladder 
worm  (C.  celluloses)  ;  (3)  trichina  (Trichina  spiralis). 

The  new  measle  worm  of  the  sheep  (C.  ovis),  which  is  supposed 
to  be  dangerous  to  health  and  concerning  which  Cobbold  has 
assumed  that  it  develops  into  a  new  tapeworm  (Tcenia  tenella)  in 
man,  has  been  declared  by  the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  to  be  <?. 
ienuicollis.  The  frequent  occurrence  of  tapeworm  among  the 
Arabians,  who  use  mutton  as  their  chief  meat  food,  has  no  connection 
with  this  food.  The  Algerian  tapeworm  is,  in  fact,  T.  saginata,  and 
comes  from  cattle.  Leuckart  considers  the  bladder  worm  found  by 
Cobbold  in  mutton  as  C.  cellulosce  (with  twenty-six  hooks).  This 
assumption  is,  according  to  the  newer  discoveries  concerning  C. 
cellulosce  in  sheep,  to  be  considered  as  well  founded  (Olt,  Bongert), 
despite  the  fact  that  Leuckart  did  not  succeed  in  artificially  rearing 
G.  cellulosce  in  sheep. 


£18  INVASION   DISEASES 

DANGEROUS  FISH  PARA.SITES. — In  addition  to  cattle  and  hogs, 
fish  also  contain  dangerous  bladder  worms,  the  larval  stages 
(plerocerci)  of  Bothriocephalus  latus. 

Occurrence. — Braun  discovered  the  larval  stages  of  B.  latus  in 
the  musculature  and  in  various  internal  organs  of  the  pike  (Exox 
lucius)  and  the  eel  pout  (Lota  vulgaris).  These  fish  are  often  eaten 
incompletely  roasted  or  only  slightly  smoked.  According  to  Braun, 
the  larval  stage  of  B.  latus  may  also  be  transmitted  to  man  by  eating 
caviar  from  pike.  The  larval  stages  of  B.  latus  are  in  some  regions 
remarkably  abundant.  Thus  in  Dorpat  Braun  found  all  pike  infested. 
The  same  was  true  for  the  pike  brought  to  the  St.  Petersburg  market 
from  the  Finnish  Meerbusen  and  Ladoga  Lake.  Recently  Braun 
has  demonstrated  that  the  pike  and  eel  pout  of  Konigsberg,  which 
come  from  Frisches  Haff  and  Kurisches  Haff,  frequently  contain 
the  larval  stages  of  B.  latus.  Zschokke,  in  Geneva,  found  a  larva  of 
this  worm  in  perch  (Percajluviatilis),  in  a  trout  ( Trutta  vulgaris),  in 
various  species  of  salmon,  and  in  the  grayling  (Thymallus  vulgaris 
and  T.  lacustris).  Schroder  in  Dorpat  also  found  the  larvae  of  B* 
latus  in  perch  in  twenty-eight  out  of  eighty  specimens  which  he 
examined  (35  per  cent.). 

Concerning  the  geographical  distribution  of  B.  latus,  Braun 
states  that  in  Europe  there  are  two  centers  of  distribution  :  French 
Switzerland  and  German  Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia.  From  French 
Switzerland  the  species  spread  into  the  neighboring  districts  of 
France  and  Italy  (Lombardy  and  Piedmont),  while  from  the  Baltic 
provinces  the  distribution  extended  eastward  over  Ingermannland 
towards  St.  Petersburg,  and  northerly  over  Finland  towards  Sweden, 
and  also  southerly  toward  Moscow  and  Poland,  while  another  race 
of  the  worm  extended  westerly  to  the  Prussian  coasts  and  passed 
from  here  to  Denmark  and  the  coast  of  the  North  Sea.  In  the  last 
named  region  B.  latus  is  very  rare,  but  is  occasionally  met  with 
(Holland,  Belgium,  North  of  France,  Ireland).  In  Japan,  B.  latus  is 
the  most  frequent  parasite  of  man. 

In  Germany,  B.  latus  is  found  most  abundantly,  according  to 
33raun,  close  to  the  Baltic  Sea,  especially  among  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Kurisches  Nehrung.  It  is  not  rare,  however,  in  Konigsberg  and 
East  Prussia.  A  special  colony  of  them,  according  to  Bellinger, 
,has  existed  for  fifteen  years  on  Lake  Starnberg,  where  the  larvae  of 
/?.  latus  was  undoubtedly  carried  by  travellers. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Bienne,  Neufchatel,Murten  and  Geneva 
Lakes,  the  inhabitants  were  infested  with  B.  latus  to  the  extent  of 
10  to  20  per  cent.,  according  to  Zaeslin.  According  to  Odier,  one- 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  419 

fourth  of  all  the  inhabitants  in  Geneva  were  formerly  infested 
with  this  tapeworm.  According  to  Zschokke,  the  species  is  at 
present  becoming  much  rarer  in  Geneva  (1  per  cent.). 

Demonstration  of  the  Larvce  of  Bothrioce phalL — The  larvae  may  be 
most  easily  demonstrated  in  the  intestines  of  the  eel  pout,  especially 
in  the  pyloric  appendages.  They  are,  however,  to  be  recognized  in 
the  musculature  by  their  white  color  and  transparent  surrounding 
tissue.  The  larvae  are  .25  to  .30  mm.  long.  The  larger  ones  lie 
curved  or  rolled  up  in  small  cavities  of  the  muscles  and  internal 
organs  and  are  not  surrounded  by  a  capsule.  As  a  rule,  the  larvae 
carry  the  head  drawn  in  while  at  rest,  but  protrude  it  when  warmed 
up  (Fig.  117). 

Prevention. — Fish  infested  with  the  larvae  of  B.  latus  are  to  be 
considered  as  dangerous  food  material.  The  tapeworms  which 
develop  in  men  from  the  larval  forms  found  in  fish  may  cause  gastric 
disturbances  or  nervous  troubles  as  the  result  of  reflex  influences 
(especially  disturbances  of  sight).  Finally,  the  species,  on  account 
of  its  hemoly  tic  action,  may  cause  acute  anemia,  which  disappears  as 
soon  as  the  worm  is  expelled.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  exclude 
all  these  fish  from  sale,  since  their  inspection  for  the  presence  of  larval 
tapeworm  is  impracticable.  The  sanitary  police  must  therefore 
restrict  its  activity  to  warning  by  means  of  public  announcements 
against  the  consumption  of  raw  pike,  eel  pout  and  pike  caviar  in 
infected  districts. 

With  reference  to  the  transmission  of  B.  latus  to  man,  the 
observation  of  Schauinsland  is  of  interest,  to  the  effect  that  in  the 
Kurisches  Nehrung  the  internal  organs  of  the  eel  pout,  preferably 
the  pyloric  appendages,  are  used  in  a  slightly  dried  condition  as  a 
proprietary  remedy  against  stomach  troubles. 

(a)  Beef  Bladder  Worm  (Cysticercus  bovis). 

NATURE. — The  beef  measle  worm  is  the  larva  of  Tcenia  saginata 
of  man.  This  tapeworm  is  7  to  8  m.  long  and  possesses  mature 
proglottides  which  resemble  pumpkin  seeds  and  of  which  the  uterus 
shows  twenty  to  thirty-five  lateral  branches  on  each  side.  The  beef 
measle  worm,  like  the  tapeworm  which  develops  from  it,  is  unarmed 
and  has  therefore  also  been  called  C.  inermis  to  distinguish  it  from, 
the  armed  pork  measle  worm. 

HISTORICAL.— After  Linnaeus,  in  1767,  and  Pallas,  in  1781,  had 
seen  parts  of  T.  saginata,  Goze  described  the  parasite  in  1782.  la 


420 


INVASION   DISEASES 


1802  Brera  described  it  under  the  name  T.  inermis,  and  Kiichen- 
meister,  in  1855,  called  it  T.  mediocanellata. 

The  tapeworms  in  man  have  been  known  for  a  long  time.  The 
larval  forms  were  also  known,  but  were  considered  to  be  tumors  or- 
hydatids  until  comparatively  recently,  when,  in  1684,  Kedi  in  Italy, 
Hartmann  and  Wepfer  in  Germany,  demonstrated  the  animal  nature 
of  the  larval  stages  from  their  movements  and  organization. 
Kuchenraeister,  however,  was  the  first  person  who,  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  determined  by  successful  experiments 
that  the  bladder  worms  always  represented  the  developmental 
stages  of  tapeworms. 

FIG.  118. 


FIG.  117. 


Larvae  of 
Bothriocephalus  latus 

from  the 

musculature  of  the 
burbot. 


FIG.  119. 
I 


a 


Isolated  beef  bladder 

worms. 

a,  with  scolex  in  natural 
position;  b,  with  scolex 
artificially  protruded. 


Beef  bladder  worm  in  natural  position  and  size. 


The  connection  between  the  beef  measle  worm  and  T.  saginata 
was  demonstrated  by  Leuckart ;  in  1861  Leuckart  fed  calves  with 
proglottides  of  T.  saginata  and  thereby  rendered  the  experimental 
animals  measly.  This  experiment  was  made  with  the  same  result 
by  Hosier,  Cobbold,  Simmonds,  E611,  Gerlach,  Ziirn,  Piitz, 
Perroncito,  Hertwig  and  others.  The  attempt  to  infest  other 
animals  than  cattle  was  unsuccessful.  Only  Zenker  and  Heller 
were  able  in  exceptional  cases  to  cultivate  the  worms  in  young  goats  . 
and  sheep. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  421 

On  the  other  hand,  Oliver  (1869),  and  Perroncito,  with  hi* 
students,  brought  T.  saginata  to  maturity  by  eating  the  meat  of 
measly  cattle. 

Before  these  decisive  experiments,  physicians  had  observed  that 
patients,  especially  children  who  were  given  sliced  beef  in  a  raw 
condition  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  more  nutriment,  became 
infested  with  T.  saginata.  Moreover,  it  was  known  that  the  Jews, 
who  do  not  eat  pork,  suffered  especially  from  T.  saginata,  and  finally, 
it  was  discovered  that  certain  peoples  which  eat  beef  exclusively,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Abysinnians,  to  whom  raw  beef  is  the  greatest 
delicacy,  were  very  frequently  infested  with  the  tapeworm  in  ques- 
tion. These  observations  and  experiments  led  Leuckart  to  his 
classical  experiment  (Braun). 

MORPHOLOGY. — The  beef  measle  worm  consists  of  a  roundish  or 
somewhat  elongated  bladder,  which  is  located  in  the  interfibrillar 
-connective  tissue  of  the  striated  musculature,  and  exceptionally  also 

FIG.  121. 
FIG,  120. 


Beef  bladder  worm  without  cyst,  Beef  bladder  worm  without  cyst, 

4  weeks  old,  X  10  times  6  weeks  old,  X  10  times 

(after  Hertwig).  (after  Hertwig). 

in  certain  internal  organs,  such  as  the  lungs,  liver  and  brain,  as  well 
as  in  the  lymph  glands. 

The  bladder  is  gray,  transparent,  and  consists  of  an  outer  con- 
nective    tissue     membrane     produced    by    reaction     against     the 
surrounding  tissue,  the  so-called  bladder  worm  capsule,  and  of  the 
parasite  itself.     The  latter  consists  of  a  scolex  (head  and  neck),  and 
the  so-called  caudal  bladder  filled  with  a  fluid  (Figs.  119,  J,  and  120). 
The  scolex,  which  is  regularly  invaginated  into  the  caudal  bladder, 
shines  through  the  capsule  as  a  white  structure,  varying  in  size 
:from  that  of  a  millet  seed  to  that  of  a  hemp  seed  (Fig.  118).     By 
-making   a  microscopic  examination  it   is  found  that  the    scolex. 


422 


INVASION  DISEASES 


possesses  four  sucking  disks,*  and    the    so-called    neck    exhibits: 
numerous  lime  corpuscles.     Hooks  are  absent. 

The  size  of  the  cysticerci  which  occur  in  food  animals  varies. 
They  are  found  from  the  size  of  a  pinhead  to  that  of  peas,  according 
to  the  developmental  stage  in  which  the  larval  worms  are  found  at 
the  time  of  the  slaughter  of  their  host.  Very  interesting  results 
concerning  the  size  and  developmental  relations  of  beef  measles 
in  different  ages  were  obtained  from  feeding  experiments  which 
were  instituted  by  Leuckart,  Gerlach,  Ziirn,  Piitz  and  Hertwig  ia 

FIG.  123. 


FIG.  122 


Scolex  of  a  beef  bladder  worm,  14 

weeks  old,  X  10  times 

(after  Hertwig). 


Scolex  of  a  beef  bladder  worm,  28 

weeks  old,  X  10  times 

(after  Hertwig). 


calves,  with  T.  saginata  in  a  larval  condition.  Hertwig,  in  con- 
nection with  a  thorough  review  of  the  literature,  presented  a 
complete  account  of  the  conditions  in  question  (Ztschr.  Fleiscli  u^ 
Milchyg.,  Vol.  1).  According  to  Hertwig,  the  development  of  the 
beef  measle  worm  required  eighteen  weeks.  Moreover,  the  larval 
•worm  in  the  experiments  of  Hertwig  when  regularly  removed  in 
different  stages,  showed  the  following  conditions  of  size  : 


*  Exceptionally,  there  may  be  six  sucking  disks. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


423 


Date 

Age  of 
Larvae 
in 
weeks 

LARVAE 

CYSTICERCI 
WITHOUT  CYST 

SCOLEX 

Length 

Breadth 

Length 

Breadth 

Natural  size 

Length  when 
artificially 
stretched 

1890 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

August  12 

4 

4.0 

3.5 

2.25 

2.25 

0.5  mm. 

0.7 

diameter 

"      26 

6 

4.2 

3.5 

3.0 

2.5 

1  mm. 

1.3 

diameter 

Sept.       9 

8 

4.5 

3.5 

3.25 

2.75 

1.5  mm. 

2.9 

long  ;  1  mm. 

broad 

23 

10 

5 

3.75-4 

3.5 

3.5 

1.75  mm. 

3.3 

long;l  mm. 

broad 

Oct.         7 

12 

5-6 

3.5-4 

4 

4 

1.8  mm. 

3.5      t 

long;  1  mm. 

broad 

"        21 

14 

6 

4.5 

5 

4.5 

2  mm. 

4 

long;  1  mm. 

broad 

Nov.        4 

16 

6 

4.5 

5 

4.5 

2  mm. 

4.25 

long;  1  mm. 

broad 

"        18 

18 

6.25-7 

4.5 

6 

4 

2  mm. 

5 

long;   L25 

mm.  broad 

Dec.       16 

22 

6.5-8 

4.5 

6 

4.5 

2.25  mm. 

5.5—6.25 

long;   1.75 

mm.  broad 

1891 

Jan.       27 

28 

7.5-9 

5.5 

7 

5 

2.5  mm. 

7 

long;  2  mm. 

broad 

UNUSUAL  FINDINGS  OF  CYSTICERCI. — In  addition  to  the  trans- 
parent vesicles  with  plainly  recognizable  beginning  of  a  scolex,  we 
occasionally  meet  with  structures  which  in  spite  of  their  undoubted 
cysticercal  nature  show  considerable  variation  from  the  usual 
morphological  condition  of  the  beef  measle  worm. 

We  frequently  find  structures  of  the  size  of  an  oat  grain  up  to 
that  of  a  pea,  with  thick,  opaque,  tough  wall  and  with  only  a  small 
cysticercus  (Fig.  124).  In  such  cases  we  have  to  do  with  an  unusually 
strong  reaction  of  the  surrounding  tissue  after  the  penetration  of 
the  tapeworm  embryos.  The  cysticercus  may  be  intact  or  may  be 
attached  to  the  cyst  by  means  of  a  fibrinous  exudate  (fibrinons 


424 


INVASION   DISEASES 


inflammation  of  the  inner  membrane  of  the  cyst).  The  same 
inflammatory  process  may,  however,  appear  in  otherwise  normally 
developed  embryos  during  the  various  developmental  stages  and 
may  cause  the  death  of  the  parasite.  Furthermore,  the  suppuration 
of  the  cysticerci  has  already  been  observed,  apparently  due  to  the 
introduction  of  purulent  bacteria  with  the  wandering  embryos  ;  or 
to  the  excretion  of  these  bacteria  from  the  blood  into  the  cysts,  as 
has  been  experimentally  demonstrated  by  Frankel. 

Furthermore,   we  frequently   find   among  beef  measle  worms 
simple  regressive  metamorphoses  not  due  to  inflammatory  processes. 

They  begin  with  a  coagulation 

FIG.  1%34.  necrosis,  which  appears  in  the 

caudal  vesicle  and  becomes 
conspicuous  as  a  caseation.  The 
caseation  passes  gradually  into 
calcification.  During  this  pro- 
cess the  cyst,  as  a  rule,  remains 
intact.  The  regressive  meta- 
morphoses may  appear  in  beef 
measle  worms  in  every  develop- 
mental stage.  It  is  erroneous  to 
suppose  that  only  old,  fully  de- 
veloped cysticerci  are  subject 
to  caseation  and  calcification. 
Moreover,  attention  should  be 
called  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the 
cysticerci  in  a  particular  animal 
may  undergo  the  above  men- 
tioned regressive  metamorpho- 
ses, but  that  this  is  not  neces- 

Young  beef  bladder  worms  with  strong  do-  sarily  the  case.  It  is  particularly 

vevelopment  of  the  caf>sule.    At  a  the  true  of  the  cysticerci  which  are 
scolex  shows  through  the  capsule.  Natural  .        .  J      . 

size.  located  in  the  internal  organs  ; 

for  example,  the  cardiac  cysti- 

cerci. I  have  called  attention  in  another  place  to  the  fact  that 
degenerated  tapeworm  larvae  may  be  found  in  a  completely  intact 
condition  in  the  voluntary  muscles.  Kallmann  called  attention  to 
the  peculiar  fact  that  the  casefied  larval  tapeworms  are  frequently- 
distinguished  by  their  greenish  color. 


OCCURRENCE.  —  The  beef  measle  worm  was  formerly  considered 
a  rare  parasite  in  Europe.     In  certain  tropical  countries,  as,  forj 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


425 


example,  Abyssinia,,  it  was  well  known,  on  the  other  hand,  that  this 
worm  was  of  very  common  occurrence  in  cattle.  The  rarity  of  beef 
measle  worms  among  the  native  cattle  of  Europe  was  quite  striking, 
ior  it  stood  in  unexplainable  contrast  to  the  frequency  of  the 
appearance  of  Tcenia  saginata  in  man.  Physicians  uniformly 
reported  concerning  the  decrease  in  numbers  of  T.  solium,  the  tape- 
worm which  develops  from  pork  measles,  while  T.  saginata  not  only 
did  not  decrease,  but  was  on  the  increase. 

According  to  Zaslin,  T.  saginata  at  the  present  time  occurs  in 
Switzerland  from  nine  to  ten  times  more  frequently  than  the  previ- 
ously equally  common,  if  not  more  common,  T.  solium.  Both  in 
Basel,  in  1,526  autopsies,  found  T.  solium  in  no  case  and  T.  saginata 
in  eleven  cases.  In  Tubingen,  Vierprdt,  in  an  examination  of  eleven 
tapeworm  patients,  found  T.  saginata  in  nine  cases  and  T.  solium  in 
two  cases.  According  to  Mangold,  128  tapeworm  patients  were 
treated  in  Tubingen  between  the  beginning  of  1885  and  the  end  of 
1894 ;  of  this  number,  120  were  infested  with  T.  saginata,  six  with 
T.  solium  and  two  with  Bothriocephalus  latus.  In  this  connection  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  all  six  cases  of  T.  solium  occurred  in  the  first 
year  of  the  report.  This  condition  agrees  with  that  which  has  been 
found  by  statistical  investigation  in  Vienna,  Holstein  and  Italy. 

Since  the  60's,  Krabbe  identified  400  tapeworms  which  were 
sent  to  him  from  various  parts  of  Denmark.  His  studies  yielded 
the  following  instructive  results  : 


YEAR. 

T. 
SAGINATA. 

T. 
SOLIUM. 

T. 

CUCUME-    . 
BINA. 

BOTHRIO- 
CEPHALUS 

LATUS. 

Before  1869  

37 

53 

1 

9 

1869-1880      

67 

19 

4 

11 

1880-1887      

86 

5 

4 

5 

1887-1895      ...... 

89 

6 

5 

Total  

279 

77 

15 

30 

According  to  Berenger  and  Ferand,  the  number  of  tsenise  found 
in  France  in  the  marine  hospitals  increased  from  0.2  per  cent,  in 

1865  to  14.5  in  1890;  in  the  city  hospitals,  from  2.6  per  cent,  in 

1866  to  6.14  per  cent,  in  1890.     Simultaneously  T.  saginata  became 
very  frequent,  while  T.  solium,,  on  the  other  hand,  became  unusually 

Of  the  191  tapeworm   cures  concerning  which  Berenger  and 


426  INVASION   DISEASES 

Ferand  reported,  112  whole  tseniae  with  the  head  were  passed.  In 
all  112  oases  the  species  was  T.  saginata. 

In  the  United  States,  Stiles  made  a  study  of  297  tapeworms, 
which,  without  exception,  proved  to  be  specimens  of  T.  saginata* 
Herff,  on  the  basis  of  forty  years'  practice,  reports  that  T.  saginata 
is  very  common  in  Texas. 

This  striking  disproportion  between  the  appearance  of  T. 
saginata  and  the  measle  worms  in  cattle  was  explained  by  the 
discovery  which  w;is  made  by  municipal  meat  inspection  in  Berlin- 
At  the  suggestion  of  Hertwig,  late  director  of  Berlin  meat 
inspection,  after  a  number  of  occasional  discoveries  of  measle  worms 
in  the  masticating  muscles,  it  was  ordered  that  in  all  cattle  which 
were  submitted  for  inspection  the  masticatory  muscles  should  be 
examined  by  means  of  an  incision.  From  this  order  the  surprising 
result  was  obtained  that,  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  first  five  years 
(1883  to  1888),  in  which  only  four  cases  of  beef  measle  worm  were 
demonstrated,  several  hundred  cases  were  found  in  a  single  year. 
This  frequent  finding  of  cysticerci  could  not  be  explained  by  assum- 
ing that  the  bladder  worms  were  suddenly  becoming  more  common 
among  cattle.  They  had  been  formerly  overlooked,  for  the  reason, 
as  appeared  later,  that  cattle  are  only  rarely  so  strongly  infested 
that  the  worms  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  muscles  during  the 
ordinary  inspection  at  the  time  of  slaughter.  It  frequently  occurred 
that  beef  measle  worms  were  found  only  in  the  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion, while  no  other  examples  could  be  found,  as  a  rule,  in  all  of  the 
musculature,  even  by  a  most  careful  inspection.  The  result  of 
investigations  in  later  years  corresponds  completely  to  that  of  the 
first  year  and  justifies  the  assumption  that  the  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion are  to  be  considered  as  the  most  usual  location  of  beef  measle 
worms. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  more  male  than  female  cattle  are 
found  to  be  measly.  In  Neisse,  for  example,  the  ratio  of  male 
measly  cattle  to  female  was  8  :  5,  although  in  that  locality  more 
cows  and  heifers  were  slaughtered  than  bulls  and  oxen.  This, 
peculiar  condition  may  be  explained  in  the  first  place  by  the  fact 
that  the  majority  of  male  cattle  are  slaughtered  at  a  young  age,  in 
which  the  infestation  from  larval  tapeworms  usually  occurs,  and 
also  by  the  fact  that  the  beef  measle  worms,  after  having  infested 
an  animal  may  later  become  entirely  disintegrated  (THE  AUTHOR). 

Reissmann  compiled  the  following  interesting  table  concerning 
the  relationship  of  sex  and  infestation  by  cysticerci  in  Berlin.  The 
following  numbers  of  animals  were  found  measly  : 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


427 


YEAR. 


BULLS. 


Number.  Percent. 


STEERS. 


Number.  Per  cent. 


Cows. 


Number.  Percent. 


1892-93, 
1895-96, 
1899, 


101 
110 
354 


.118 
.227 
.554 


113 
103 


.147 
.209 
.548 


47 
86 


.124 
.156 
.309 


USUAL  LOCATION  AND  FREQUENCY. — In  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  cases,  cattle  show  only  a  slight  invasion,  with  the  seat  of 
the  parasite  in  the  masticatory  muscles  and  heart.  Thus,  in  Berlin 
beef  muscle  worms  were  found  distributed  in  the  following  locations, 
during  the  different  years  of  the  report,  1888-1890  : 

1.  In  the  masticatory  muscles 316 

2.  In  the  masticatory  muscles  and  heart 39 

3.  In  the  masticatory  muscles  and  cervical  muscles 1 

4.  In  the  masticatory  muscles  and  the  tongue 4 

5.  In  the  cervical  muscles 1 

6.  In  the  cervical  muscles  and  tongue 1 

7.  In  the  tongue 2 

8.  In  the  tongue  and  heart 2 

9.  In  the  thoracic  muscles  and  tongue 1 

10.  In  the  whole  musculature 22 

According  to  these  figures  the  cysticerci,  except  in  twenty-two 
cases  in  which  they  were  distributed  throughout  the  body,  were 
located : 

1.  In  the  masticatory  muscles 360 

2.  In  the  heart 41 

3.  In  the  tongue 10 

4.  In  the  cervical  muscles 3 

5.  In  the  thoracic  muscles 1 

In  later  years  the  same  condition  prevailed.  In  the  year  1899, 
for  example,  of  785  measly  cattle,  754 showed  only  1  cysticercus,  and 
in  767  cases  the  larval  tapeworms  were  found  only  in  the  masticatory 
muscles  (in  266  animals,  only  in  the  internal ;  in  488,  only  in  the- 
external,  and  in  13,  in  both  the  internal  and  external  masticatory 
muscles) ;  14  times  in  the  heart ;  9  times  in  the  masticatory  muscles 
and  the  heart ;  once  in  the  heart  and  in  the  tongue  ;  3  times  in  the 
masticatory  muscles  and  tongue ;  once  in  the  masticatory  muscles, 
lieart  and  thoracic  muscles ;  once  in  the  masticatory  muscles,  heart, 
and  diaphragm  ;  once  in  the  heart,  shoulder  and  thoracic  muscles  ^ 


428  INVASION  DISEASES 

and  in  the  remaining  cases  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
muscles. 

Furthermore,  in  other  German  abattoirs,  as  in  foreign  countries, 
with  the  regular  inspection  of  the  masticatory  muscles,  only 
occasionally  are  cysticerci  found  in  cattle.  The  proportion  of 
measly  cattle  in  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia  and  Saxony,  in  which 
cattle  are  regularly  inspected  for  cysticerci  in  the  abattoirs,  averages 
about  J  per  cent,  ranging  from  .16  per  cent,  to  4  per  cent.* 

From  the  account  already  presented  concerning  the  distribution 
of  beef  measle  worms  in  individual  cases,  it  is  apparent  that  next  to 
the  masticatory  muscles,  but  much  more  rarely  than  these,  the 
heart  was  infested  by  the  larval  tapeworms.  This  fact  was  estab- 
lished in  Switzerland  before  it  was  discovered  in  Berlin.  Zschokke 
asserts  that  in  the  Canton  of  Zurich  19  cases  of  measle  worm  in 
cattle  and  38  in  calves  were  observed  in  1886  as  a  result  of  careful 
inspection  of  the  heart.  Melchers  reported  also  from  Neisse  that 
lie  found  as  many  cases  of  infestation  by  measle  worms  in  the  heart 
as  in  the  head  or  masticatory  muscles. 

At  first,  chief  attention  was  directed  to  the  finding  of  beef 
measle  worms  in  the  internal  masticatory  muscles.  Glage,  however, 


*  The  number  of  cases  of  infestation  from  cysticerci  in  cattle  has  increased  from 
year  to  year  in  consequence  of  the  more  generally  applied  inspection  for  these  larval 
tapeworms.  The  number  of  cases  in  the  public  abattoirs  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia 
amounted  to  567  in  1892,  1,143  in  1895,  5,471  (.5  per  cent.)  in  1899;  and  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  47  in  1893,  227  in  1895  and  496  (.46  per  cent.)  in  1899. 

Cysticerci  are  most  frequently  found  in  the  abattoirs  at  Neisse,  Danzig,  Magde- 
burg, Eisenach,  Aachen,  Marienwerder  and  Kiel.  The  following  numbers  were 
found  in  : 

Neisse 1891-1896 3.2    -4.        percent. 

Danzig 1894-1900 36  -3.76          " 

Magdeburg 1893-1899 26  -1.319        " 

Eisenach 1893-1894 1.91 

Aachen 1895-1898 17  -1.24 

Marienwerder, 1893-1895 34  -1.02         " 

Kiel. . . , 1891-1899 21  -  .8  " 

Dresden 1898          477 

Berlin 1892-1899 16  -  .47 

Konigsberg  in  Prussia 1899          477 

Leipsic 1890-1900 08  -  .32         " 

Oppeln 1894          23 

Concerning  beef  cysticerci  in  foreign   countries,  reports   have  been  made  by 

Krabbe  in  Copenhagen,  Morot  in  Troyes,  Messner  in  Carlsbad,  Mautner  in  Ischl, 

Muny  in  Fuime,  and  several  Italian  authors.     According  to  Krabbe,  133,  or  0.44  per 

•-cent,  of  the  30,000  cattle  which  were  slaughtered  in  the  abattoir  at  Copenhagen  in 

1894,  were  found  to  be  measly. 


ANIMAL   PAKASITES  429* 

showed  that  the  external  masticatory  muscles  are  infested  with 
equal  frequency  and  even  when  the  measle  worms  were  not  found 
in  the  internal  masticatory  muscles. 

In  addition  to  the  masticatory  muscles  and  the  heart,  the 
tongue,  cervical  muscles,  muscular  portion  of  the  diaphragm  and 
intercostal  and  thoracic  muscles  must  be  considered  as  favorite 
locations  for  the  beef  measle  worm.  According  to  Noack,  these 
parasites  are  frequently  encountered  in  cutting  up  measly  beef 
animals,  in  the  muscle  group  known  as  the  round  and  rump. 

With  the  exception  of  the  heart,  the  vital  organs  of  cattle  are 
not  usually  infested  with  cysticerci.  Only  in  cases  of  extensive 
invasions  are  the  lymph  glands,  lungs,  liver  and  brain  infested. 
Exceptionally,  however,  in  cases  of  quite  slight  invasions, 
cysticerci  are  found  in  the  lymph  glands,  lungs,  liver,  brain  and 
esophagus. 

In  an  African  beef  animal,  Morot  found  the  internal  mastica- 
tory muscles  less  strongly  infested  with  cysticerci  than  the  tongue 
and  heart.  The  animal  in  question  was  extensively  infested.  In 
addition  to  the  tongue  and  heart,  cysticerci  were  found  in  large 
numbers  in  the  muscles  of  the  shoulder,  foreleg  and  also  in  thosa 
of  the  back,  rump  and  hind  quarter. 

DIAGNOSIS.  —  The  recognition  of  fully-developed,  uninjured 
cysticerci  is  not  difficult.  It  is  only  on  the  surface  of  the  body  that 
they  easily  escape  notice  in  consequence  of  desiccation  (Laboulbene). 
In  other  cases,  the  thin  wall  and  the  cyst  with  the  invaginated 
scolex,  which,  however,  may  be  easily  protruded  by  pressure 
between  the  two  fingers,  constitutes  unmistakable  evidence  of 
cysticerci.  We  have  also  the  characteristic  corrugation  of  the 
caudal  cyst,  the  neck  permeated  with  calcareous  corpuscles,  and, 
finally,  the  head  armed  with  four  sucking  disks,  but  without  hooks. 
These  characters  make  certain  the  identification  of  the  cysticercus 
of  Tcenia  saginata,  when  examined  under  the  microscope. 

Under  certain  conditions,  the  positive  demonstration  of  unde- 
veloped or  degenerated  cysticerci  may  be  more  difficult ;  in  the  first 
case,  when  the  differentiation  into  scolex  and  caudal  cyst  has  not 
yet  taken  place,  and  in  the  latter  case,  when  total  calcification  has 
obliterated  all  normal  structure  of  the  parasites.  In  the  first  case, 
however,  the  peculiar  pear  shape  or  round  form  of  the  immature 
cysticerci,  surrounded  by  newly-formed  connective  tissue,  and  the 
bloody  exudate  (Figs.  126,  127)  render  a  provisional  diagnosis 
possible.  la  the  latter  case,  as  shown  by  the  author,  the  demon- 


430 


INVASION  DISEASES 


stration  of  calcareous  corpuscles  is  decisive.*  For  the  demonstra- 
tion of  these  diagnostically  important  characters,  it  is  sufficient  to 
examine  an  ordinary  teased  preparation  under  slight  magnification. 
For  the  detection  of  isolated  cysfcicerci,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  examine  carefully  in  every  beef  animal  the  masticatory 
muscles  and  the  heartt 


FIG.  125. 


O   •* 


C00 


FIG.  126. 


FIG.  127. 


•Calcareous  corpu.'cles  from  a  teased  pre- 
paration of  a  casefied  bladder  worm, 
X  150  times.  Caseous  detritus  above 
to  the  left. 


Beef  bladder  worms  in  development. 


In  the  demonstration  of  cysticerci  in  sausages,  Schmidt-Mul- 
lieim  proposed  the  following  method,  which  is  based  on  the 
resistance  of  the  scolex  to  the  digesting  power  of  the  gastric  juice  : 

A  small  sample  of  sausage  or  minced  meat  is  digested  for 
several  hours  continuously  at  a  temperature  of  40°  C.  and  with 
repeated  stirring  in  six  to  eight  times  its  volume  of  artificial  gastrio 
juice,  which  is  easily  obtained  by  extraction  of  the  minced  mucoua 
membrane  of  a  hog's  stomach  with  0.5  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid. 


*  Under  the  term  calcareous  corpuscles  are  understood  the  delicate,  glassy, 
transparent  disks  which  occur  by  thousands  in  the  neck  of  the  cysticerci.  They  are 
round,  oval,  reniform  or  sausage-shaped.  The  majority  of  them,  however,  possess  a 
round  or  oval  form  (Fig.  125).  The  calcareous  corpuscles  vary  in  size  between  0.001? 
and  .019  mm.  and  consist  of  albuminate  of  lime.  After  the  addition  of  dilute  acids 
there  is  a  residue  which  shows  the  original  form  of  the  calcareous  corpuscles. 

f  Formerly  in  southern  Germany,  the  requirement  of  an  inspection  for  beef 
measles  was  omitted  and  partly  for  the  curious  alleged  reason  that  it  was  superfluous, 
since  the  meat  was  eaten  in  a  cooked  condition.  The  fallacy  of  this  reasoning  is 
shown  by  statistics  collected  by  Mangold  from  clinics  in  the  University  of  Tubingen, 
in  which,  during  a  comparatively  short  period,  120  persons  were  treated  for 
jsaginaia  infestation. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


431 


FIG.  128. 


While  the  meat  and  fat  are  digested  and  the  latter  collects  in  the 
form  of  a  more  or  less  considerable  layer  of  fat  on  the  surface  of 
the  fluid,  only  the  wall  of  the  cyst  of  the  cysticerci  which  may  be 
present  is  attacked  and  the  scoleces  (and  especially  the  circle  of 
hooks  in  the  hog  measle  worm)  exhibit  an  extraordinary  resistance 
to  the  action  of  the  gastric  juice.  Since  these  possess  also  a  rather 
high  specific  gravity,  they  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  and 
may  be  at  once  recognized  in  this  situation  as  white  bodies  of  the 
size  of  rice  grains.  Upon  closer  examination,  especially  in  water,  it 
is  found  that  the  white  bodies,  in  which,  even  after  exposure  to  the 
gastric  juice  for  a  day,  only  traces 
of  an  incipient  solution  are  ap- 
parent, exhibit  strongly  marked 
transverse  folds  and  that  the 
completely  intact  head  of  the 
oysticercus  is  withdrawn  into  the 
liollow  cephalic  prolongation  or 
is  protruded.  In  both  cases  the 
head  is  easily  isolated  by  means  of 
dissecting  needles.  The  sucking 
disks  and,  in  the  case  of  hog 
measle  worm,  the  circle  of  hooks, 
then  become  apparent  under  a 
magnification  of  20  diameters  after 
clarifying  the  preparation  in  dilute 
.glycerine. 


Eissling  proposed  a  simpler 
method  of  demonstrating  cysticerci  Bladder  worm  calcified  at  a  young 
in  sausage.  This  is  based  on  the  Svetile^ &. ^x Kam!"' 
different  specific  gravity  of  the 

scoleces  of  the  cysticerci  and  the  muscle  fibers  and  is  practically  as 
follows  : 

A  lye  is  prepared  from  caustic  soda,  potash,  or  some  other 
readily-soluble  alkali,  in  such  concentration  that  pieces  of  meat 
which  are  poor  in  fat  readily  float  on  the  surface.  After  it  is  clarified 
as  much  as  possible,  the  lye  is  poured  into  a  sufficiently  broad  glass 
vessel  containing  from  one  to  four  liters  and  the  vessel  drawn  out 
to  a  point  at  the  lower  end.  The  finely  minced  meat  or  sausage  to 
be  examined  is  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  lye,  and,  without 
being  crushed,  is  stirred  so  as  to  form  a  uniformly  thin  broth  and  is 
then  added  to  the  lye.  Water  is  added,  while  the  lye  is  being  con- 


432  INVASION  DISEASES 

stantly  stirred,  until  some  of  the  pieces  of  meat  begin  to  sink. 
If  cysticerci  are  present,  they  immediately  sink  to  the  bottom 
and  are  then  easily  isolated  by  pouring  off  the  rest  of  the  material. 

In  order  to  test  the  viability  of  the  cysticerci,  we  may  use  the 
method  of  warming  (Leuckart  and  Perroncito).  Living  cysticerci 
when  heated  to  a  temperature  of  30  to  40°  C.  exhibit  under  the 
microscope  active  movements  of  the  rostellum,  sucking  disks  and 
other  parts  of  the  head  and  neck ;  while  killed  or  dead  cysticerci 
vemain  motionless.  This  thermo-microscopic  investigation  may  be 
undertaken  conveniently  in  the  Nuttai  microscope  thermostat  as 
well  as  in  the  simpler  and  cheaper  warming  apparatus  for 
microscopic  investigation  devised  by  Kabitz  and  Bissling  (Zeit  f. 
Fleisch.  u.  Milchyg.,  VI). 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  beef  measle  worm  may  be  con- 
fused with  the  larval  form  of  Tcenia  marginata  (Cysticercus  tenuicollis)' 
and  with  echinococci. 

Cysticercus  tenuicollis  is  not  found  in  the  striated  musculature^ 
but  only  under  the  serous  membranes  and,  in  young  animals,  also 
in  the  liver.  Furthermore,  it  possesses  a  double  circle  of  character- 
istically-formed hooks  (page  397). 

Echinococci,  which  occasionally  occur  also  in  the  musculature, 
are  distinguished  from  cysticerci  by  their  round  form  and  by  the 
absence  of  any  structure  corresponding  in  size  and  form  to  the 
scolex  of  cysticerci.  The  echinococcus  is  either  sterile — that  is, 
without  any  head-like  structure — or  fertile — that  is,  furnished  with 
numerous  brood  capsules.  Furthermore,  the  lamellate  structure  of 
the  cuticula  of  echinococci  furnishes  a  good  differential  diagnostic 
character  (page  512).  As  a  rule,  the  lamellate  structure  is  also 
apparent  in  degenerated  echinococci  and  furnishes,  therefore,  in 
such  cases,  a  certain  criterion  for  diagnosis. 

Kieckhafer  described  a  case  of  lymph  cysts  resembling  cysti- 
cerci which  had  given  occasion  to  confusion  with  beef  measle  worms. 
The  cysts,  the  nature  of  which  was  immediately  apparent  upon 
incision,  were  located  on  the  hyoglossus  muscle  and  varied  in  size 
from  that  of  peas  to  hazel  nuts. 

JUDGMENT. — A  tapeworm  (Tcenia  saginata)  develops  in  the 
alimentary  canal  of  man  from  the  beef  measle  worm.  This  tape- 
worm may  affect  the  health  of  the  host  by  causing  distress,  by- 
withdrawing  nutriment  and  frequently  by  recurrent  digestive- 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  433 

disturbances.  Measly  beef  may,  therefore,  be  considered  a  danger- 
ous food  material.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered 
that  Tcenia  saginata,  which  develops  f  rom  the  beef  measle  worm,  is 
difficult  to  expel.  On  the  other  hand,  the  beef  measle  worm  is  not 
so  dangerous  to  human  health  as  the  hog  measle  worm,  since, 
according  to  all  reliable  observations,  autoinvasion — that  is,  the 
formation  of  cysticerci  in  the  vital  organs  of  the  host  of  Tcenia 
saginata — does  not  occur  in  cases  of  infestation  by  this  parasite.  In 
general,  the  cysticercus  disease,  as  rightly  asserted  by  Bollinger, 
cannot  be  considered  in  the  same  class  with  other  zoonoses  (anthrax, 
glanders,  intestinal  sepsis,  trichinosis),  since  the  tapeworm  disease 
which  arises  from  eating  measly  beef  is  not  actually  dangerous  to 
life  and  often  causes  only  very  slight  disturbances,  and,  as  compared 
with  the  echinococcus  disease,  is  to  be  characterized  as  almost 
harmless. 

Measly  beef  is  dangerous  only  in  a  raw  or  half-cooked  condition. 
This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  cooks  and  servant  girls  who 
commonly  sample  the  meat  during  its  cooking,  furnish  a  large  con- 
tingent to  the  hosts  of  Tcenia  saginata.*  By  means  of  a  suitable 
treatment  of  measly  meat,  we  are  in  a  position  to  kill  the  cysticercus 
and  render  harmless  the  infesting  parasites. 

JUDGMENT  OF  IMMATURE  AND  DEGENERATED  CYSTICERCI. — Ifc 
must  be  considered  as  certain  that  cysticerci  are  incapable  of  de- 
veloping into  tape  worms  in  the  intestines  of  man  before  they  have 
reached  a  certain  developmental  stage.  This  power  is  wanting,  at 
least  in  cases  where  the  head  is  absent  or  just  beginning  to  develop, 
as  well  as  in  cases  of  incomplete  development  of  the  suckers.  Simi- 
larly, completely  degenerated  cysticerci,  in  which  the  parasite  itself 
appears  to  be  cloudy  or  already  calcified,  must  be  regarded  as 
harmless.  Meat  infested  with  such  cysticerci  may,  therefore,  be 
admitted  to  the  market  as  harmless  food  material,  without  any 
special  treatment,  if  it  appears  certain  from  an  examination  that 
only  undeveloped  or  degenerated  cysticerci  are  present. 

In  the  previous  discussion,  however,  attention  has  already  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  along  with  degenerated  cysticerci  intact  indi- 
viduals may  also  occur,  and  this  is  frequently  the  case  in  cattle. 


*  The  connection  between  the  frequent  occurrence  of  tapeworms  and  the  custom 
of  eating  raw  meat  appears  very  plainly  also  from  the  statistics  of  army  physicians. 
According  to  these  statistics  there  is  in  no  one  of  the  German  army  corps  so  high  a 
percentage  of  tapeworm  infestations  as  in  the  Tenth,  which  is  recruited  ehiefly  from 
lower  Saxony,  where  the  consumption  of  raw  minced  meat  is  widely  prevalent 


434:  INVASION  DISEASES 

The  occurrence  of  intact  cysticerci  in  the  muscles  of  mastication  at 
the  same  time  that  degenerated  individuals  are  found  in  the  heart 
is  especially  frequent.  For,  iii  the  latter  organ,  the  cysticerci  may 
degenerate  even  during  development.  The  simultaneous  occur- 
rence of  intact  and  degenerated  cysticerci  in  the  other  muscles  is 
rarer.  In  cases  where  the  degenerated  cysticerci  are  found,  a  care- 
ful examination  of  the  favorite  locations  of  the  parasites  should  be 
undertaken  in  order  to  determine  whether  living  specimens  are 
found  with  the  degenerated  individuals.  In  an  examination  which 
I  made  at  the  Berlin  abattoir,  I  found  that  when  the  muscles  of 
mastication  contained  only  degenerated  cysticerci,  the  other  muscu- 
lature contained  no  living  parasites. 

METHOD  OP  DESTROYING  CYSTICERCI. — Beef  measle  worms  may 
be  killed  by  heating  and  by  laying  in  brine.  Moreover,  it  has  been, 
demonstrated  that  these  parasites  naturally  disintegrate  at  the 
latest  within  three  weeks  after  the  death  of  the  host  Finally,  a, 
destruction  of  the  cysticerci  may  be  brought  about  by  freezing. 

1.  KILLING  BY  HEAT. — Perroncito  observed  that  a  temperature 
of  45°  C.  was  sufficient  to  kill  beef  measle  worms,  as  evidenced  by 
the  fact  of  their  cloudy  appearance,  their  non-rnotility  when  exam- 
ined under  the  microscope,  and  the  negative  results  from  transmis- 
sion experiments.  Hertwig  found  in  cysticerci  which  had  been, 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  G5°  C.  that  the  scolex,  which  in  a  living 
condition  was  unusually  resistant  to  pressure,  was  so  soft  that  ifc 
could  be  compressed  between  slides,  like  beef  tallow.  This  altera- 
tion must  be  considered  as  an  excellent  criterion  of  the  accom- 
plished destruction  of  cysticerci  by  boiling.  By  means  of  the 
ubove  demonstration,  Hertwig  simultaneously  disproved  the  wide- 
spread erroneous  view  that  cysticerci  which  had  been  killed  by 
boiling  or  roasting  could  be  detected  in  eating  the  meat  by  a  crack- 
ling sound  between  the  teeth.  In  masticating  boiled  or  roasted 
meat,  one  can  not  detect  any  cysticerci  which  may  be  present. 

Measly  beef  may  thus  be  rendered  harmless  by  boiling.  Ifc 
should  be  observed  that  meat  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and  that 
:i  high  degree  of  heat  is  attained  in  the  interior  of  the  pieces  only 
slowly.  This  question  will  be  considered  more  in  detail  in  the  spe- 
cial chapter  on  the  "Boiling  of  Meat,  etc."  In  this  connection  it 
may  simply  be  mentioned  that,  according  to  experiments  thus  far 
made,  the  certain  destruction  of  all  cysticerci  present  in  meat  may 
be  assumed  if  the  meat,  in  pieces  of  any  convenient  length,  but  not 


ANIMAL  PAKASITES  435 

too  thick  (up  to  12  cm.  in  thickness),  has  been  boiled  for  two  hours. 
The  meat  is  then  well  done  and  on  cross  section  appears  to  be  of  a 
uniform  gray  color.  Since  this  alteration  of  color  does  not  occur 
until  a  temperature  of  60°  to  70°  C.  is  reached  (page  202),  or  a  tem- 
perature which  is  more  than  sufficient  to  destroy  the  beef  measle 
worm,  we  possess  in  this  change  a  very  efficient  method  for  deter- 
mining whether  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  has  been  produced 
uniformly  throughout  the  meat  for  the  destruction  of  the  cysti- 
cerci. 

Measly  beef  which  after  boiling  exhibits  a  gray  color  on  cross 
section  may  thus  with  certainty  be  characterized  as  a  harmless  food 
material. 

Against  compulsory  boiling  of  measly  beef  before  sale  there  is 
the  one  objection  that  a  considerable  depreciation  of  value  is  neces- 
sarily connected  with  the  process.  By  the  process  of  boiling,  the 
meat  loses  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  in  weight,  and  purchasers  of 
boiled  beef,  even  at  low  prices,  are  difficult  to  find. 

2.  KILLING  CYSTTCERCI  BY  PICKLING. — Likewise,  concerning  the 
destruction  of  cysticerci  by  pickling,  we  owe  the  first  experiments 
to  the  noted  Italian  investigator,  Perroncito.  This  author  demon- 
strated that  isolated  cysticerci  are  killed  within  twenty-four  hours 
in  a  solution  of  common  salt.  But  little  use,  however,  is  made  of 
pickling  for  rendering  measly  meat  harmless,  since  detailed  infor- 
mation concerning  the  penetration  of  salt  solutions  into  the  interior 
of  the  pieces  of  meat  is  wanting.  The  author,  therefore,  tested  this 
question  by  treating  measly  meat  with  salt  solutions  and  examining 
the  cysticerci  contained  in  the  meat,  after  the  lapse  of  fourteen 
days,  by  heating  in  Nuttal's  microscope-thermostat.  The  brine 
used  in  these  experiments  was  of  the  same  composition  as  that 
used  by  butchers  in  the  ordinary  commercial  preservation  of  meat. 
It  consisted  of  2J  parts  saltpetre,  20  parts  cane  sugar,  250  parts 
common  salt,  and  1000  parts  water.  The  brine  solution,  therefore, 
contained  25  per  cent  of  common  salt. 

The  experiments  showed  that  cysticerci  contained  in  measly 
beef  and  pork  invariably  died  within  fourteen  days,  provided  the 
meat  was  laid  in  the  brine  in  pieces  not  too  thick  (up  to  6  cm.  in. 
thickness),  or  provided  that  the  brine  was  injected  into  the  pieces 
of  meat  by  means  of  a  brine  syringe,  in  accordance  with  the  sug- 
gestion of  Glage. 

The  destruction  of  the  cysticerci  keeps  pace  with  the  degree  of 
pickling.  For  demonstrating  the  completion  of  the  process  of  pick- 


436  INVASION   DISEASES 

ling,  we  possess  a  simple  means  in  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  (the  author).  The  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  produces  no 
striking  change  on  the  cut  surface  of  fresh  muscle  meat,  but,  on  the 
cut  surfaces  of  completely  pickled  meat,  a  temporary  milky  cloudi- 
ness is  produced  (chloride  of  silver).  For  making  this  test,  one 
carefully  washes  in  water  the  pieces  of  meat  to  be  examined,  dries 
the  surface  with  a  cloth,  and  makes  a  rapid  cut  through  the  middle 
of  the  piece  of  meat.  The  cut  surface  is  then  held  upward  and  a 
few  drops  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  are  allowed  to  fall  on 
the  middle  of  the  section.  In  order  to  proceed  with  certainty,  the 
solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  may  be  poured  into  a  funnel-shaped 
cavity  which  may  easily  be  produced  in  the  middle  of  the  cut  sur- 
face of  the  meat  by  cutting  out  (with  a  knife)  a  conical  piece  of 
meat.  Glage  has  proposed  a  more  accurate  process  for  the  demon- 
stration of  the  completion  of  the  pickling  process.  He  employs 
a  2  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  which  is  ren- 
dered non-sensitive  toward  small  quantities  of  salt  by  the  addition: 
of  ammonia.  The  preparation  of  Glage's  reagent  for  the  demon- 
stration of  pickling  takes  place  according  to  the  following  recipe  : 

9 

Argent,  nitric 2 

Aqu.  dest 100 

Mf .  Sol. 

Adde  exactissime  Liquor.  Ammon.  canst,  q.  s.  ad  prsecip.  et  perfect,   resolute  . 
Arerenti;  deinde  Liquor.  Ammon.  caust.  volumetr.  40  cc.     Aqu.  dest.  q.  s.  ad  200  cc. 
in  vitro  flavo. 

On  account  of  the  excess  of  40  cc.  of  normal  ammonia,  the  mix- 
ture is  so  desensitized  as  a  reagent  for  chlorine  that  in  10  cc.  of 
the  mixture — and  not  less  should  be  used  for  each  test — a  precipi- 
tate of  chloride  of  silver  does  not  occur  until  after  the  addition  of 
2.7  cc.  of  a  1:100  normal  salt  solution,  while  smaller  quantities  do 
not  alter  the  clear  reagent  or  merely  produce  a  precipitation  of 
chloride  of  silver  which  is  immediately  redissolved.  In  the  use 
of  Glage's  reagent,  there  is  no  precipitation  of  the  chlorides  which- 
normally  occur  in  the  body  and  which  in  the  use  of  the  simple 
solution  of  silver  nitrate  may  interfere  to  a  considerable  extent, 
especially  in  the  differentiation  of  fresh  and  salted  livers.  For 
carrying  out  the  test,  one  should  pour  10  cc.  of  the  reagent  into  a 
glass  vessel  furnished  with  a  polished  glass  stopper  and  without 
any  neck-like  constriction  and  should  then  drop  into  the  reagent 
one  gram  of  the  meat  to  be  examined,  taken  from  the  inside  of  a 
piece.  If,  after  vigorous  shaking,  a  white  precipitate  is  formecL 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  437 

~which  becomes  violet  or  blackish  ill  sunlight,  the  meat  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  salted  throughout. 

The~  pickling  of  measly  beef,  as  compared  with  compulsory 
boiling,  possesses  the  advantage  that  the  meat  by  the  former 
process  loses  only  about  6.5  per  cent,  in  weight,  and  is  much  more 
'.easily  sold  than  boiled  meat  (Bieck). 

3.  NATURAL   DEATH  OF  BEEF  MEASLE  WORMS  DURING  LONG 
PRESERVATION  OF  THE  MEAT. — It  was  likewise  Perroncito  who  ob- 
served that  cysticerci  die  within  a  certain  time  after  the  death  of 
the  host.     He  found  in  a  calf  which  had  been  artificially  infested 
with  cysticerci  that  all  the  parasites  were  dead  14  days  after  the 
slaughter    of    the    animal.     The    tests   instituted    by    the    author 
showed  that  natural  death  does  not  uniformly  occur  in  the  above- 
named  period,  but  that  by  preserving  measly  beef   for  three  weeks 
the  cysticerci  contained  in  it  are  rendered  harmless. 

The  demonstration  of  the  fact  that  the  cysticerci  in  meat  pre- 
served for  three  weeks  were  dead  was  confirmed  not  only  by  the 
application  of  heat,  but,  in  order  to  remove  all  doubt,  by  digestion 
experiments  and  especially  by  infection  experiments  in  which,  be- 
side the  author,  a  large  number  of  students  and  assistants  at  the 
Veterinary  High  School  at  Berlin  took  part.  The  results  thus  ob- 
tained have  been  confirmed  by  the  autoinfection  experiments  of  the 
chief  city  veterinarian,  Reissinann,  in  Berlin,  and  several  other  city 
veterinarians  in  that  place,  as  well  as  by  the  Dresden  abattoir  veteri- 
narian, Zschokke. 

Rendering  measly  beef  harmless  by  preservation  of  the  meat 
for  three  weeks,  which,  in  order  to  avoid  decomposition,  should 
take  place  in  cold  storage,  is  the  most  rational  method,  since  the 
meat  thereby  undergoes  the  least  depreciation  in  value.  It  suffers 
only  a  minimum  loss  of  weight  and  finds  ready  sale  as  raw  meat. 

4.  KILLING   CYSTICERCI   BY   FREEZING. — It   has   been   demon- 
strated by  Rissling,  Glage  and  Reissmann,  that  beef  and  hog  measle 
worms  are  killed  by  freezing.     Glage  determined  that  in  measly  pork 
which  was  preserved  for  fourteen  days  at  a  temperature  of  —  10° 
to  — 15°  C.,  all  the  cysticerci  die.     According  to  Reissmann,  this  re- 
sult takes  place  in  fairly  large  pieces  of  beef  and  in  larger  than 
medium-sized  hams  after  the  lapse  of  four  days,  provided  that  the 
pieces  of  meat  are  kept  at  a  temperature  of  —  8°  to  —  10°  C.    Cysti- 
*cerci  killed  by  freezing  exhibit,  in  addition  to  their  lack  of  motility 


438  INVASION   DISEASES 

in  the  thermostat,  a  peculiar  sticky  character  (Glage) ;  also  a  disso- 
ciation of  the  calcareous  corpuscles  and  a  total  stainability. 

Freezing,  therefore,  is  a  practical  method  for  rendering  measly 
beef  harmless.  It  has  the  one  disadvantage  that  the  keeping  qual- 
ity of  the  meat  is  considerably  affected  by  the  process  of  freezing. 
Frozen  meat  rapidly  decomposes  and  must,  therefore,  be  quickly 
utilized. 


OTHER  METHODS  OP  KILLING  CYSTICERCL — For  the  sake  of  com- 
pleteness, it  may  be  mentioned  that  cysticerci  may  be  killed  also 
by  acids  and  by  the  action  of  electric  currents  (Glage).  The  prac- 
tical application  of  these  methods,  however,  meets  with  difficulty. 
In  the  acid  method,  the  superficial  layers  of  the  muscles  are 
changed  into  gr?iy  flaky  masses  and  the  deeper-lying  portions  are 
not  easily  penetrated  by  the  acid.  Difficulties  were  met  with  in  the 
application  of  the  electric  current  from  the  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  development  of  heat  at  the  different  poles.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pened that  the  meat  was  burned  and  the  fat  melted.  Moreover,  in 
the  use  of  the  method  characterized  by  Glage  as  "electrical  sterili- 
zation in  a  raw  condition,"  the  meat  was  rendered  somewhat  soft 
by  the  separation  of  a  portion  of  its  albumen,  a  fact  which  inter- 
fered with  its  continued  preservation. 

Cysticerci  are  not  injured  by  decomposition.  The  author,  in 
harmony  with  Eeissmann,  found  that  cysticerci  may  remain  alive 
even  in  badly  decomposed  meat. 

METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE  WITH  THE  MEAT  OF  MEASLY  CATTLE  — 
Measly  beef  may  be  allowed  on  the  market,  provided  the  cysticerci 
have  been  killed  by  one  of  the  above  mentioned  methods,  or  pro- 
vided the  sale  of  the  meat  takes  place  under  such  precautionary 
measures  as  to  permit  the  assumption  that  it  will  be  eaten  only  in  a 
harmless  condition. 

In  localities  in  which  the  sale  of  meat  is  under  police  supervision, 
measly  beef  may,  therefore,  be  sold  in  a  raw  condition  if  accom- 
panied by  a  statement  of  its  peculiar  character  and  with  explicit 
directions  that  it  must  be  cooked  before  it  is  eaten.  (See  decisions 
of  the  Imperial  Court,  page  117,  especially  Decision  IV.  of  July  11, 
1884,  and  September  29,  1885).  Measly  beef  is  sold  under  these 
conditions  in  southern  Germany.  If,  however,  the  above  men- 
tioned proviso  is  not  realized,  measly  beef  should  be  admitted  to^ 
the  market  only  after  having  been  rendered  harmless. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  439 

Measly  meat,  even  after  the  destruction  of  the  cysticerci  by 
boiling,  pickling,  or  preservation  of  the  meat  for  three  weeks,  is 
to  be  considered  a  spoiled  (inferior)  food  material,  and  is,  there- 
fore, to  be  sold  only  when  a  statement  is  made  of  its  peculiar 
character.  Measly  meat  must  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the 
market  even  in  a  cooked  condition  if  the  cysticerci  are  distributed 
in  large  quantities  throughout  the  whole  musculature,  or  if  the 
meat  has  assumed  a  watery  character  in  consequence  of  the  inva- 
sion of  cysticerci. 

As  already  indicated,  there  is  no  reason  for  excluding  from 
the  market  viscera  which  are  free  from  cysticerci,  for  they  show  no 
variation  whatever  from  the  normal.  Fat  tissue  which  is  free 
from  cysticerci  is  to  be  judged  similarly. 

Regulations  Concerning  the  Method  of  Procedure  with  the  Meat  of 

Measly  Cattle.* 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  the  method  of  procedure  with  the 
meat  of  measly  cattle  is  regulated  at  present  by  a  ministerial  decree 
of  November  18,  1897,  concerning  the  sanitary  police  procedure 
with  measly  cattle  and  calves.  The  decree  reads  as  follows : 

By  a  circular  decree  of  February  16,  1876,  the  regulations  which  seem  to  be 
required  in  the  interest  of  sanitary  science  for  the  treatment  of  measly  hogs, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  the  Royal  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service 
of  February  2,  187iJ,  are  made  known,  and  are  also  applicable  in  the  case  of  measly 
cattle. 

Since  the  conditions  for  the  destruction  of  the  beef  measle  worm  have  been  more 
accurately  determined  by  detailed  investigations,  we  have  compiled  '*  the  principles 
for  the  sanitary  police  procedure  with  measly  cattle  and  calves."  While  we  hereby 
repeal  all  previous  regulations  and  order  that  until  further  notice  procedure  in  this 
case  shall  be  governed  according  to  the  principles  hereby  formulated,  we  call  atten- 
tion at  the  same  time  to  the  following  statements: 

For  the  purpose  of  bringing  about  a  uniform  practice  of  inspection  for  beef 
measle  worms,  the  examination  should  be  made  in  such  a  manner  that  the  muscu- 
lature which  is  exposed  during  slaughter,  especially  the  external  and  internal  muscles 
of  mastication,  tongue  and  heart,  should  be  carefully  inspected,  and  that  extensive 
incisions  parallel  with  the  rami  of  the  maxillary  bones  should  be  made  in  the 
muscles  of  mastication,  f  Meat  is  to  be  considered  well  boiled  when  a  uniform  gray 
color  is  observed  on  a  fresh  cross  section. 


*  From  the  time  when  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law  comes  into  force, 
regulations  of  general  application  will  exist  concerning  the  method  of  procedure 
with  the  meat  of  measly  cattle. 

f  In  calves  up  to  the  age  of  six  weeks,  the  inspection  of  the  muscles  of  masti- 
cation for  cysticerci  m;iy  be  omittted.  (Circular  decree  of  the  Ministries  of  Agri- 
culture, etc.,  July  1,  1808). 


440  INVASION   DISEASES 

The  content  of  salt  solution  is  to  be  accurately  determined  or  controlled  im 
the  preparation  of  brine,  or  by  means  of  the  alkalimeter. 

The  pieces  to  be  utilized  in  pickling  shall  not  be  heavier  than  2£  kg.  Pickled 
meat  is  to  be  kept  under  police  control  during  the  prescribed  period. 

For  the  determination  of  the  temperature  in  cold  storage  rooms,  tested  maxi- 
mum and  minimum  thermometers  are  to  be  used,  and  reliable  self -registering 
hygrometers  for  the  determination  of  the  moisture. 

The  temperature  and  moisture  content  of  the  room  are  to  be  taken  during  the 
forenoon  and  evening  of  each  day  and  to  be  registered  in  tabular  form. 

When  properly  equipped,  cold  storage  rooms  in  operation  in  public  abattoirs 
can  be  considered  as  "suitable."  The  district  veterinarian,  in  cooperation  with  the 
local  police  authorities,  shall  decide  in  each  individual  case  whether  the  conditions 
for  the  proper  treatment  of  the  meat  by  cooking  or  hanging  are  present.  The  meat 
of  cattle  which  are  only  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci  may  be  hung  in  quarters  in 
special  apartments  under  police  control ;  that  of  calves  in  a  similar  condition,  with- 
out quartering.  In  a  given  apartment,  only  the  meat  of  one  or  several  measly  ani- 
mals-slaughtered on  the  same  day  should  be  hung;  the  dressed  meat  of  animals 
slaughtered  on  different  days  should  be  placed  in  the  same  apartment  only  when  the 
pieces  of  meat  are  so  stamped  that  all  possible  confusion  is  avoided. 

Although  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  previous  investigations  that  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  meat  does  not  take  place  in  cold  storage  rooms  with  the  required  tem- 
perature and  moisture  content,  it  should,  nevertheless,  be  determined  by  a  veterina- 
rian after  the  lapse  of  21  days  and  before  the  meat  is  discharged,  whether  the  meat 
has  kept  well  and  is  not  spoiled. 

By  means  of  the  provision  that  the  meat  of  animals  slightly  infested  with  cysti- 
cerci and  which  has  been  rendered  suitable  for  human  consumption  shall  be  sold  only 
to  the  consumer  or  for  domestic  use,  it  is  intended  to  prevent  commercial  middlemen, 
butchers,  sausage  makers,  and  hotel  keepers  from  obtaining  possession  of  such  meat. 
If  considered  necessary,  the  resale  of  this  meat  is  to  be  fojrbidden  under  penalty  of 
law. 

A  report  is  to  be  made  on  measly  cattle  and  calves  according  to  the  enclosed 
scheme  covering  the  preceding  calendar  year  up  to  February  15  of  each  year,  and, 
beginning  with  February  15,  1899,  is  to  be  concluded  by  a  short  report  on  the  opera- 
tion of  these  regulations. 

Finally,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  the  districts  concerned,  we  give 
notice  that  the  opinions  of  the  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service  and  of 
the  Technical  Deputation  for  the  Veterinary  Service,  which  furnished  the  founda- 
tions for  the  decree  of  these  regulations,  are  published  in  the  Vierteljahrschrift 
fur  Gerichtliche  Medizin  und  Oeffentliches  Sanitatswesen,  XIV.,  Supplement,  Octo- 
ber, 1897,  pp.  117,  142. 

Principles  Governing  the  Sanitary  Police  Procedure  With  Measly  Cattle 

and  Calves. 

According  to  the  number  of  cysticerci,  distinction  is  made  between 

(a)  Animals  with  at  most  ten  living  cysticerci:  slightly  infested  animals.* 

(b)  Animals  with  more  than  ten  living  cysticerci :  badly  infested  animals. 


*  By  means  of  a  circular  decree  of  the  above  mentioned  Ministries  of  June  16, 
1898,  it  is  ordered  that  in  estimating  the  number  of  cysticerci,  all  living  cysticerci 
shall  be  included  which  are  found  before  boiling,  pickling,  or  hanging  the  meat  in, 
cold  storage,  without  regard  to  the  place  or  time,  or  whether  they  are  found  during- 
slaughter  or  during  the  subsequent  cutting  up  of  the  meat. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  4&L 


For  free  utilization  as  human  food  are  admitted: 

1.  Rendered  lard,  unconditionally. 

2.  The  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  stomach  and  intestines  of  animals  slightly  infested 
•with  cysticerci  (a)  in  so  far  as  these  organs  are  found  upon  veterinary  inspection  to 
l)e  free  from  cysticerci. 

3.  Animals  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci  (a)  in  which  the  cysticerci  which  are 
found  are,  according  to  veterinary  opinion,  in  a  condition  of  complete  calcification. 

II. 

For  domestic  use  or  for  sale  in  special  booths,  freibanks,  etc.,  in  pieces  not  larger 
than  2^  kg.  and  for  sale  only  to  the  consumers  and  under  statement  of  its  measly 
nature,  it  is  permitted  to  sell  meat  of  animals  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci  (a)  after 
its  dangerous  properties  have  been  removed  under  veterinary  supervision  : 

1.  By  thorough  boiling. 

2.  By  pickling  for  twenty-one  days  in  a  25  per  cent,  brine,  or, 

3.  By  preservation  for  twenty-one  days  in  suitable*  cold  storage  rooms  in  which 
a  temperature  of  3  deg.  to  at  most  7  deg.  C.  prevails  and  a  moisture  content  of  70  to 
-at  most  75  per  cent. 

III. 

The  cjirc-asscs  of  animals  badly  infested  with  cysticerci  (&)  are  to  be  utilized  for 
technical  purposes  or  otherwise  rendered  innocuous  under  police  supervision. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  meat  of  measly  cattle,  according  to  Section  5  of 
the  new  regulations,  Appendix  6  to  Section  16  of  the  regulations  for  carrying  out  the 
Saxon  Meat  Inspection  Law  (principles  underlying  the  judgment  of  meat),  is  to  be 
thoroughly  boiled,  pickled  or  refrigerated. 

In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  the  following  principles  prevail  : 

1.  Meat  is  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food  when  the  cysticerci  are  present  in 
such  numbers  that  they  are  seen  on  the  majority  of  the  cut  surfaces  in  the  body 
musculature. 

2.  The  meat  of  animals  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci— that  is,  animals  in  which 
only  isolated  cysticerci  occur,  except  in  the  muscles  of  mastication— is  to  be  considered 
as  fit  for  food,  but  not  marketable  after  a  previous  boiling,  pickling  or  refrigeration 
for  three  weeks  under  police  supervision.     The  temperature  in  cold  storage  must  not 
exceed  5  deg.    C.     If  the  cysticerci  are   shown  to  be   dead,  this   procedure  is  not 
necessary. 

3.  The  meat  of  animals  in  which  only  isolated  cysticerci  occur  in  the  muscles  of 
mastication  is  marketable,  but  in  such  cases  the  head  is  to  be  treated  according  to  No.  2. 

In  other  States  the  present  procedure  with  measly  beef  will  remain  the  same  as 
that  with  measly  pork  until  the  regulations  for  carrying  out  the  Imperial  Meat 
Inspection  Law  bring  out  uniformity  in  this  matter. 

JUGDMENT  OF  THE  VlSCERA  OF  THE  MEAT  OF  MEASLY  CATTLE.— As 

a  rule,  the  viscera  of  measly  cattle,  with  the  exception  of  the  heart, 

*  The  District  Veterinarian,  in  connection  with  the  local  authorities,  shall  decid* 
•concerning  the  "  suitability." 


442 


INVASION  DISEASES 


contain  no  cysticerci.  The  viscera  can  not,  therefore,  be  regarded  as 
dangerous  to  life,  like  musculature  infested  with  the  parasites  ;  and, 
If  they  are  shown  to  be  free  from  cysticerci  by  inspection,  they 
require  no  treatment  for  rendering  them  harmless,  but  in  such  cases 
may  be  freely  admitted  to  the  market. 

(b)  Hog-  Bladder  Worm  (Cysticercus  Cellulosae). 

NATURE.— The  hog  measle  worm  is  the  larval  stage  of  a  thin 
tsenia  of  man,  erroneously  considered  a  solitary  tapeworm  (Tcetda 
folium,  Kndolphi).  T.  solium  is  2  to  3  m.  long;  the  mature  pro- 

^-.  100. 


Fio.  130. 


Circle  of  iioo.vt,  01  tiie  pork  bladder 

worm.     From  a  photograph. 

X  35  diameters. 


Scolex  of  Cysticercus  cellulosse. 
X  12  diameters. 

glottides  are  provided  with  a  uterus  which  sends  out  from  seven  to 
ten  lateral  branches  on  either  side.  On  account  of  its  location  in 
the  connective  tissue  which  lies  between  the  muscle  fibers,  the  hog 
measle  worm  is  given  the  name  "connective  tissue  bladder  worm'* 
(Cysticercus  celMosce).  C.  cellulosce  is  provided  with  a  double  row  of 
Looks  (Fig.  130). 

HISTORICAL. — According  to  Falck,  the  hog  bladder  worms  were- 
described  by  Aristotle.     Moreover,  they  were   mentioned   in    th  > 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  443 

•earliest  regulations  concerning  meat  inspection,  and  the  frequency 
of  their  occurrence  led  to  the  establishment  of  special  sale  booths, 
"  measle  banks  "  or  freibanks.  According  to  Braun,  it  was  demon- 
strated by  the  experiments  of  Kuchenmeister  (1855),  Humbert 
(1854),  Leuckart  (1856),  Holleubach  (1859)  and  Heller  (1876)  that 
Cysticercus  celhdosce  develops  into  Tcenia  solium  in  the  human  intes- 
tines. Similarly,  by  feeding  ripe  pro^lottides  to  hogs,  Cysticercus 
cellulosoB  was  repeatedly  reproduced  (Van  Beneden,  1853  ;  Haubner 
and  Kuchenmeister,  1855  ;  Leuckart,  1856 ;  Hosier,  1865  ;  Gerlach, 
1870,  et  al). 

MORPHOLOGY. — With  regard  to  its  location  between  the  muscle 
fibers  and  also  in  great  degree  with  respect  to  its  macroscopic 
peculiarities,  Cysticercus  celluloses,  agrees  with  the  beef  measle  .worm. 
For  the  rest,  the  hog  bladder  worm  shows  the  following  peculiari- 
ties :  The  cyst  is  more  delicate  and  therefore  more  transparent 
than  in  the  case  of  beef  measle  worm.  The  scolex,  when  invagi- 
nated  into  the  caudal  bladder,  therefore,  shows  through  the  cyst 
more  conspicuously  in  the  case  of  the  hog  measle  worm  than  in 
the  beef  measle  worm.  Moreover,  the  scolex  of  the  hog  measle 
worm  possesses  a  double  circle  of  hooks  which  is  wanting  in  the 
beef  measle  worm.  The  number  of  hooks  amounts  to  22  to  28 
(Fig.  130).  The  hooks  are  of  compressed  form  with  strong  bases 
and  rather  slightly  curved  points  (Fig.  134).  The  length  of  the 
large  hooks  is  0.16  to  0.18  mm. ;  that  of  the  small  hooks,  0.11  to 
0.14  mm. 

The  size  of  the  hog  measle  worm  varies,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
beef  measle  worm,  according  to  the  stage  of  development  in  which 
the  parasites  are  found  at  the  time  of  the  slaughter  of  their  host. 
By  means  of  feeding  experiments,  Gerlach  demonstrated  the  follow- 
ing facts  concerning  the  development  of  the  hog  measle  worm : 

1.  Cysticerci  20  days  old :    A  delicate  transparent  vesicle  of 
the  size  of  a  pin  head  without  enveloping  membrane  ;  rudimentary 
head  indicated  by  a  cloudy  point. 

2.  Cysticerci  40  days  old  :   Enveloping  membrane  still  very 
delicate;  of  the  size  of  a  mustard  seed  or  sometimes  larger;  head 
Tery  plain  ;  sucking  disks  and  a  circle  of  hooks  recognizable,  but 
not  completely  developed. 

3.  Cysticerci  60  days  old  :  While  in  the  enveloping  membrane, 
of  the  size  of  a  pea  or  larger ;  when  taken  out  of  the  connective  tis- 
sue enveloping  membrane,  more  reniform  ;  head  projecting  some- 
what from  the  vesicle  as  a  faint  white  button-like  structure ;  true 


444  INVASION  DISEASES 

neck   still  wanting ;   row  of  hooks  and  sucking  disks    completely 
developed ;  difference  in  size. 

4.  Cysticerci  110  days  old  :  All  of  about  the  same  size  ;  neck 
developed;  transverse  furrows  indicated;  the  head,  free  from  the 
firm  enveloping  membrane,  lies  invaginated  into  the  caudal  cyst. 
After  the  head  is  forced  out,  the  cysticerci  have  the  form  of  a  flask. 

OCCURRENCE. — In  contrast  with  the  distribution  of  Cysticercus 
bovis,  C.  celluloses  is  comparatively  rare  in  our  native  hogs.  In  some 

FIG.  131. 


Heart  of  a  hog  infected  with  Cysticercus 
cellulosa?. 

parts  of  Germany,  as  Bavaria,  Wiirtemburg,  Baden,  and  Hohenzol- 
lern,  the  hog  measle  worm  is  almost  never  observed  at  present. 
This  rare  occurrence  of  the  hog  measle  worm  corresponds  with  that 
of  Tcenia  solium  in  man.*  Formerly  the  hog  measle  worm  was  of 
quite  frequent  occurrence,  even  among  the  native  hogs.  At  pres- 
ent only  hogs  imported  from  Russian  Poland,  Galicia,  Bohemia, 
Servia  and  Roumania  are  found  to  be  frequently  infested  with 
cysticerci.  Among  Servian  hogs,  the  introduction  of  which  into 

*  According  to  Mangold,  the  last  cases  of  T.  solium  at  the  Tubingen  Medical 
Clinic  were  observed  in  1887. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  445 

Germany  was  quite  extensive  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  90's,  one- 
half  of  the  shipments  were  frequently  found  to  be  measly. 

The  gradual  disappearance  of  the  hog  measle  worm  from  Ger- 
many is  a  classical  demonstration  of  the  certain  and  beneficial  effect 
of  a  regulated  meat  inspection.  In  this  respect  there  is  no  essential 
difference  between  northern  and  southern  Germany.  While  in 
northern  Germany  meat  inspection  has  only  recently  been  subject 
to  general  regulations,  the  extermination  of  hog  measle  worms  was 
begun  long  ago,  for  trichina  inspectors  were  instructed  to  take 
notice  of  the  presence  of  cysticerci  when  taking  samples  for  trichina 
inspection.  At  present  it  is  only  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  Prussia 
that  cysticerci  in  hogs  are  demonstrated  with  comparative  fre- 
quency. 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  that,  according  to  the  results  of  Ger- 
lach's  feeding  experiments,  the  eggs  of  Tcenia  solium  are  unable  to 
develop  into  cysticerci  except  in  young  swine  (pigs  up  to  one-half 
year  old)* 

Frequency  of  Cysticerci  in  Hogs. — Concerning  the  frequency  of 
cysticerci  in  native  hogs,  the  following  figures  are  available  : 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  according  to  the  seven-year  average 
(1876  -1882),  one  in  every  305  hogs  slaughtered  was  measly  (Johne)- 
Later  the  proportion  became  constantly  wider.  From  1886  to 
1889,  it  was  1  in  551;  in  1890-1892, 1  in  817  ;  and,  finally,  in  1896,, 
1  in  1,470. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  1894,  one  in  every  686  hogs  was 
found  to  be  measly.  In  1895,  the  proportion  widened  to  1  in  2,049,, 
and  in  1896,  1  in  5,886. 

In  Berlin,  in  1883-1884,  1,621  measly  hogs  were  found  among 
244,343 ;  in  1884-1885,  1,468  in  264,727 ;  in  1885-1886,  2,740  in 
285,882 ;  in  1886-1887,  1,786  in  310,840 ;  in  1887-1888,  2,333  in 
419,848;  in  1888-1889,  2,328  in  479,124;  and  in  1889-1890,  1,887 
in  442,115.  Thus,  as  an  average  for  the  seven  years,  one  measly 
hog  was  found  in  each  173  slaughtered.  In  1895-1896,  the  rela- 
tion of  measly  hogs  to  the  total  number  of  slaughtered  hogs  was 
1  to  1,000 ;  and  in  1896-1897,  1  to  1,363. 

In  southern  Germany,  measly  hogs  are  rare. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  hog  measle  worms  are  much  more 

frequent  in  the  eastern  provinces  than  in  the  western.     Thus,  in 

1892  the  ratio  of  measly  hogs  to  the  total  number  of  slaughtered 

hogs  in  the  governmental  district  of  Marienwerder  was  1:28;  in 

-Oppeln,  1  : 80 ;  in  Konigsberg,   1  : 108 ;  in   Stralsund   and   Posenr 


446  INVASION   DISEASES 

1 : 187,  and  in  Danzig,  Frankfurt,  and  Bromburg,  1  : 250,  as  con- 
trasted with  Arnsberg  with  a  proportion  of  1  :  835  ;  Coblenz,  1  :  975; 
Diisseldorf,  1  : 1,070 ;  Miinster  and  "Wiesbaden,  1  : 1,900.  The  aver- 
age proportion  of  measly  hogs  for  the  whole  Kingdom  of  Prussia 
was  1 : 1,290,  and  for  the  eastern  provinces  1  :  604 

The  diminution  in  the  number  of  measly  hogs  is  best  shown  by 
the  following  percentage  computation  : 

(a)  KINGDOM  OF  PRUSSIA. 

Year  Percentage 

of  measly  hogs 

1876-1833 .' 0.324 

1386-1889 181 

1890-1892 122 

1899 09 

(b)  KINGDOM  OF  SAXONY. 

1894.  0.157 

1896 017 

1899 010 

(c)  BERLIN. 

1883-1890 0.577 

1892-1893 319 

1895-1896 099 

1899 043 

Concerning  the  frequency  of  Cysticercus  cellulosce  in  hogs  slaugh- 
tered in  foreign  countries,  there  are  only  meagre  data.  According 
to  Krabbe,  only  one  measly  hog  was  found  among  1,334,000  slaugh- 
tered at  the  abattoir  in  Copenhagen.  On  the  other  hand,  Prett- 
ner  found  3.44  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  slaughtered  in  Prag  to  be  in- 
fested with  cysticerci.  Moreover,  of  the  hogs  imported  from  Rus- 
sian Poland  into  Myslowitz,  Beuthen,  Kattowitz  and  Tarnowitz, 
more  than  1  per  cent,  were  measly. 

Occurrence  of  Cysticercus  cellulosce  in  Other  Animals. — In  addition 
to  hogs,  C.  cellulosce  may  be  found  occasionally  also  in  sheep,  dogs, 
bear  and  deer.  Furthermore,  according  to  Braun,  this  parasite 
may  occur  in  cats,  rats  and  apes. 

During  the  sanitary  police  inspection  of  slaughtered  dogs  in 
recent  years,  cysticerci  have  frequently  been  found  ;  for  example,  in 
1890,  a  dog  was  found  in  Chemnitz  extensively  infested  with  cysti- 
cerci. 

Cft.se/ied  and  Calcified  Hog  Measle  Worms. — The  hog  measle  worm,, 
.as  well  as  the  beef  measle  worm,  may  undergo  regressive  metamof- 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


44:7 


FIG.  132. 


phosis.  This  alteration,  however,  is  more  rarely  observed  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter.  As  a  rule,  hog  measle  worms  appear  to 
degenerate  at  a  very  early  developmental  stage.  The  dead  cysti- 
cerci  appear  as  elongated  or  spherical  casefied  or  calcified  struc- 
tures which  usually  stand  at  the  limit  of  macroscopic  visibility,  but 
occasionally  reach  the  size  of  hempseed.  Casefied  hog  measle- 
worms  have  a  gray  color,  while  calcified  specimens  are  pure  white. 
Oaseation  and  calcification  are  observed  in  both  slight  and  exten- 
sive invasions,  but  are  more  frequent  in  the  latter  case.  Moreover, 
in  hogs,  as  contrasted  with  cattle,  as  a  rule  ail  of  the  cysticerci  are 
affected  with  regressive  metamor- 
phosis, excepting  only  the  rare 
cases  of  extensive  invasion  in 
which,  in  addition  to  the  muscula- 
ture, also  the  liver,  lungs  and  other 
vital  organs  are  infested  with  cys- 
ticerci ;  for  the  cysticeroi  in  the 
viscera,  especially  those  in  the 
liver  and  lungs,  usually  disinte- 
grate at  an  early  stage,  while  the 
muscle  cysticerci  undergo  further 
development  in  a  normal  manner. 
When  numerous  cysticerci 
have  disintegrated,  the  heart  and 
skeletal  musculature  is  found  to 
be  sprinkled  with  white  grannies 
{"  calcareous  concretions  ").  Un- 
der the  microscope,  a  tough  con- 
nective tissue  membrane  and  a 
more  or  less  strongly  calcified 
center  may  be  demonstrated  in 
the  calcified  structure  (Fig.  132). 
careous  corpuscles  and  hooks 
center. 


Bladder  worm  calcified  at  a  young1 
stage,  with  strongly  developed  con- 
nective tissue  capsule.  X  35  diam. 


Under  certain  conditions,  cal- 
are   to   be   demonstrated  in   the 


Extensive  Infestations. — In  hogs,  much  more  frequently  than  in 
cattle,  one  observes  extensive  invasions  of  cysticerci.  This  fact  is 
sufficiently  explained  by  the  method  of  managing  hogs,  as  well  as 
by  their  nature  as  omnivorous  animals  in  the  broadest  sense.  As 
many  cases  of  extensive  as  of  slight  infestation  are  observed  in. 
hogs.  The  invasion  of  cysticerci  may  be  so  extensive  that  the 
parasites  lie  side  by  side  in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  only  frag- 


448  INVASION  DISEASES 

ments  of  active  muscle  substance  intact.  In  such  degrees  of  infesta- 
tion the  musculature  is  discolored  grayish-red  and  quite  watery. 
In  slighter  cases  of  infestation  this  is  never  the  case.  Moreover,, 
in  cases  of  extensive  invasion  one  frequently  finds  cysticerci  in  the 
lymphatic  glands,  panniculus  adiposus  and  brain.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  in  extensive  invasions,  cases  in  which  the  lungs,  liver, 
and  other  viscera,  in  addition  to  the  musculature,  are  infested  with 
cysticerci,  are  very  rare. 

Eatio  of  Extensive  to  Slight  Cases  of  Invasion  in  Hogs. — In  the 
years  1884  to  1887,  according  to  statistics  in  Berlin,  the  ratio  of 
extensively  infested  hogs  to  those  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci 
was  as  follows : 

Y    ,  Extensively  Moderately  Slightly 

infested  infested  infested 

1884-5  54a  489  436 

1885-6  1,002  743  995 

1886-7  623  409  371 

Hogs  in  which,  despite  a  careful  examination  of  all  muscle  sur- 
faces which  are  exposed  by  the  ordinary  commercial  cutting  up  of 
the  animals,  only  one  specimen  of  Cysticercus  cellulosce  could  be  demon- 
strated, were  found  in  the  following  numbers,  according  to  the 
statements  of  Hertwig  :  IQ  1885-6,  156 ;  in  1886-7,  279 ;  in  1887-8, 
408 ;  in  1888-9,  446 ;  and  in  1889-90,  317. 

Later  in  Berlin  it  was  found  convenient,  from  practical  con- 
siderations, to  make  a  distinction  only  between  extensively  and 
slightly  infested  hogs.  <  Inspection  of  hogs  gave  the  following, 
results : 

Y  Total  number  of  Extensively  Slightly 

measly  hogs  infested  infested 

1895-6  627  304  323 

1896-7  509  201  258 

1899  325  118  207 

MOST  FREQUENT  LOCATIONS. — The  usual  seat  of  the  hog  measly 
worm  is  in  the  abdominal  muscles,  muscular  portion  of  the  dia- 
phragm, lumbar  muscles,  tongue,  heart,  muscles  of  mastication, 
intercostal  muscles  and  cervical  musculature,  the  gracilis,  and 
sternal  musculature.  *  These  preferred  locations  of  Gysticercm- 
cellulosce  must  be  most  carefully  examined  in  all  slaughtered  hogs, 

*  For  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the  abdominal  muscles,  a  previous  removal  of  the- 
retroperitoneal  fat  tissue  is  indispensable,  and  for  inspecting  the  cervical  muscula- 
ture, it  is  necessary  that  the  hog  be  split  into  two  lateral  halves. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


•U'J 


and,  like  the  heart  and  muscles  of  mastication,  must  in  all  cases  be 
tested  by  incision. 

Among  the  vital  organs,  the  heart  and  brain  should  be  named 
as  frequent  locations  for  the  hog  measle  worm,  and  among  the 
•ther  organs  the  lymphatic  glands  and  panniculus  adiposus. 


FIG.  133. 


FIG.  134. 


Hooks  from  Cysticercus  cellulosaB, 
seen  from  the  side  and  in  front. 

From  photographs. 

a,  large  hooks;  b,  small  hooks. 

X  275  diameters. 


Preferred  locations  of  the  pork  bladder  worm. 
a,  gracilis;  b,  lumbar  muscles;  c,  abdominal 
muscles;  d,  pillars  of  the  diaphragm;  e, 
costal  portion  of  diaphragm;  /,  intercostal 
muscles ;  g,  sternal  muscles ;  h,  neck  muscu- 
lature ;  i,  internal  masticatory  muscles. 

Cysticercus  cellulosce  is  found  in  the  other  viscera  only  excep- 
tionally and,  as  a  rule,  only  in  case  of  extensive  invasion.  In 
such  cases  the  cysticerci  are  observed  in  the  lungs,  liver  and 
spleen.  Prettner  found  the  eye  to  be  an  exceptional  site  of  cysti- 
cerci. He  examined  the  eyes  of  400  measly  hogs  and  discovered. 


450  INVASION  DISEASES 

cysticerci  in  the  interior  of   the    eyes  in  a  subretinal  position  in 
two  of  the  hogs. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  hog  bladder  worms  in  the  muscu- 
lature of  the  tongue  is  utilized  by  meat  dealers  in  diagnosing 
infestation  by  cysticerci  in  living  auinials.  For  this  purpose  hogs 
are  thrown  upon  their  side  and  the  mouth  opened  with  a  stick. 
The  tongue  is  then  drawn  out  with  a  cloth  and  subjected  to  inspec- 
tion and  palpation  for  the  presence  of  cysticerci.  Hogs  thus 
recognized  as  measly  during  life,  form  a  favorite  material  for  trade 
in  localities  without  regular  meat  inspection.  This  dangerous  prac- 
tice is  to  be  checked  in  all  possible  ways.  A  legal  means  of 
accomplishing  this  purpose  is  furnished  by  the  food  law,  which, 
according  to  several  decisions  of  the  Imperial  Court  (page  111),  is 
applicable  also  to  living  food  animals,  and,  therefore,  provides  a  ; 
penalty  according  to  Section  12  for  the  sale  of  living  hogs  known 
to  be  measly. 

DIAGNOSIS. — The  diagnosis  of  fully  developed  hog  ineasle  worms 
presents  as  little  difficulty  as  the  recognition  of  developed  beef  measle 
worms.  In  hog  measle  worms  which  have  undergone  an  alteration  of 
their  appearance,  color  and  size  in  consequence  of  regressive  meta- 
morphoses, the  calcareous  corpuscles  (Fig.  125)  and  also  the  hooks 
(Fig.  134)  demonstrate  the  presence  of  the  remains  of  cysticerci. 
These  diagnostically  important  parts  are  wanting  only  in  cases 
where  the  hog  ineasle  worms  have  degenerated  and  become  com- 
pletely calcined  before  the  formation  of  the  scolex.  In  this  case, 
however,  their  position  in  the  interfibrillar  muscle  tissue  and  the 
presence  of  a  strong  connective  tissue  capsule  furnishes  the  means 
of  making  a  probable  diagnosis. 

In  case  cysticerci  are  present  in  the  viscera,  the  demonstration 
of  Cysticercus  celluloses  must  be  made  by  means  of  a  microscopic 
examination. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — With  regard  to  a  differential  diag- 
nosis, attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  harmless 
Cysticercus  tenuicollis  has  been  confused  with  the  dangerous  C. 
celluloses  (Fig.  99).  The  harmless  Cysticercus,  however,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  dangerous  one,  as  should  be  again  emphasized,  by 
its  exclusive  occurrence  under  the  serous  covering  of  the  viscera,  in 
the  latter,  and  under  the  peritoneal  covering  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  diaphragm.  C.  tenuicollis  is  not  found  in  the  muscula- 
ture. Furthermore,  after  removing  C.  tenuicottis  from  its  cysts,  ita 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  45L 

long  neck  is  conspicuous  (Fig.  100).  And,  finally,  this  parasite 
possesses  from  32  to  40  liooks,  as  contrasted  with  the  22  to  28  of  C. 
rcUulosce.  With  regard  to  the  hooks  themselves,  those  of  C. 
tenuicollis  are  longer,  slenderer  and  more  curved  at  the  points  than 
the  hooks  of  C.  cellulosce.  Moreover,  Schwarz  called  attention  to  the 
form  (resembling  a  thumbnut)  of  the  basal  processes  of  the  small 
liooks  in  C.  tenuicollis.  This  condition  was  not  observed  by  Schwarz 
in  C.  cellulosce.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  even  on 
the  small  hooks  of  C.  cellulosce  a  bifurcation  or  a  median  groove  is 
indicated  (Figs.  102,  134). 

Schwarz  examined  1,000  specimens  each  of  C.  cellulosce  and  (7. 
tenuicollis  from  different  localities  and  found  that  in  the  former 
species  there  are  usually  22  to  28  hooks  ;  in  the  latter,  28  to  36. 
Moreover,  during  his  observations,  Schwarz  noted  that  in  C. 
tenuicollis^  as  a  rule  (in  75  per  cent,  of  the  circles  of  hooks  which 
were  investigated),  one  or  more  small  hooks  were  demonstrable,  the 
basal  process  of  which  was  bifurcated.  In  the  1,000  specimens  of 
C.  cellulosce  examined  by  Schwarz,  this  was  not  the  case  in  a  single 
instance.  Reissmann  has  confirmed  these  observations. 

JUDGMENT. — Measly  pork  is  not  merely  harmful  to  human 
health  like  measly  beef,  but  is  dangerous.  For,  not  only  does  a 
tapeworm,  Tcenia  solium,  develop  from  the  cysticercus,  but  there 
may  occur  the  production  of  cysticerci  in  the  human  body  by 
autoinfection  of  the  host  with  the  larvae  of  this  tapeworm.  Most 
probably  this  autoinfection  is  brought  about  by  the  fact  that  ripe 
proglottides  of  T.  solium  make  their  way  into  the  stomach  in  conse- 
quence of  an  antiperistaltio  movement  of  the  intestinal  contents, 
and  in  this  situation  embryos  have  an  opportunity,  under  the 
influence  of  the  g;istric  jnice,  to  emerge  from  the  eggs.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  persons  of  uncleanly  habits  infested 
with  tapeworms  soil  their  fingers,  during  defecation,  with  excrement 
containing  eggs  and  thus  introduce  the  eggs  into  the  stomach  along 
with  food.  However  this  may  be,  the  fact  remains  that  C.  celluloses 
occurs  rather  frequently  in  man  as  compared  with  C.  bovis,  which 
has  never  been  demonstrated  with  certainty  in  man.  The  danger 
of  self-infection  with  the  larva  of  T.  solium  lies  in  the  fact  that  in 
man  the  cysticerci  become  located  not  only  in  the  muscles  but  also 
in  the  vital  organs,  especially  in  the  brain  and  eyes. 

Concerning  the  frequency  and  location  of  C.  cellulosce  in  mant 
Haugg  has  collected  the  following  statistics  : 


452  INVASION   DISEASES 

Among  87  persons  infested  with  cysticerci,  Dressel  found" 
cysticerci  in  the  brain  in  72  cases  ;  in  the  muscles,  on  the  other- 
hand,  in  only  13  cases.  Among  36  cases  investigated  by  Karl 
Miiller,  cysticerci  were  found  in  the  brain  in  21,  in  the  skeletal 
musculature  in  12,  and  in  the  heart  in  3  cases.  Gribbohm  described 
six  cases,  in  which  the  brain  was  infested  in  5  and  the  brain  and 
muscles  simultaneously  in  one.  Five  cases  described  by  Sievers 
showed  cysticerci  in  the  brain  in  all.  In  one  case,  however,  cysti- 
cerci were  also  present  in  the  muscles.  Finally,  Haugg  himself,, 
from  autopsies  at  the  Pathological  Institute  in  Erlangen  (1874  to 
1885),  collected  25  cases,  in  13  of  which  the  brain  was  infested,  the 
muscles  in  6  and  the  subcutis  in  2  cases.  The  muscle  most  fre- 
quently infested  was  the  pectoralis  major.  Von  Grafe  (in  80,000 
patients  with  eye  disease)  observed  cysticerci  in  the  eye  in  90  cases,. 
and  Everbusch  has  observed  two  such  cases  since  1874.  According 
to  Gast,  9  cases  of  intraocular  cysticerci  were  observed  at  the 
Breslau  Eye  Clinic  between  1885  and  1889. 

In  southern  Germany,  thanks  to  the  long  existence  of  regulated 
meat  inspection,  cysticercus  disease  of  man  is  rarer  than  in  northern 
Germany.  In  Wiirtemburg,  for  example,  according  to  Schleich, 
only  six  cases  cf  ocular  cysticerci  have  ever  been  observed  ;  and  in, 
Munich,  according  to  Bellinger,  in  14,000  cadavers,  only  two  cases 
of  cerebral  cysticerci  were  observed.  Recently  a  diminution  in  the 
extent  of  the  cysticercus  disease  has  been  noted  also  in  Berlin. 
According  to  Yirchow,  the  proportion  of  cysticercus  infestation  in 
the  brain  has  diminished  since  the  introduction  of  meat  inspection 
from  1:31  to  1:280  of  the  autopsies.  In  Berlin,  Hirschberg,  in  the 
years  from  1869  to  1885,  found  70  cases  of  cysticerci  in  the  eye 
among  60,000  eye  patients  ;  in  the  following  six  years,  however,  only 
two  cases  among  46,000  eye  patients,  and  of  these  one  came  from 
Saxony. 

However,  like  measly  beef,  measly  pork  is  also  dangerous  only 
in  a  raw  condition.  The  latter,  like  the  former,  may  be  rendered 
harmless  by  pickling  and  boiling.  In  this  regard,  essentially  the 
same  statement  may  be  made  for  the  hog  measle  worm  as  was  made 
concerning  the  beef  measle  worm,  and  likewise  with  regard  to  the 
utilization  of  measly  meat  in  slight  and  extensive  invasions  in  cases 
of  the  presence  of  undeveloped  or  degenerated  cysticerci  and  with 
regard  to  the  utilization  of  the  viscera  free  from  cysticerci.  The 
hog  measle  worm,  however,  is  distinguished  from  the  beef  measle 
worm  by  the  fact  that  it  is  somewhat  more  resistant  to  heat.  The 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  453 

'hog  measle  worm  is  not  killed  until  a  temperature  of  49°  C.  is 
reached.  A  farther  difference  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  hog 

measle  worms  remain  alive  much  longer  than  the  beef  measle 
worms  after  the  death  of  their  host.  While  beef  measle  worms  are 
always  found  dead  after  a  period  of  twenty-one  days,  I  have  found 
living  hog  measle  worms  in  meat  which  has  been  slaughtered  forty- 
two  clays.  Measly  pork,  therefore,  can  not,  like  measly  beef,  be 
rendered  harmless  by  preservation  in  cold  storage.  This,  however, 
is  without  practical  significance,  since  hog  measle  worms  are  of 
innch  rarer  occurrence  than  beef  measle  worms  and  since  boiled  or 
pickled  measly  pork  can  always  be  sold  readily  at  a  reasonable 
•price.  Measly  pork  is  to  be  considered  as  harmless  if  it  has  been 
boiled  so  that  the  cut  surface  possesses  a  uniformly  white  color. 

"Official  Regulations  Concerning  the  Method  ol  Procedure  with  the  Meat 

of  Measly  Hogs.* 

With  regard  to  the  utilization  of  measly  hogs,  the  following 
-ordinance  was  passed  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  February  16, 1876: 

In  response  to  the  report  of  October  23  of  last  year  concerning  the  complaint  of 

the  Master  Butcher  N ,  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  measly  pork  ordered  by 

police  authority,  we  send  the  inclosed  certified  copy  of  the  opinion  given  on  this 
question  by  the  Royal  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service,  with  the  request 
that  in  cases  of  police  regulations  concerning  hogs  infested  with  cysticerci  the 
suggestions  made  at  the  conclusion  of  the  opinion  should  serve  as  a  guide  for  legal 
action;  that  the  local  police  president  as  well  as  the  other  police  authorities  of  the 

district    should  be  furnished  with  these  instructions  and  that  N should  be 

informed  accordingly. 

OPINION. 

Your  Excellency  has  requested  of  the  undersigned  Scientific  Deputation  for  the 
Medical  Service  an  opinion  concerning  the  regulations  which  have  been  made  in  the 
interests  of  the  sanitary  police  with  regard  to  hogs  found  infested  with  cysticerci. 
'  The  Deputation  accordingly  incloses  herewith  the  required  opinion : 

1.  That  fat  obtained  from  measly  hogs  by  rendering  or  cooking  may  be  utilized 
•unconditionally,  but  that  lean  meat  can  only  be  admitted  for  sale  or  for  use  in  one's 
•own  household  in  cases  where  it  is  only  slightly  infested  with  cysticerci  and  is 
.thoroughly  boiled  under  police  supervision  after  having  been  previously  cut  up.f 

2.  That  no  objection  whatever,  from  a  sanitary  police  standpoint,  can  be  raised 
;  against  the  use  of  suitable  parts  of  measly  hogs  in  the  preparation  of  soap  or  glue, 


*  These  regulations  will  become  applicable  throughout  the  whole  German  Empire 
-as  soon  as  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspection  Law  comes  into  force. 

f  According  to  a  decision  of  the  Second  Criminal  Senate  of  the  Imperial  Court, 
March  25,  1884  (p.  106),  the  rendered  fat  of  measly  hogs  is  to  be  sold  under 
•^declaration. 


454  INVASION   DISEASES 

or  against  the  free  utilization  of  the  skin  and  bristles,  and  the  chemical  utilization  oi 
the  whole  body;  and  that  these  usestare  to  be  permitted  without  hesitation. 

3.  That  in  all  cases  in  which  hogs  are  found  to  be  badly  infested  with  cysticercir 
care  must  be  exercised  by  the  police  to  secure  tiie  certain  destruction  of  the  carcass 
after  this  has  been  utilized  so  far  as  admissible.* 

With  reference  to  the  utilization  of  viscera  free  from  cysticerci, 
a  decree  of  the  Ministries  of  Interior  and  Education,  June  26,  1883,. 
permits  the  fat,  liver  and  intestines  of  hogs  found  to  be  measly  to 
be  freely  admitted  to  the  market  as  food  for  man,  provided  they 
have  been  found,  upon  examination,  to  be  free  from  cysticerci. 

In  Bavaria  the  following  regulations  are  in  force,  in  accordance 
with  the  opinion  of  the  Royal  Superior  Medical  Committee,, 
May  20,  1882  : 

1.  The  meat  of  hogs  extensively  infested  with  cysticerci  is  to  be  withheld  from 
consumption  and  from  the  public  market  and  is  to  be  rendered  harmless  in  a  suitable 
manner.     In  the  case  of  fut  hogs,  the  separation  and  removal  of  the  bacon  is  to  be 
allowed  at  the  request  of  the  owner.     No  objection  can  be  raised  to  the  technical 
utilization  of  such  animals. 

2.  In  cases  where  the  cysticerci  occur  only    sparingly    in  the   meat,    it   may, 
according  to  the  opinion  of  a  scientific  meat  inspector  and  after  it  lias  been  properly 
cooked  under  police  supervision,   be  turned  over  to  the  owner  for  use  in  his  own 
household.     The  owner  is  to  be  properly  instructed  concerning  the  danger  to  human 
health  from  measly  meat  and  is  to  be  made  cognizant  of  the  police  regulations  con- 
cerning the  control  of  such  matters. 

3.  The  public  sale  of  meat  slightly  infested  is  to  be  permitted  in  freibanks  under 
declaration  of  the  danger  from  the  meat,  only  after  it  has  been  properly  cooked  under 
police  supervision. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  meat  of  hogs  slightly  infested 
with  cysticerci  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  market  in  a  cooked  or 
pickled  condition  as  non-marketable.  The  fat  may  be  treated  by 
rendering  instead  of  boiling  or  pickling.  The  liver,  spleen,  kidneys, 
stomach  and  intestines  of  measly  hogs  may  be  utilized  in  a  raw 
condition  as  non-marketable,  provided  they  are  found  to  be  free 
from  cysticerci  by  veterinary  inspection. 

(c)  Trichina  Spiralis. 

ZOOLOGICAL  POSITION. — According  to  the  classification  of 
Schneider,  trichina  belongs  to  the  third  group  of  nematodes,  the 
Holomyaria.  It  is  the  only  representative  of  its  genus.  Other 


*In  the  Prussian  Governmental  district  of  Arnsberg,  it  is  provided  that  all 
measly  hogs,  whether  found  to  be  slightly  or  badly  infested  with  cysticerci,  are  to  be 
utilized  for  technical  purposes  only.  There  is  no  scientific  basis  for  such  a  rigorous- 
procedure. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  455 

nematodes  have  been  erroneously  considered  to  be  trichinae.* 
Distinction  is  made  between  sexually  immature  individuals  located 
in  the  intestines  and  the  larvae  which  are  found  in  the  musculature. 
It  is  only  the  latter,  the  so-called  muscle  trichinae,  which  possess 
sanitary  police  interest,  for  they  occur  spontaneously  in  one  food 
animal,  the  hog,  and  may  be  transmitted  through  the  meat  to  man 
and  cause  in  man  a  serious  disease — trichinosis. 

With  regard  to  the  history  of  trichina,  it  should  be  stated  that 
the  English  physician,  Hilton,  in  1832,  first  investigated  calcified 
trichinae  in  the  human  cadaver,  without,  however,  having  discovered 
the  worm  in  the  capsule.  According  to  Ziirn,  these  structures  were 
observed  in  1822  by  Tiedemann,  in  1828  by  Peacock.  The  worm 
contained  in  the  capsule  was  first  noticed  by  Paget  in  1835  in  an 
Italian  dead  of  tuberculosis,  and  was  described  by  Owen,  who 
received  material  from  Paget,  as  the  spiral  hair  worm  (Trichina 
spiralis).  After  this  determination  and  description,  the  matter 
rested.  Other  observations,  to  be  sure,  were  published  concerning 
the  occurrence  of  encapsulated  trichinae  in  man,  for  example,  in 
England,  in  Berlin,  Heidelberg,  and  in  North  America.  Further- 
more, the  parasite  was  found  by  Leidy  in  a  hog  in  Philadelphia  in 
1817  and  in  a  cat  by  Herbst  in  Gottingen,  and  by  Gurlt  in  Berlin. 
Moreover,  in  1850,  Herbst  succeeded  in  infecting  a  badger  with 
encapsuled  trichinae  from  a  dog ;  and  by  means  of  the  meat  of  the 
latter,  two  dogs  were  rendered  trichinous.  The  sanitary  police 
significance  of  trichina  was,  however,  first  recognized  in  1860,  as  a 
result  of  an  observation  of  Zenker  and  the  experimental  investiga- 
tions of  Leuckart  and  Virchow. 

Zenker  was  the  discoverer  of  trichinosis.  As  professor  of 
pathological  anatomy  and  general  pathology  at  the  Surgical-Medical 
Academy  in  Dresden,  he  held  an  autopsy  in  1860  on  a  nineteen- 
year-old  girl  who  had  been  received  in  the  Dresden  City  Hospital 
as  a  typhoid  patient  and  had  received  treatment  at  that  place.  In 


*  So-called  false  trichinae  occur  in  various  animals;  for  example,  in  the  muscula- 
ture and  other  parts  of  hare,  rats,  mice,  moles,  birds  and  fish,  nematodes  are 
sometimes  found  which,  in  their  external  form,  possess  a  certain  resemblance  to 
trichina,  and  have  consequently  been  considered  as  such  by  uninformed  persons.  To 
this  group  belong  the  ascarids  found  in  the  muscle  meat  of  moles,  the  filaria  larva) 
which  occur  under  the  serous  coat  of  the  intestines  in  rats,  the  round  worms  in  the 
mesentery  and  liver  of  white  fish,  the  muscle  nematodes  in  mice,  frogs  and  eels 
(Leuckart);  also  the  larvae  of  Strongylus  retortceformis  in  the  liver  of  hare;  the  larval 
forms  of  ascarids  in  pike  and  carp;  the  filaria  Iarva3  under  the  serous  coat  of  the 
intestines  of  ducks,  and  several  species  of  filaria  in  moles,  hedgehogs,  lizards,  mra,l 
worms,  etc.  For  farther  details,  see  Johne,  "  Der  Trichinenschauer." 


456 


INVASION  DISEASES 


FIG.   135. 


Intestinal  trichinae.     A,  female  giving  birth  to 
young;  J5,  male,  X  100  diam.  (after  Heller). 


making  the  post  mortem 
on  the  girl,  the  intestinal 
alterations  characteristic 
of  typhoid  were  not  found. 
On  the  other  hand,  Zeuker 
found  sexually  mature  tri- 
chinae in  the  intestines  and 
numerous  non-encapsuled 
trichina  larvae  in  the  mus- 
cles. Further  investiga- 
tion showed  that  the  girl 
took  sick  at  Christmas 
time  after  eating  pork  and 
that  the  butcher  who  had 
furnished  the  meat,  as  well 
as  several  of  his  customers, 
also  became  ill.  Several 
salted  pieces  of  the  sus- 
pected meat  were  found 
which  were  badly  infested 
with  trichinae.  This  de- 
monstration of  Zenker, 
which  was  corroborated 
by  Yirchow  and  Leuckart 
by  simultaneous  experi- 
ments with  some  of  Zen- 
ker's  material,  furnished 
proof  of  the  surprising  fact 
that  trichina,  which  had 
until  then  been  considered 
as  a  harmless  commensal 
organism,  was  a  dangerous 
enemy  of  man.  Leuckart 
fed  the  musculature  of  the 
trichinous  girl  to  a  dog 
and  also  fed  an  intestine 
of  the  dog,  filled  with  preg- 
nant trichinae,  to  a  hog, 
while  Virchow  undertook 
a  transmission  experiment 
by  feeding  Zenker's  ma- 
terial to  a  rabbit  OIL 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  45T 

precisely  the  same  day  Leuckarfc  and  Virchow  demonstrated  the 
presence  of  non-encapsuled  muscle  trichinae  in  their  experimental 
animals  and  thereby  determined  the  fact  that  muscle  trichinae 
could  be  produced  by  feeding  meat  which  contained  trichinae  to 
suitable  experimental  animals.  The  connecting  link  which  plays 
the  most  important  role  in  this  transmission,  the  sexually  mature 
developmental  stage  of  the  parasite  in  the  alimentary  canal,  was 
already  known  as  a  result  of  the  previous  researches  of  these  inves- 
tigators (1859).  Several  days  before  the  above  mentioned  discovery 
of  Leuckart  and  Virchow,  Zenker  investigated  the  intestine  of  the 
dead  servant-girl,  which  had  been  preserved  in  cold  storage,  and 
demonstrated  intestinal  trichinae  in  the  first  drops  of  intestinal 
mucus  which  he  examined. 

Soon  afterward,  the  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  in  Hettstadt  (1863) 
and  Hedersleben  (1865),  in  which  500  human  beings  were  affected 
and  129  died,  furnished  the  awful  confirmation  of  the  suspicions 
which  had  been  entertained  regarding  the  dangerousness  of  trichinae. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  trichinae  were  introduced  into  Europe 
from  Asia  by  migrating  rats.  According  to  Gerlach,  however, 
trichinae  were  quite  probably  introduced  into  Germany  in  Chinese 
hogs  which,  during  the  20's  and  30's  of  the  previous  century,  were 
used  in  England  and  northern  Germany  for  crossing  with  native 
races  in  order  to  increase  their  fattening  power.  Trichinosis  is  said 
to  be  frequent  in  China  and  the  small  Chinese  hogs  were  utilized 
in  Germany,  especially  in  those  regions  which  later  formed  the 
center  of  distribution  of  trichinae  in  the  province  and  kingdom  of 
Saxony.  As  Gerlach  rightfully  insists,  no  trichinae  were  found  in 
Europe  previous  to  the  20's  and  30's.  This  speaks  for  the  correct- 
ness of  the  assumption  of  Gerlach  against  the  migrating  rat  theory, 
since  the  migrating  rats  came  to  Germany  about  the  year  1770. 
Between  the  30's  and  50's  trichinae  were  found  accidentally  in  human 
cadavers  in  isolated  cases,  and  once  in  a  hog,  a  dog  and  a  cat.  It 
Tvas  not  until  the  60's  that  the  distribution  of  trichinae  increased  and 
became  permanently  established  in  infested  localities. 

BIOLOGY. — After  the  ingestion  of  trichinous  meat,  sexually 
mature,  so-called  intestinal  trichinae  develop  in  the  intestines  of 
certain  mammals  and  birds,  after  the  muscle  parasite  has  been  set 
free  from  its  capsule  by  the  gastric  juice.  Even  within  thirty  to 
forty-six  hours,  developed  trichinae  are  found  in  the  small  intestines 
where  the  males  and  females  copulate  before  the  second  day.  The 
Jemale  trichina,  which  reaches  a  length  of  3.5  mm.  or  more,  as  con- 


458  INVASION  DISEASES 

trasted  with  a  length  of  1.2  to  1.5  mm.  of  the  male,  is  viviparous. 
The  first  embryos  are  observed  within  six  to  seven  days  after  feed- 
ing trichinons  meat.  The  embryos  when  first  born  are  slender,, 
rod-like  structures  about  0.1  mm.  loug  and  0  0056  to  .006  mm.  in 
width.  The  expulsion  of  the  embryos  takes  place  by  pressure  from 
behind.  According  to  Leuckart,  a  female  trichina  gives  birth  to 
not  less  than  1,500,  and,  according  to  Braun,  to  from  8,000  to- 
10,000.  The  number  of  sexually  mature  males  and  females  in  the 
alimentary  tract  is  at  first  equal  ;  later  the  number  of  males 
diminishes  more  and  more,  and  at  from  ten  to  fourteen  days  after 
infection  one  finds  almost  exclusively  female  trichinae  (J.  Vogel). 
[From,  this  fact  we  may  conclude  that  the  male  trichinae  die  soon 
after  copulation  and  are  digested  or  carried  out  with  the  feces. 
The  females  have  an  average  life  of  from  five  to  six  weeks,  but  may 
live  for  twelve  weeks. 

Leuckart,  Pagenstecker,  et  a?.,  have  assumed  that  female 
trichinae  give  birth  to  embryos  in  the  lumen  of  the  intestine,  and 
that  the  latter,  after  a  short  sojourn  in  the  intestinal  mucus, 
penetrate  the  intestinal  wall,  enter  the  peritoneal  cavity,  thence 
into  the  thoracic  cavity,  and  finally,  following  the  course  of  the 
strands  of  connective  tissue,  migrate  actively  into  the  voluntary 
musculature.  Probstmayr,  however,  emphasized  the  fact  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  demonstrate  trichina  embryos  in  the  intestinal 
contents.  Moreover,  Heitzmann  rightfully  argued  against  the 
migration  theory,  that  the  embryos  at  first  possess  no  boring 
apparatus,  and  that,  since  they  are  found  in  the  skeletal  muscles 
within  a  few  days,  they  must  have  travelled  a  tremendous  distance, 
as  compared  with  their  size.  Heitzmann,  accordingly,  considers  it 
as  certain  that  the  trichina  embryos  are  carried  into  the  blood 
circulation  by  means  of  the  lymph  stream  and  are  caught  as  emboli 
in  the  capillaries  of  the  striated  muscles. 

The  assumption  of  the  translocation  of  the  embryonic  trichinae 
by  means  of  the  circulating  blood  was  substantiated«by  the  almost 
simultaneous  researches  of  Cerfontaine,  Geisse  and  Askanazy,  but 
especially  by  the  thorough-going  experiments  which  were  instituted 
by  Graham  in  Munich  under  the  direction  of  Hertwig.  In  harmony 
with  the  statement  of  Geisse,  Graham  found  that  the  intestinal 
trichinae,  both  males  and  females,  bore  into  the  interior  of 
Lieberkiihn's  glands  with  the  anterior  end  of  the  body,  and  that 
while  in  this  position  the  females  expel  the  embryos  which  are 
carried  into  the  circulating  blood  through  the  chyle  vessels. 
Graham  demonstrated  with  certainty  that  the  trichina  embryos. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


459 


make  their  way  into  the  blood  through  the  thoracic  duct  and  are 
carried  into  the  muscles  by  the  circulating  blood.  In  agreement 
with  this  finding,  we  have  the  occurrence  of  trichina  embryos  in  the 
lymph  glands  observed  by  Virchow  and  later  by  Askanazy  and 
Graham,  and  the  finding  of  trichinae  in  the  blood  by  Zenker,  Col- 
berg,  Probstmayr  and  Fiedler. 

FIG.  137. 


FIG.  136. 


L 


Isolated  muscle  fiber  from  a  rat,  which 
was  killed  16  days  after  the  first  and 
9  days  after  the  last  feeding  with  tri- 
chinons  meat,  X  510  diameters.  A 
migrating  trichina.  The  posterior  end 
was  pulled  out  of  the  muscle  fiber  in 
preparation  (after  Hertwig). 


Longitudinal  section  through  the  muscula- 
ture of  a  rat,  which  was  killed  19  days 
after  the  first  and  10  days  after  the  last 
feeding.  X  310  diameters.  Disappear- 
ance of  striation  in  muscle  fibers  pene- 
trated by  trichina?  and  great  multiplica- 
tion and  enlargement  of  the  muscle 
nuclei  near  the  trichinse  (after  Hertwig). 


Trichina  embryos  were  never  seen  by  Graham  in  the  free 
spaces  of  the  body  cavity  in  which  they  must  first  appear  if  they 
travel  by  active  migration.  "Whenever  they  are  found  in  that  situa- 
tion, the  fact  is  to  be  explained  by  an  injury  to  the  thoracic  duct  or 
blood  vessels  during  exenteration  of  the  peritoneal  cavity. 

Graham  was  able  to  demonstrate  trichina  larvae  in  sections  iri 
a  small  artery  and  in  muscle  capillaries.  By  way  of  confirmation^ 


460 


INVASION  DISEASES 


of  a  view  held  by  Van  Beneden,  Graham  also  observed,  not  infre- 
quently, larvae  which  passed  out  of  the  capillary  as  a  result  of 
stasis  or  hemorrhage.  From  the  capillaries  the  trichina  embryos 
make  their  way  immediately  into  the  sarcolemmal  sheath  (Fig.  136). 
From  the  existence  of  canals  which  Graham  observed  behind 
trichinae,  it  is  to  be  concluded  that  trichina  embryos  are  able  to 
migrate  into  the  sarcolemmal  sheaths.  The  migration  finds  its 
natural  limit  in  the  tendons  and  aponeuroses,  whereby  the  accumu- 
lation of  trichinae  at  these  points  is  explained. 


FIG.  138. 


Fm.  139. 


Muscle  trichina  .4  mm.  long, 

15  days  after  feeding 

(Leuckart). 


Muscle  trichinae,  7  weeks  old,  in  the  enlarge- 
ments of  the  sarcolemmal  sheaths 
(Leuckart). 


One  observes  the  first  trichina  larvae  in  the  musculature  within 
seven  or  eight  days  after  infection  of  the  experimental  animals. 
The  youngest  stages  of  the  muscle  trichinae  are  0.1  mm.  long  and 
are  therefore  of  the  same  size  as  the  trichina  embryos  at  birth. 
This  fact  argues  likewise  for  the  distribution  of  the  trichinae  by  the 
circulating  blood.  According  to  a  statement  of  Gerlach,  the  greatest 
number  of  migrating  muscle  trichinae  are  to  be  found  between  the 
twelfth  and  twentieth  days. 

After  the  end  of  the  period  of  migration  into  the  muscle  fibers 
the  trichina  embryos  pass  into  a  stage  of  rest,  in  order  to  grow.  A 
loss  of  the  transverse  striation  takes  place  in  the  sarcolemmal 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


461 


«heaths  which  are  affected  by  the  invasion  of  the  trichina  embryos. 
The  muscle  fibers  assume  at  first  a  homogeneous,  and  later  a  granu- 
lar character.  Furthermore,  the  muscle  nuclei  increase  in  number 
and  finally  become  so  large  that  their  transverse  diameter  about 
equals  one-half  the  diameter  of  the  muscle  fibers  (Fig.  137).  A 
granular  mass  lies  around  the  nucleus. 

The  growth  of  the  trichinae  is  complete  about  three  weeks  after 
feeding  trichinous  meat.  Their  size  then  reaches  0.8  to  1  mm. 
After  their  growth  is  completed,  the  muscle  trichinae  assume  a- 
variously  curved  and  coiled  form  with  simultaneous  fusiform  dis- 
tension of  the  sarcolemma  (Fig.  139).  During  the  course  of  the 
second  month  the  trichinous  muscle  fibers  collapse  in  consequence- 


FIG.  140. 


FIG.  141. 


Encapsuled  trichina.      Trichina 
capsule  with  persistent  sarco- 
lemma and  polar  fat  cells. 
(Leuckart.) 


Primary  calcified  trichinae  with  intact 
capsule,  X  35  diameters. 


of  the  resorption  of  the  disintegrated  contractile  substance.  Simul- 
taneously the  first  appearance  of  the  trichina  capsule  at  the  poles 
of  the  fusiform  enlargement  is  noted.  At  the  end  of  the  third 
month,  the  trichinae  are  enveloped  by  fully  developed  capsules- 
which  lie  in  the  long  axis  of  the  muscle  fibers  (Fig.  140).  After 
the  encapsulation  of  the  trichina  larvae  in  well  fed  animals,  a 
development  of  fat  cells  frequently  takes  place  in  the  collapsed 
sarcolemma  immediately  around  the  poles  of  the  trichina  cap- 
sules. This  polar  fat  tissue  may  be  so  extensive  as  to  render  the 
•trichinae  recognizable  by  the  naked  eye  (Figs.  143,  144). 

The  ultimate   fate   of  muscle   trichinae  varies.    According  to* 


462 


INVASION  DISEASES 


Leuckart,  we  may  observe  incipient  calcification  of  the  capsules 
within  six  months  after  the  animals  have  been  affected  (Fig.  142,  b\ 
According  to  the  same  author,  a  period  of  15  or  16  months  is 
necessary  for  the  complete  impregnation  of  the  capsules  with  lime 
salts  (Fig.  142,  d).  These  statements,  however,  do  not  agree  with 
the  expeiience  of  practical  meat  inspectors.  Thus,  in  two  hogs 
9  and  12  months  old,  Blome  found  completely  calcified  trichina 
capsules,  the  original  form  of  which  became  again  apparent  after 
treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid.  The  trichinae  may  become  visible 
even  to  the  naked  eye  as  a  result  of  complete  calcification. 

The  process  of  calcification  is  usually  confined  to  the  cap- 
sules, so  that  perfectly  intact  trichinae  may  be  found  in  capsulea 
which  are  totally  calcified.  According  to  Leuckart,  the  parasites 


FIG.  142. 


Normal  calcification  of  trichinae  in  different  stages. 

a,  intact  trichina;  b,  calcification  of  the  poles;  c,  incomplete  calcification,  the 
parasite  being  visible ;  d,  complete  calcification. 

themselves  become  calcified  under  normal  conditions  after  a  long 
period  (ten  years  or  more).  It  has  also  been  demonstrated  that 
muscle  trichinae  more  than  ten  years  of  age  may  possess  perfect 
vital  powers.  Thus  Dammann  demonstrated  that  trichinae  11£ 
years  old  were  still  capable  of  producing  infestation,  and  Langer- 
hans  demonstrated  this  power  for  isolated  trichinae  in  one  case  in 
which  the  age  of  the  parasite  was  probably  31  years.  In  the  case 
reported  by  Dammann,  it  was  a  striking  fact  that  the  trichina  cap- 
sules were  not  completely  calcified,  but  were  so  transparent  that 
the  trichinae  contained  in  them  could  be  seen.  Leuckart  expressed 
the  opinion  that  trichinae  do  not  calcify  until  after  the  capsule  is 
completely  incrusted  with  lime  salts.  The  writer,  however,  has- 
observed  primarily  calcified  trichinae  in  perfectly  transparent  cap- 
sules in  hogs  (Fig.  141). 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  463 

The  question  has  been  raised  concerning  the  reason  why 
trichina  laivae  occur  only  in  the  musculature  and  not  in  other 
organs;  also  why  it  is  that  trichinae  are  found  in  certain  striated 
muscles  more  frequently  than  in  others,  and  in  one,  the  heart,  not 
at  all.  These  facts  appear  not  to  harmonize  completely  with  the 
distribution  of  trichina  embryos  by  means  of  the  circulating 
blood. 

To  the  first  question  Graham  gave  the  satisfactory  answer  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  exclusive  infestation  of  the  muscles  was  based 
on  the  occurrence  of  encapsuled  trichinae.  Thudichum  has  demon- 
strated that  in  artificially  infested  animals  trichina  embryos  may  be 

FIG.   144. 


FIG.  143. 


Trichinous  hog  musculature  with  unnsu-  Trichinous  hog  musculature  with  unusu- 
ally strong  development  of  the   polar  ally  strong  development  of  the  polar 
fat  tissue,     a,  trichina  capsule;  o,  fat  fat  tissue.     X  35  diameters, 
tissue.     Natural  size. 

found  within  seven  clays  after  infestation  in  the  muscles,  lungs,  thy- 
mus  and  lymphatic  glands.  Yirchow  also,  and  others,  as  already 
mentioned,  have  observed  the  occurrence  of  trichinae  in  the 
lymphatic  glands  and  A>kanazy  observed  them  in  the  lungs.  If 
later  no  encapsuled  trichinae  are  found  in  these  locations,  this  con- 
dition is  due,  according  to  the  researches  of  Graham,  to  the  fact 
that  trichina  embryos  are  unable  to  grow  except  inside  of  striated 
muscle  fibers  which  are  provided  with  sarcolemma  and  that  in  all 
other  parts  of  the  body  they  disintegrate  after  a  short  time.  Tri- 
chinae die  even  in  the  perimysiurn  internmn  if  they  do  not  succeed 
in  making  their  way  into  the  muscle  fibers  immediately  after  leav- 


464  INVASION   DISEASES 

ing  the  circulating  blood.  The  fact  should  be  emphasized  that 
Graham,  contrary  to  the  statement  of  Chatin,  never  saw  trichinae 
either  free  or  encapsuled  in  the  adipose  tissue.  For  the  rest,  the 
localization  of  trichina  embryos  in  the  musculature  is  favored  by 
the  fact  that  the  newly  born  trichinae  are  of  about  the  thickness  of 
the  muscle  capillaries,  which,  together  with  those  of  the  retina,  are 
the  smallest  in  the  body.  If,  now,  the  lumen  of  the  capillaries  is 
lessened  by  contractions  of  the  muscles,  the  trichina  embryos, 
which  can  pass  through  all  other  capillaries,  excepting  only  those 
of  the  lungs,  are  prevented  from  moving  farther.  Trichina  embryos 
have  been  found  by  Askanazy  in  the  lung  capillaries,  which  may 
be  constricted  during  expiration. 

Encapsuled  trichinae  have  never  been  found  in  the  muscula- 
ture of  the  heart.  On  the  other  hand,  Thudichum  observed  a  free 
trichina  between  the  myocardium  and  the  endocardium,  a  second 
immediately  under  the  endocardium,  and  a  third  between  the 
muscle  fibers  of  the  myocardium.  Graham  frequently  saw  embryos 
in  large  numbers  in  badly  infested  rats  between  the  fibers  of  the 
myocardium  which  were  partly  penetrated  and  otherwise  injured. 
The  trichinae,  however,  always  remain  outside  of  the  muscle  fibers, 
since  the  sarcolemma  is  wanting  and  the  disintegrated  contractile 
substance  floats  away.  Furthermore,  trichinae  do  not  find  the 
required  conditions  for  their  growth  in  the  myocardium  and  there- 
fore disintegrate  in  this  organ.  One  finds  embryos  inside  of  small 
inflammatory  foci,  in  which  position  they  die.  Moreover,  the 
embryos  which  have  made  their  way  into  the  myocardium  migrate 
out  into  the  pericardium,  in  which  they  may  be  present  in  large 
numbers  (Graham). 

Trichinae  are  not  found  uniformly  distributed  in  the  rest  of  the 
striated  musculature.  Certain  muscles  and  groups  of  muscles  are,, 
with  great  regularity,  more  extensively  infested  with  parasites  than 
others.  These  muscles  are  characterized  as  preferred  locations  of" 
the  parasites.  Among  these  preferred  sites  for  trichinae,  mention 
maybe  made  of  the  muscular  portion  of  the  diaphragm,  muscle* 
of  the  larynx  and  tongue,  and  to  a  less  degree,  the  abdominal  and 
intercostal  muscles.  The  striking  preference  of  trichina  for  the 
respiratory  muscles  is  explained  by  Graham  as  due  to  their  greater 
richness  in  blood  and  by  Heitzmann  as  due  to  the  regular  contrac- 
tions and  consequent  diminution  of  the  lumen  of  the  capillaries. 
Undoubtedly  the  fact  emphasized  by  Heitzmann  plays  the  chief 
role  in  entrapping  the  trichina  embryos.  The  same  fact  may  also- 
explain  the  frequency  of  trichinae  in  the  tongue  of  the  hog,  since- 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


465 


FIG.  145. 


this  muscular  organ  in  hogs  fed  in  confinement  is  used  most  fre- 
quently of  all  the  muscles  which  come  into  function  periodically. 

Pathological  Encapsulation  of  Trichince. — Leuckart  was  the  first 
to  report  the  frequent  finding  of  muscle  trichinae  in  hogs,  in  which 
the  connective  tissue  membranes  which  arise  as  a  result  of  reaction; 
toward  the  surrounding  tissue  become  so  greatly  distended  as  to 
reach  the  length  of  1  mm.  These  abnormal  proliferations  of  con- 
nective tissue  prevent  the  formation 
of  true  transparent  chitinous  trichina 
capsules  and  occasion  the  premature 
death  of  the  enclosed  parasite  with 
a  final  deposition  of  lime  salts.  Cal- 
cification in  such  cases  may  be  so 
complete  that  no  trace  of  the  trichina 
itself  remains  after  the  lime  salts 
have  been  dissolved  by  acids.  Only 
the  peculiar  fusiform  shape,  the  size 
not  exceeding  0.5  to  1  mm.,  and  the 
position  of  the  structures  in  the 
muscle  fibers  demonstrate  that  we 
are  dealing  with  the  remains  of  tri- 
china (Figs.  145,  184). 

Degeneration  of  Trichince. — In  the 
case  mentioned  above,  Langerhans 
observed  alterations  in  the  trichinae 
and  their  capsules  which  must  be 
considered  as  phenomena  of  degen- 
eration. Some  of  the  capsules  were 
quite  empty ;  in  others  with  a  per- 
fectly intact  wall,  recently  formed 
connective  tissue  and  adipose  tissue 
were  found  which  had  originated  from  included  cells.  The  trichinae 
were  disintegrated  and  entirely  or  partly  resorbed.  Langerhans 
believed  that  he  was  justified  in  concluding  from  his  researches 
that  a  decalcification  and  even  a  resorption  of  the  capsules  may 
take  place  after  the  disappearance  of  the  trichinae.  Accordingly, 
contrary  to  the  belief  entertained  up  to  this  time,  an  invasion  of 
trichinae  does  not  terminate  with  their  calcification,  but  with  their 
complete  resorptiou. 


Pathologically  altered  trichina  cap- 
sules with  proliferating  connective- 
tissue  membranes  and  dead  worms. 
From  a  hog.  (Leuckart.) 


INVASION   DISEASES 

MORPHOLOGY. — Non-calcified,  but  completely  developed,  muscle 
trichinae  consist  of  a  lemon-shaped,  or  more  nearly  spherical,  trans- 
parent, double-contoured  trichina  capsule,  and  the  spirally  coiled 
worm.  According  to  Dammarm,  the  length  of  the  trichina  capsule 
is  about  0.495  mm. ;  the  width,  0.415 ;  and  the  thickness  of  the  cap- 
sule wall,  0.05  mm.  The  length  of  the  worm  is  0.8  to  1  mm.  and  its 
greatest  breadth,  0.03  to  0.055  mm.  In  muscles  which  still  possess 
animal  heat,  one  observes  tactile  movements  executed  by  the  anterior 
end  of  the  worm  in  its  capsule.  In  cold  muscles  it  is  possible  to 
induce  these  movements  by  treatment  with  warm  water  or  concen- 
trated potash  lye,  and  thereby  demonstrate  that  the  muscle  trichinae 
are  still  living. 

With  regard  to  the  finer  structure  of  the  muscle  trichinae  the 
following  points  of  diagnostic  importance  may  be  mentioned. 
Muscle  trichinae  are  provided  with  a  thin  transparent  and  struc- 
tureless cuticula.  The  anterior  end  is  pointed,  narrower  than  the 
posterior  end,  and  furnished  with  a  small,  circular  mouth  opening. 
The  mouth  leads  into  the  pharynx,  a  light-colored  tubular  structure, 
which,  at  its  posterior  end,  passes  over  into  the  esophagus,  which 
in  turn  is  surrounded  by  a  band  of  large  nucleated  cells,  the 
so-called  cellular  body.  The  posterior  end  is  thickened  and  pro- 
vided with  a  cloacal  slit.  The  simple  genital  sac,  which  begins 
blindly  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  parasite,  is  rudimentary  (Fig. 
148). 

The  origin  of  the  trichina  capsule  has  been  an  unsettled 
question.  Virchow  attributed  the  capsules  to  the  sarcolemma  i 
others  to  the  granular  tissue  which  forms  around  the  parasite. 
Hertwig,  in  co-operation  with  Graham,  undertook  researches  on 
this  disputed  question,  from  which  it  appears  that  primarily  the 
sarcolemma,  with  the  presence  of  which,  as  already  mentioned,  thei 
development  of  the  trichina  embryos  is  essentially  connected,  but 
secondarily  also  the  granulation  tissue  is  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  trichina  capsule.  According  to  Hertwig  and  Graham, 
one  observes,  about  four  weeks  after  artificial  infection,  that  the 
granular  nucleated  contents  of  the  primitive  bundles  are  degene- 
rated. Nuclei  and  protoplasm  together  present  a  glossy,  swollen 
appearance.  Their  mass,  especially  outside  of  the  spindle-like 
swelling,  is  considerably  diminished.  The  latter  become  elongated 
at  both  ends  into  fine  threads.  The  swelling  and  the  threads  are 
surrounded  by  a  gelatinous  sheath  which  was  observed  by  Leuckart 
and  was  considered  by  him  to  be  a  thickened  sarcolemma  (Fig.  139). 
Upon  the  outside  of  the  gelatinous  sheath  there  is  a  zone  of 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


4<»7 


inflamed  connective  tissue  which  is  extensively  permeated  with  con- 
nective tissue  cells  and  leucocytes. 

In  more  advanced  stages  of  capsule  formation,  one  observes  the 
disappearance  of  the  degenerated  muscle  mass  in  the  region  of  the 
thread-like  elongations.  The  connection  with  the  material  which 
surrounds  the  trichina  is  broken  and  in  the  interior  of  the  gelatin- 
ous strand  which  originated  from  the  sarcolemma  one  still  observes 

FIG.  146. 


.if 


FIG.  147. 


Longitudinal  section  through  the  muscu- 
lature of  a  rat  which  was  killed  37  days 
after  the  first  and  30  days  after  the  last 
feeding,  X  310  diameters,  a,  thick- 
ened sarcolemma;  b,  remains  of  disin- 
tegrated muscle  substance;  c,  prolifer- 
ating connective  tissue  cells;  d,  tri- 
china. (After  Hertwig.) 


Piece  of  a  trichina  capsule  isolated  by 
teasing,  from  a  rat  killed  37  days  after 
the  first  and  30  days  after  the  last  feed- 
ing, a-d,  as  in  Fig.  146;  e,  connective 
tissue  cells  which  have  wandered  into 
the  thickened  sarcolemma  and  are 
organizing  the  trichina  capsule.  (After 
Hertwig.) 


here  and  there  the  remains  of  nuclei  and  granular  masses  which  are 
gradually  being  absorbed.  At  about  this  time  begins  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  definite  trichina  capsule.  Cells  migrate  out  from  both 
ends  of  the  inflamed  connective  tissue  and  pass  into  the  gelatinous 
layer  which  surrounds  the  trichina  and  its  food  material.  Small 
••mnective  tissue  cells  with  branched  processes  are  to  be  observed 
in  the  gelatinous  substance  aud  new  cells  appear  also  in  the  detri- 


468  INVASION  DISEASES 

tus  with  which  the  trichina  is  surrounded.  They  form  small  groups 
of  cells  at  both  poles  (Figs.  146,  147).  According  to  Hertwig  and 
Graham,  it  is  probable  that  the  new,  firmer  cyst  is  secreted  by  the 
wandering  connective  tissue  cells  in  the  region  of  the  old  gela- 
tinous sheath,  for  the  cysts  exhibit  stratification  marks  parallel 
with  the  surface,  and  evident  cells  are  still  observed  between  the 
layers  in  young  capsules,  while  later  the  cells  are  replaced  Avith 
granular  masses  which  are  entirely  wanting  in  the  old  capsules. 

In  the  account  as  given  by  Hertwig  and  Graham,  we  find  an 
explanation  of  the  remarkable  lemon-like  form  of  the  trichina  cyst. 
The  wall  of  the  cyst  is  much  thickened  at  both  poles,  since  the  con- 
nective tissue  cells  penetrate  at  these  points  and  are  hence  found 
there  in  larger  numbers  than  at  other  points  of  the  periphery. 

OCCURRENCE. — Among  the  animals  used  for  food,  only  the  hog 
and  the  dog  are  infested  with  trichina.  Trichinae  occur  also  in  the 
wild  hog,  cat,  bear,  fox,  badger,  marten  and  pole  cat. 

Trichinae  may  be  artificially  transmitted  to  a  majority  of  the 
mammals.  Hogs  and  the  small  experimental  animals  of  the  labor- 
atory, guinea  pigs,  rabbits,  rats  and  mice,  are  most  susceptible. 
The  transmission  to  cattle,  sheep  and  the  horse  is  more  difficult. 
After  feeding  trichinous  material  to  calves  and  sheep,  there  is,  as  a 
rule,  a  development  of  intestinal  trichinae  only  and  no  muscle 
trichinae.  The  same  is  true  of  birds.  Cold  blooded  animals  are  not 
susceptible. 

The  importance  of  trichinae  lies  in  their  transmissibility  to  man^ 
Man  commonly  becomes  infested  by  eating  pork.  Occasionally, 
also,  the  meat  of  dogs,  cats,  foxes,  badgers,  as  well  as  of  bears  from 
the  zoological  gardens,*  may  lead  to  the  development  of  trichinae  in 
man.  The  chief  source  of  trichinae  in  man,  however,  is  the 
domestic  hog.f 


*  Yon  Bockum  found  trichinae  also  in  two  hind  quarters  of  bears  which  were 
introduced  from  the  Caucasus. 

f  As  contrasted  with  the  numerous  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  as  a  result  of  eating: 
pork  (see  page  478),  there  are  but  few  reports  concerning  trichinosis  as  a  result  of" 
eating  wild  hogs,  although  these  animals  are  infested  with  trichina)  with  comparative 
frequency.  Eulenberg  reports  a  case  of  trichinosis  in  man  which  was  referable  to  the 
consumption  of  the  meat  of  wild  hogs  (Lippspringe,  1876).  Furthermore,  Wiirtz 
mentions  two  cases  of  trichinosis  in  man  after  eating  wild  hogs.  Finally,  in  recent 
times  an  epidemic  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  Xainur  as  a  result  of  the  consumption  of 
the  meat  of  wild  hogs.  The  sanitary  police  has  accordingly  taken  account  of  the- 
occurrence  of  trichina  in  wild  hogs  by  instituting  obligatory  inspection  for  trichina. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  469 

The  hog  most  probably  becomes  infested  by  eating  trichinous 
rats.  Both  the  house  rat  and  the  migrating  rat  are  the  normal 
hosts  of  trichina  (Leuckart).  This  statement  is  substantiated  by 
the  fact  that  rats  are  infested  with  trichina  very  frequently,  much 
more  frequently  than  the  hog. 

Heller  states  that  among  704  rats  from  twenty-nine  localities 
In  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemburg  and  Austria,  8.3  percent,  were 
trichinous.  Of  the  rats  caught  about  knackers'  establishments,  22.1 
per  cent,  were  infested,  2.3  per  cent,  of  those  around  abattoirs,  and 
0.3  per  cent,  of  those  killed  in  other  localities.  As  a  rule,  they  were 
l>adly  infested.  Leiseriug  examined  rats  from  eighteen  knackers* 
establishments  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  found  that  the  rats 
from  fourteen  of  these  establishments  contained  trichinae.  Gerlach 
determined  that  the  majority  of  the  rats  from  stalls  of  the  Hanover 
butchers  in  which  trichinous  hogs  had  been  kept  were  trichinous. 
Adam  found  two  out  of  eighteen  rats  from  the  knackers'  establish- 
ments of  Augsburg  to  be  trichinous  ;  Franck  found  two  out  of 
thirty-three  rats  from  the  Munich  slaughterhouse  and  seven  out  of 
seventy-seven  from  the  knackers'  establishments  of  Erlangen,  Niirn- 
burg  and  Kronach ;  and  Fessler  found  not  less  than  twelve  out  of 
twenty-four  rats  from  the  city  abattoir  and  meat  market  in  Bamberg 
to  be  infested  with  trichinae.  In  Blankenburg,  where,  until  1868, 
trichinosis  occurred  in  man  for  many  years  in  succession,  it  was 
shown  by  Miiller  that  all  rats  which  were  captured  about  knackers' 
establishments  were  infested  with  trichinae.  Roll  demonstrated 
trichinae  in  one  out  of  146  rats  in  the  city  of  Vienna,  seven  out  of 
forty-seven  rats  from  knackers'  establishments  and  also  in  twenty 
out  of  thirty-one  rats  from  the  Moravian  cities  Brilnn,  Ostrau  and 
Privos.  Csokor  found  5  per  cent,  of  the  rats  about  the  slaughter- 
houses in  St.  Marx  to  be  trichinous.  Trichinae  have  also  been 
found  in  rats  in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  Genersich  found  muscle 
trichinae  in  ten  and  intestinal  trichinae  in  two  out  of  183  rats 
•captured  in  Hungary.  The  trichinous  rats  were  captured  ex- 
clusively in  two  places  (Mills).  Billings  found  trichinae  to  be 


in  all  these  animals  brought  to  the  market.     The  inspection  should  preferably  take 
place  at  the  locality  where,  the  meat  is  cut  up  and  sold. 

In  localities  where  dogs  are  slaughtered,  these  animals  must  also  be  inspected  for 
trichinae  (Leistikow),  and,  in  general,  an  inspection  for  trichinae  is  to  be  practiced  on 
all  animals  which  are  known  to  be  occasional  hosts  of  trichina,  if  they  are  utilized  in 
exceptional  cases  as  human  food  (bears,  badgers,  foxes  and  cats).  The  inspection  of 
slaughtered  dogs  for  trichinae  was  introduced  into  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  by- 
regulation  of  July  6,  1901. 


•470  INVASION   DISEASES 

extraordinarily  frequent  in  rats  in  Boston.  In  one  of  the  export 
abattoirs  of  that  city,  all  of  the  rats  were  trichinous  ;  in  a  knacker's 
establishment  76  per  cent.,  and  in  the  city  of  Boston  as  a  whole, 
10  per  cent. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  trichina  in  rats  is  explained  by  the 
gregarious  habits  of  the  rats  in  filthy  places,  such  as  knackers' 
establishments  and  abattoirs,  where  the  offal  of  trichinous  hogs 
becomes  accessible  to  them ;  and  also  by  the  fact  that  rats  eat  the 
bodies  of  their  own  species.  Hogs  are  clever  rat  catchers  and  this 
fact  explains  the  spontaneous  occurrence  of  trichinosis  in  hogs. 

In  addition  to  this  method  of  invasion,  the  infestation  of  hogs 
as  a  result  of  eating  other  trichinous  material,  such  as  tiichinous 
pork,  plays  a  subordinate  role.  On  the  other  hand,  the  distribu- 
tion of  trichina  among  American  hogs  is  in  part  to  be  attributed  to 
feeding  upon  slaughterhouse  offal. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  trichinae  in  rats  about  knackers' 
establishments  furnishes  an  explanation  of  the  fact  that  hogs 
fattened  by  knackers  are  often  all  trichinous. 

It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  Blome  demonstrated  that  among 
ten  hogs  found  to  be  trichinous  in  the  district  of  Arnsberg  during 
a  period  of  twelve  years,  one-half  were  brood  sows,  although  such 
animals  were  not  killed  except  in  small  numbers.  This  is  undoubt- 
edly due  to  the  fact  that  brood  sows  reach  the  greatest  age  of  all 
hogs  and  thus  have  the  greatest  opportunity  for  ingesting  trichinae. 

For  the  rest,  trichinae  occur  in  the  hogs  of  all  countries.  Since 
the  introduction  of  inspection  for  trichinae,  these  parasites  have 
been  demonstrated  most  frequently  in  northern  Germany.  They 
are  found,  however,  in  the  practice  of  organized  trichina  inspection 
in  isolated  cities  of  Bavaria,  and,  moreover,  have  been  demonstrated 
in  hogs  from  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  Italy,  France,  England, 
Denmark,  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  with  special  frequency  in  hogs 
from  North  America. 

Statistics  concerning  the  frequency  of  trichinous  hogs  are 
accessible  only  for  Germany  and  America.  In  Germany  the  average 
per  cent,  in  different  years  varies  between  0.004  (Kingdom  of  Sax- 
ony, 1899)  and  .OH  (Kingdom  of  Prussia,  1899).  In  the  Prussian 
governmental  district  of  Posen,  there  are  certain  localities  in  which 
as  high  as  1.5  per  cent,  of  the  slaughtered  hogs  are  trichinous.^  As 
a  rule,  about  2  per  cent,  of  American  hogs  are  trichinous. 

*  In  such  localities  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  a  regulation  that  in  all  places  in 
which  trichinous  hogs  were  found  the  rats  should  be  destroyed  as  far  as  possible  and 
their  bodies  burned. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  471, 

In  Germany  the  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  trichinosis  in 
hogs  has  diminished  in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years.  This 
encouraging  fact  may  be  regarded  as  a  result  of  trichina  inspection, 
through  which  the  trichinous  hogs  are  recognized  and  their  meat 
rendered  innocuous.  The  following  figures  may  serve  to  indicate 
the  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  trichinae  in  native  hogs,  the 
number  of  trichiuous  hogs  being  indicated  by  a  per  cent.: 

(a)  Kingdom  of  Prussio.—lSIS  to  1885,  0.061  to  .048;    1888  to 
J892,  .033  to  .043 ;  1896,  .021 ;  1899,  .014. 

(b)  Kingdom  of  Saxony.— 1891,  0.014;  1895,  .012;  1899,  .004. 

(c)  Berlin.— 1883  to  1893, 0.035' to.064  ;  1893  to  1899,  .022  to  .015. 

Frequency  of  the  Occurrence  of  Trichinae  in  Foreign  Hogrs. 

(a)  United  States  of  America. — According  to  Ziirn  and  others,  in 
American  pork  imported  before  1891,  the  following  percentages  were 
found  to  be  trichinous  :  In  Ludwigshafen,  1   per  cent.;  Hamburg, 
1.26;  Kostock,  2;  Barel,  2  ;  Kiel,  2.36  ;  Gottingen,  3  ;  Bamberg,  3; 
Gothenburg,  4;  Mailand,  4.8  ;  Elbing,  5  ;  Heilbronn,  8.* 

At  the  instigation  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Health,  Drs.  Belfield 
and  Atwood  examined  100  hogs  for  the  presence  of  trichinae 
in  1868  and  of  this  number  8  were  trichinons.  According  to  Salmon, 
18,889  hogs  were  examined  for  the  presence  of  trichinae,  and  of  this 
number  517,  or  2.7  per  cent.,  were  found  to  be  infested.  Of  the 
999,554  hogs  inspected  in  1900,  19,448,  or  1.95  per  cent,  were  found 
to  be  trichinous.  The  number  of  trichinous  hogs,  however,  varied 
in  different  localities  between  0.28  and  16.3  per  cent.  .According  to 
a  note  in  the  Berliner  Tierarztl.  Wochenschrift,  in  1890, 10  per  cent, 
of  the  female  hogs  and  14.87  per  cent,  of  the  male  hogs  in  the  city 
of  Boston  were  found  to  be  trichinous,  while  on  an  average  from  2 
to  3  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  raised  further  inland  were  infested  with 
trichinae.  Finally,  among  88  hogs  imported  from  America,  into 
Dresden  in  1881,  14,  or  15.9  per  cent.,  were  trichiuous. 

(b)  Demark. — Krabbe,  during  the  years  1866  to  1892,  demon- 
strated the  presence   of  trichinae  in  36  Danish  herds  of  hogs.     In 
Hamburg,  26  trichinous  hogs  of  Danish  origin  were  found  in  1886, 
23  in  1887  and  15  in  1895.     Moreover,    in    1895    trichinae    were 
repeatedly  found  in  pieces  of  Danish  pork,  especially  in  loin  roasts 
and  hog  necks  in  Hamburg  and  other  German  cities. 


For  an  account  of  the  controversy  concerning  Trichina'  in  American  pork. 
,  Trichinosis  in  Germany,  Bureau,  of  Animal  Industry.  Bui.  30. — TRANSLATOR. 


472  INVASION  DISEASES 

(c)  Austria-Hungary. — The  reports  on  meat  inspection  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony  contain  interesting  data  concerning  the  occur- 
rences  of    trichinae   in   Austrian    and    Hungarian    hogs.     Among 
Austrian  and  Hungarian  fat  hogs  the  following  numbers  were  found 
trichinous  :  in  1892,  11 ;  in  1893,  9 ;  in  1894,  9. 

In  1895,  0.024  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  introduced  from  Hungary 
into  Saxony  were  found  trichinous.  Moreover,  trichinsa  have 
frequently  been  demonstrated  in  Saxony  in  hams  and  salamiwurst 
of  Austrian  origin. 

(d)  Russia. — According  to  Nebykow,  0.25  per  cent,  of  the  hogs 
inspected  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1882  were  trichinous  and  J2  of  those 
inspected  in  1883.     In  Moscow  the  frequency  of  trichinosis  in  hogs 
varied  during  the  years  1889  and  1892  between  .07  and  .17  per  cent. 
In  Kharkov  in  1875,  .12  per  cent,  of  the  inspected  hogs  were  found  to 
l>e  trichinous,  and   in   Kalisch,  according  to  Fedecki,   during  the 
years  1882  to  1885,  .16  per  cent,  were  trichinous. 

(e)  Sweden. — Among  35,987  hogs  examined  in  Stockholm,  42 
were  infested  with  trichinae.     Moreover,  trichinae  have  been  repeat- 
edly found  in  Hamburg  in  pork  imported  from  Sweden. 

The  occurrence  of  trichinae  in  foreign  countries  is  also  demon- 
strated by  trichinosis,  which  is  observed  in  the  majority  of  the 
European  countries,  especially  Belgium,*  Denmark,t  England, 
France,  %  Holland,  Italy,  Spain,  Austria,  §  Eussia,  ||  Sweden,  the 
former  Danube  principalities,  also  in  North  and  South  America, 
Egypt,  Algiers,  East  Africa,  Syria,^f  India  and  Australia. 


*In  Herstal,  near  Liittich,  47  persons  were  seriously  affected  with  trichinosis  in 
1893  and  12  died. 

f  Friis  collected  27  cases  of  trichinosis  in  man  in  Denmark  with  a  fatal  attack  in 
two  cases. 

\  In  1878  a  small  epidemic  of  trichinosis  was  observed  in  France  (Braun). 

§InTeplitz,  in  1894,63  persons  were  affected  with  trichinosis  and  50  persons 
during  the  same  year  in  Freudenthal.  Moreover,  during  1894  the  report  showed  the 
affection  of  31  persons  with  trichinosis  in  Bohemia  with  a  fatal  attack  in  12  cases.  In 
1897  a  small,  but,  nevertheless,  serious,  epidemic  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  Briix  and 
a  more  extensive  one  with  a  fatal  attack  in  5  cases  in  Iglau. 

I  During  the  years  1889  to  1891,  in  the  governmental  district  of  Bromberg,  11 
persons  were  affected  with  trichinosis,  after  eating  unsmoked  sausage  from  Russian 
Poland.  In  1895  an  outbreak  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  Opatow  from  eating  Russian 
meat. 

IT  On  account  of  the  occurrence  of  trichinous  hogs  in  Syria,  the  Italian  Govern- 
ment has  prohibited  the  introduction  of  hogs  and  pork  from  the  Ottoman  Empire. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  473 

Can  Sucking  Pigs  be  Infested  with  Trichinae? — In  countries 
•which  have  introduced  obligatory  inspection  for  trichinae,  sucking 
pigs,  as  a  rule,  are  also  subjected  to  compulsory  inspection  for  this 
parasite.  Protests  against  such  inspection  have  repeatedly  been 
made  by  interested  parties,  accompanied  by  the  statement  that 
trichinae  do  not  occur  in  sucking  pigs. 

The  experiments  of  Gerlach  throw  light  on  this  question. 
Gerlach  demonstrated  that  trichinae  are  not  congeniial.  Two 
female  rabbits  which  Gerlach  had  fed  on  trichinous  meat  gave  birth 
to  young  twenty-two  and  twenty-eight  days  after  infection.  The 
young  animals  were  free  from  trichinae  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
large  numbers  of  freshly  migrated  trichiuae  were  found  in  the 
mothers.  On  the  other  hand,  Gerlach  found  that  pigs  may  become 
infested  with  trichinae  at  a  very  early  age.  He  placed  two  eight- 
weeks-old  pigs  with  an  old  hog  which  had  previously  been  infested 
with  trichinae  and  which  within  a  period  of  several  days  had  been 
fed  twice,  each  time  outside  of  the  stall,  with  trichinous  meat.  Both 
pigs  were  killed  five  weeks  after  the  second  feeding  of  the  old  hog. 
It  was  found  that  one  was  slightly  infested  with  muscle  trichinae. 
Probably  the  pig  had  ingested  trichinae  which  had  been  expelled 
in  the  feces  of  the  old  hog  along  with  undigested  pieces  of  muscle. 

But,  even  if  we  disregard  these  experiments  of  Gerlach,  com- 
pulsory inspection  of  sucking  pigs  is  justified,  because  the  ingestion 
of  trichiuous  material  may  take  place  by  some  accident  or  other 
soon  after  birth  and  the  development  of  trichinae  capable  of  infest- 
ing other  hogs  may  take  place  in  pigs  which  are  only  a  few  weeks 
old ;  for  muscle  trichinae  are  capable  of  transmission  when  they 
reach  the  size  of  0.5  to  0.75  mm.,  or  within  16  to  20  days  after  the 
ingestion  of  trichinous  material  (page  479). 

Frequency  of  Trichince  in  Dogs. — Among  1,167  dogs  slaughtered 
in  Chemnitz  during  the  four  years  1897-1900,  13,  or  1.11  per  cent., 
were  infested  with  trichinae  (Tern  pel). 

EXTENSIVE  AND  SLIGHT  AND  EEPEATED  INVASIONS. — Trichinae 
may  occur  so  sparingly  in  the  body  of  the  hog  that  even  several 
dozen  microscopic  preparations  from  the  most  frequent  seat  of 
trichinae  will  disclose  only  a  single  parasite.  On  the  other  hand, 
hogs  have  been  found  in  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  which  were 
completely  permeated  with  trichinae. 

As  a  rule,  the  trichinae  in  hogs  spontaneously  infested  are  alt 
in  the  same  stage  of  development,  which  points  toward  the  single 


474  INVASION   DISEASES 

ingestion  of  trichinous  material.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  usual 
finding,  in  which,  on  account  of  the  various  developmental  stages  of 
the  trichinae,  it  is  necessary  to  assume  repeated  invasions. 

The  following  statistics  from  the  city  meat  inspection  in  Berlia 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  above-mentioned  conditions  : 


Year          Trichinous         Extensively         Moderately 

hogs  infested  infested  inested 

1889-90  292  10  1  81  110 

1891-2  254  67  85  102 

1893-4  122  39  34  49 

1894-5  136  63  27  46 

1895-6  158  49  41  68 

1896-7  192  108  22  62 

Among  the  hogs  which  were  only  slightly  infested,  there 
always   several  in   which,  despite   extensive   investigation,  only  a 
single  trichina  could  be  found. 

Of  the  192  trichinous  hogs  reported  in  the  year  1896-7,  171 
showed  living  trichinae  only,  13  a  few  calcified  trichinae,  and  8  both, 
living  and  calcified  trichinae. 

The  Number  of  Trichince  in  Sadly  Infested  Hogs.  —  According  to 
Ijeuckart,  trichinae  are  frequently  found  to  the  extent  of  1,500  per 
gram  of  muscle.  Schreyer  counted  the  trichinae  in  one  gram  of 
musculature  from  various  parts  of  the  body  of  the  hog  and  esti- 
mated the  total  number  of  trichinae  in  a  hog  which  weighed  174 
pounds  (after  subtracting  50  per  cent,  of  the  weight  for  fat  tissue, 
bones,  tendons,  etc.)  as  63  162,000.  Schumann  and  Ludwig  calcu- 
lated the  number  of  trichinae  in  a  similar  manner  in  the  case  of  & 
badly  infested  hog  (3,961  trichinae  per  gram)  as  158,400,000. 

DIAGNOSIS.  —  There  is  no  other  method  for  the  certain  identifi- 
cation of  trichinae  than  microscopic  investigation.  A  slight  mag- 
nification, however,  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  The  proper 
magnification  is  40  diameters.  With  this  magnification  one  plainly 
observes  the  encapsuled  muscle  trichinae  as  lemon-shaped,  oval  or 
spherical  structures,  recognizes  the  transparent  double-contoured 
wall,  the  characteristic  trichina  capsule,  and  the  spirally-coiled  or 
pretzel-shaped  worm.  With  the  above-named  magnification,  the 
recognition  of  the  migrating  and  resting,  but  not  coiled,  trichinae  is. 
more  difficult.  However,  the  granular  cloudiness  of  the  muscle 
fibers  in  cases  of  fre>h  invasion  by  still  uncoiled  muscle  trichina- 
arouses  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  the  parasites,  which  may  be 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  47  ~ 

demonstrated  with   certainty  by  the  use   of  a   stronger  magnifica- 
tion. 

Frauck  and  Tiemann  recommended  the  examination  of  prepara- 
tions by  means  of  hand  lenses  with  a  magnification  of  ten  dia- 
meters. Experienced  inspectors  are  able  to  recognize  trichinae  in 
pork,  even  with  this  magnification  (Fig.  149).  A  magnification  of 
40  to  50  diameters,  however,  at  least  for  less  experienced  inspectors, 
is  much  more  reliable.  Greater  magnifications  than  40  to  50  dia- 
meters are  unnecessary  and  also  unsatisfactory,  since  the  greater 
4he  magnification  the  more  time  required  for  examining  the  slides. 

FIG.  148. 

ifefe*. 

FIG.  149. 


Trichinous  musculature, 

X  10  diameters. 


Developed  muscle  trichina  after  removal  from  the 
capsule,  with  intestine,  genital  organ  and  lateral 
line  (Leuckart). 

Kafitz  recommends  projection  in  the  place  of  direct  micro- 
scopic examination  of  trichina  preparations.  Inspection  by  means 
of  projection  is  simpler  and  more  reliable  in  the  case  of  fresh, 
meat  than  direct  examination.  Until  further  experience  is  had,  it 
may  be  recommended  at  any  rate  for  use  in  the  further  examina- 
tion of  samples  already  inspected. 

Calcified  trichinae,  as  well  as  the  still  incompletely  developed 
muscle  trichinae,  offer  some  difficulties  in  making  a  reliable  diagno- 
sis. Finally,  the  recognition  of  trichinae  becomes  difficult  if  it  is 
necessary  to  demonstrate  them  not  in  fresh  meat,  but  in  preserved 
pork,  especially  smoked  hams.  For  the  better  recognition  of 
trichinae  in  such  material,  Duncker  recommends  treating  the  sam- 


476 


INVASION  DISEASES 


pies  of  muscles  for  several  minutes  with  dilute  acetic  acid.  In 
American  hams  preserved  according  to  the  newer  methods,  in  which 
the  trichinae  are  only  slightly  differentiated  from  the  musculature, 
which  becomes  transparent  during  the  process  of  preservation,  I 
have  found  the  addition  of  water  to  be  advantageous. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Without  a  careful  examination,  other 
•objects  can  be  easily  confused  with  encapsuled  and  still  uncalcified 

FIG.  151. 
FIG.  150. 


-Eneapsnled  muscle  trichina  with  incipient  polar 
calcification  (Perls).     X  130  diameters. 


Vinegar  eel. 

trichinae.  Even  Miescher's  sacs,  which  are  so  frequently  observed 
in  muscles,  have  such  distinct  characters  that  it  is  impossible  to 
mistake  intact  and  uncalcified  specimens.  The  same  is  true  of 
muscle  distomes  (page  404).  "With  reference  to  the  much  more 
important  differentiation  of  calcified  trichinse  from  other  calcified 
depositions  in  the  musculature,  I  must  refer  to  the  section  on 
"So-called  Calcareous  Concretions  in  the  Musculature  of  Hogs" 
(page  539  ff.). 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


477 


FIG.  152. 


Among  the  accidental  kinds  of  contamination  of  pork  which  have 
already  led  to  confusion  with  unencapsuled  trichinae,  special  men- 
tion should  be  made  of  the  vinegar  eel,  Anguillula  aceti.  This  nema- 
tode  may  appear  in  the  preparations  if  the  samples  of  muscle 
have  been  preserved  in  vinegar  or  unclean  vessels.  The  vinegar 
eel  is  about  twice  as  long  and  considerably  slenderer  than  the  fully- 
developed  muscle  trichina,  and,  moreover,  is  pointed  at  both  ends 
(Fig.  151).  Vinegar  eels,  moreover,  lie  between  the  muscle  fibers 
and,  as  a  rule,  exhibit  active  movements.  Wallmann,  in  a  prepara- 
tion for  trichina  inspection,  found  an  actively-moving  nematode 
between  the  muscle  fibers,  which  was  pointed  at  the  anterior  and 
posterior  ends  like  the  vinegar  eel,  but  was  shorter  and  broader 
than  the  latter.  George  demonstrated 
a  nematode  between  the  muscle  fibers 
in  the  preparation  which  could  be  dis- 
tinguished from  a  migrating  trichina 
by  the  blunt  character  of  the  oral  end 
and  which  possessed  great  resemblance 
to  an  embryo  of  Strongylus  paradoxus. 
Samples  for  trichina  inspection  may 
be  easily  contaminated  by  the  embryos 
and  eggs  of  this  parasite,  after  making 
an  incision  into  the  lungs  when  these 
organs  are  infested  with  S.  paradoxus 
(Fig.  152,  Tiemann). 

Khabditides  (larvae  of  Strongylidae), 
according  to  reports  of  Leuckart  and 
Ziiru,  have  frequently  been  mistaken 
for  trichinae.  These  undeveloped  nema- 
todes  live  in  decomposing  substances.  The  rhabditides  are  distin- 
guished from  trichinae,  aside  from  their  internal  anatomy,  by  the 
pointed  posterior  end.  Moreover,  like  the  vinegar  eel,  they  likewise 
lie  between  muscle  fibers. 

Merkel  found  in  three-  instances,  in  the  eye  muscles  of  hogs, 
nematodes  of  the  length  and  thickness  of  female  intestinal  trichinae 
with  pointed  oral  end  and  sucking  disks  on  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body.  These  worms,  which  were  not  identified  more  accurately,  lay 
extended  between  the  bundles  of  muscles. 

Among  the  accidental  kinds  of  contamination,  we  should  doubt- 
less mention  also  the  " Haplococcus  reticvlcdus"  found  by  Zopf  in. 
1884,  between  the  muscle  fibers  in  a  large  number  of  pork  sam- 
ples and  supposedly  belonging  to  the  Myxomycetes.  According  to 


Eggs  and  larvae  of  Strongylus 
paradoxus  in  a  preparation  for 
trichina  inspection.  (From  a. 
photograph.)  X  35  diameters. 


-478  INVASION   DISEASES 

Moller,  the  haplococci  of  Zopf  are  nothing  more  than  spores  of 
Jjycopodinm.  Finally,  in  conserved  pork,  masses  of  tyrosiu  crystals 
may  appear  which  have  likewise  been  mistaken  for  trichinae, 
especially  with  the  calcified  individuals  (p.  545). 

JUDGMENT. — By  eating  trichinous  pork  human  beings  may  con- 
tract trichinosis,  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  is  a  very  seri- 
;ous,  if  not  fatal,  disease.  The  mortality  in  trichinosis  in  man 
varies.  It  may,  however,  reach  from  10  to  40  per  cent.  Trichinous 
pork  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  a  highly  dangerous  food 
material.* 

Symptoms  of  Trichinosis  in  Man. — Trichinosis  exhibits  two 
-stages.  The  first  is  caused  by  the  penetration  of  the  female  intes- 
tinal trichinae  into  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines  and  is 
characterized  by  symptoms  of  irritation  which  vary,  according  to  the 
number  of  trichinae  which  have  been  ingested,  from  a  catarrh  to  an 
inflammation  of  the  intestines.  Patients  show  a  partial  or  complete 
loss  of  appetite,  indisposition,  pains  in  the  body,  diarrhea,  and 
occasionally  vomiting.  According  to  Gerlach,  a  loss  of  appetite  and 
nausea  appear  within  twelve  hours  in  cases  of  extensive  invasion. 
The  second  stage  begins,  as  a  rule,  after  three  weeks,  but  may  occur 
during  the  second  week  or  not  until  the  fourth  week  after  the 
ingestion  of  trichinous  meat.  This  stage  is  characterized  by  fever, 
lassitude,  violent  muscular  pains,  pains  in  the  eye,  difficulty 
In  swallowing,  hoarseness,  pains  felt  in  masticating,  edema  of  the 
«eyelids,  face  (in  acute  cases),  and  of  the  extremities.  Recovery 
begins  with  the  encapsulation  of  the  trichinae.  Strange  to  say, 
children  are  less  violently  affected  than  adults  (Penkert,  Holz- 
iausen). 


*  For  example,  extensive  epidemics  of  trichinosis  appeared  in  Hettstadt  in 
1863  (168  cases,  28  deaths);  Hanover,  1864-5  (more  than  300  cases);  Hedersleben, 
1865  (337  cases,  101  deaths);  Potsdam,  1866  (164  cases);  Greifswald,  1866  (140  cases,  1 
«leath);  Magdeburg,  1866  (240  cases,  16  deaths);  Halberstadt,  1867  (100  cases,  20 
•deaths);  Stassfurt  1869  (more  than  100  cases);  Wernigerode,  1873  (100  cases,  1  death); 
Chemnitz  (194  cases,  3  deaths);  Linden,  1874  (400  cases,  40  deaths);  Niederzwehren, 
jicar  Kassel,  1877  (one-half  of  the  inhabitants);  Diedenhofen,  1877  (99  cases,  10 
^deaths);  Leipzig  1877  (134  cases,  2  deaths);  Ermsleben,  1883  (403  cases,  66  deaths); 
^trenz-Neuendorf,  1884  (86  cases,  12  deaths);  Kelbra-Altendorf,  1895  (243  cases,  1 
<death),  etc.  Smaller  epidemics  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  Stollberg,  1860;  Plauen, 
1861-2;  Calbe  and  Magdeburg,  1862;  Dessau,  1864;  Gorlitz,  1805;  Erlangen,  1870; 
Northumberland,  1871;  Gottingen,  1871;  Stettin,  1877;  and  Hof,  1878.  Johne  states 
"that  in  Saxony  during  the  years  1860  to  1889,  not  less  than  109  epidemics  of  trichi- 
nosis occurred  with  3,402  cases  and  79  deaths,  a  mortality  of  2.3  per  cent. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  479 

Symptoms  of  disease  are  not  observed  in  trichinous  hogs,  even 
when  the  animals  are  badly  infested  (Kiihu).  Peukert  reports  con- 
cerning the  hog  which  caused  the  epidemic  of  trichinosis  in 
Hedersleben  that  it  was  in  such  fine  condition  that  it  was  exhibited 
for  show  purposes. 

Not  all  meat,  however,  which  contains  trichinae  is  invariably  or 
to  the  same  degree  dangerous  or  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  con- 
sumer. Reinhard  asserts,  on  the  basis  of  an  interesting  calculation, 
that  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  during  the  years  1860-1875,  more 
than  900  trichinous  hogs  were  consumed  without  any  striking 
symptoms  of  the  disease  having  been  produced.  During  this  period 
there  were  39  epidemics  of  trichinosis  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
with  1,267  cases  and  19  deaths.  In  all,  however,  during  the  same 
period,  6,959,964  hogs  were  slaughtered,  among  which,  according  to 
the  average  ratio  of  1:7000,  nearly  1,000  trichinous  hogs  must  have 
"been  found.  Not  more  than  4  out  of  every  100  trichinous  hogs 
caused  trichinosis  in  man. 

The  dangerous  character  of  trichinous  meat  depends  (1)  on  the 
number  of  trichinae  present  in  the  meat ;  (2)  on  their  developmental 
stage  ;  and  (3)  on  the  form  in  which  the  meat  is  eaten. 

1.  As  a  rule,  according  to  all  experience,  isolated  trichinae  in 
pork  are  incapable  of  producing  genuine  trichinosis.   Bollinger  says 
that  where  only  a  small  number  of  parasites  are  present,  the  disease 
is  never  serious.     On  the  other  hand,  Piitz  is  of  the  opinion  that 
pork   only   slightly  infested  with   trichinae,  while   not   producing 
epidemics,  may,  nevertheless,  cause  serious  disease  in  isolated  cases 
if  the  meat  of  a  whole  hog  is  gradually  consumed  by  a  few  persons. 

That  the  invasion  of  human  beings  by  trichinae  frequently 
passes  by  unobserved  i^  shown  by  the  incidental  finding  of  trichinae 
in  persons  who  have  died  of  other  diseases.  Fiedler  demonstrated 
trichinae  in  from  2  to  2.5  per  cent,  of  the  cadavers  in  Dresden; 
Wagner,  in  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  those  in  Leipzig;  Kudnew,  in 
1.5  to  2  per  cent,  of  those  in  St.  Petersburg;  and  Turner,  in  1  to  2 
per  cent,  of  those  in  Scotland. 

2.  Transmission  to  man  occurs  with  certainty  only  in  the  case 
of  well-developed  muscle  trichinae  provided  with  capsules.     Migrat- 
ing trichinae  are  harmless  and   resting  trichinae  are   not   able   to 
undergo  further  development  in  the  new  host  except   when   the 
sexual   organs   are    differentiated.     This   differentiation   occurs   in 
resting  trichinae  when  a  body  length  of  from  0,5  to. 75  mm.  has  been 
reached   (Fiedler).     It  has  been  shown,  however,  by  feeding  experi- 
ments with  such  musc.e  trichinae,  that  non-encapsulated   trichinae 


480  INVASION   DISEASES 

embryos,  even  when  they  have  reached  this  size,  are  in  great  part 
digested  in  the  stomach  of  their  new  host. 

Furthermore,  trichinae  which  become  pathologically  encapsuled 
and  calcified  (page  465),  as  a  rule  disintegrate  completely,  as  con- 
trasted with  parasites  which  are  included  in  normally  calcified 
capsules. 

8.  The  form  in  which  the  meat  is  eaten  is  of  greatest  importance 
in  the  transmission  of  trichinae,  for  trichinae  which  are  contained  in 
meat  may  be  killed  by  external  influences  and  certain  methods  of 
preparation.  Desiccation  kills  trichinae  in  a  short  time  ;  likewise, 
salting.  According  to  Fiirstenberg,  pickling  for  ten  days  is  suffi- 
cient to  kill  trichinae  in  small  pieces  of  meat.  In  larger  pieces  of 
meat  this  result,  according  to  Leuckart,  takes  place  after  treatment 
with  salt  for  four  weeks  without  the  addition  of  water.  Gerlach, 
however,  found  living  parasites  along  with  shrunken  specimens  in 
meat  which  had  lain  in  pickling  brine  for  two  months.  According 
to  Blasius,  trichinae  in  thin  layers  of  meat  are  killed  within  six 
weeks  by  pickling,  while  in  thicker  pieces  they  are  not  destroyed 
until  after  five  months.  Colin  determined  that  a  slight  salting  does  not 
kill  the  trichinae,  but  that  they  gradually  die  under  the  influence  of 
extensive  and  complete  penetration  of  the  salt.  In  pieces  of  meat 
thoroughly  penetrated  with  salt,  the  trichinae  near  the  surface  die 
within  fourteen  days,  while  in  the  deeper-lying  parts  they  are  not 
killed  until  after  from  four  to  six  weeks.  In  sausages  the  death  of 
trichinae,  even  in  a  weak  salt  solution,  is  said  to  take  place  within 
fourteen  days  on  account  of  the  more  rapid  and  complete  diffusion 
of  salt.  Ordinary  smoking,  particularly  in  the  case  of  large  pieces 
of  meat,  is  quite  insufficient  for  killing  trichinae  (Fiedler).  This 
explains  why  so-called  smoked  sausage  and  raw  hams  are  rather 
frequently  the  cause  of  trichinosis.  Refrigeration,  even  when 
applied  for  a  long  period  and  at  a  low  temperature,  is  absolutely 
ineffective.  Thus,  Kiihn  found  that  trichinous  meat  kept  in  a 
refrigerator  for  seven  weeks  was  still  infested  with  living  worms. 
On  the  other  hand,  according  to  Bouley  and  Gibier,  trichinae  in 
hams  died  when  the  hams  were  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  — 15°  to 
— 20°  C.  An  absolutely  certain  means  of  killing  trichinae  is  found 
in  the  application  of  high  temperatures.  According  to  Leuckart, 
trichinae  die  at  a  temperature  of  62°  to  70°  C.,  since  at  this  temper- 
ature their  albumen  is  coagulated.  High  temperatures,  however,, 
penetrate  but  slowly,  and  not  until  after  several  hours,  into  the 
interior  of  large  pieces  of  meat  (see  "  Boiling  and  Steam  Steriliza- 
*ion  ").  Trichinous  meat  can  not  be  regarded  as  harmless  until  the 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  481 

cut  surface  Las  assumed  a  uniformly  white  or  light-gray  color,  for 
this  coloration  is  evidence  that  the  meat,  even  in  the  central  layers, 
has  been  heated  to  a  temperature  of  at  least  60°  to  70°  C. 

We  must  attribute  to  the  influence  of  desiccation  as  a  result  of 
thorough  pickling  (injection  of  brine  by  means  of  syringes)  the  fact 
that  trichinae  contained  in  American  pork  are  frequently  dead,  as- 
shown  by  efforts  to  revive  them  and  by  feeding  experiments. 

Trichinae  are  not  killed  by  decomposition.  They  have  been 
found  alive  in  decomposing  meat  after  a  period  of  100  days  (Ziirn). 

The  history  of  trichina  epidemics  shows  that  they  are  caused 
exclusively  by  the  consumption  of  raw  or  partly  cooked  meat.  The 
majority  of  these  epidemics  have  occurred  in  the  Province  and 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  where  the  consumption  of  raw  or  partly  broiled 
meat  is  a  very  common  custom.  In  southern  Germany,  on  the  other 
hand,  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  are  exceedingly  rare,  although 
trichinous  hogs  are  brought  to  market  and  sold  in  that  region.* 
The  latter  is  to  be  assumed  as  true,  since  many  hogs  are  sold  in  the 
north  of  Germany  for  points  in  southern  Germany,  and  it  is,  more- 
over, proved  beyond  any  doubt  by  the  positive  finding  of  trichinae 
in  several  Bavarian  cities  (for  example,  Hof  and  Niirnberg),  as  a 
result  of  the  trichina  inspection  which  has  been  established  even  for 
native  hogs.f  While,  therefore,  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  as  a  result 
of  eating  pork  are  rare  in  Wiirtemburg,  Baden,  Alsace-Lorraine  and 
the  greater  part  of  Bavaria  and  Hessen,  it  is  to  be  ascribed  solely 
to  the  fact  that  in  these  States  the  consumption  of  raw  meat  is 
unknown.  J  In  fact,  the  custom  prevails  there  of  eating  all  meat 


*  Similar  conditions  prevail  in  foreign  countries.  With  the  exception  of 
northern  Germany,  there  is  nowhere  in  force  in  the  world  a  general  trichina 
inspection,  despite  the  fact  that  trichinous  hogs  occur  everywhere  (pages 
471-472). 

f  In  Niirnberg,  during  the  period  1880  to  1890,  457  hogs  were  found  infested 
with  trichinae. 

\  Bollinger  reports  from  Bavaria  that  in  that  country  eight  epidemics  with 
ninety-seven  cases  and  four  deaths  occurred  between  the  years  1853  and  1879, 
According  to  Wasserfuhr,  during  the  80's,  thirty  isolated  cases  of  trichinosis 
with  two  deaths  occurred  in  Bavaria.  These  cases,  however,  were  restricted 
exclusively  to  the  three  Prankish  provinces  which  border  on  Saxony,  Th  Grin  gen 
and  Hessen,  and  which,  in  contrast  with  the  rest  of  Bavaria,  have  the  habit  of 
eating  raw  or  half-cooked  meat.  An  isolated  case  of  trichinosis  which  recently 
occurred  in  Bavaria  is  very  interesting.  In  Lauf,  a  butcher  was  violently 
affected  with  trichinosis  two  days  after  eating  raw  pork  while  making  brat- 
wurst.  Subsequent  investigation  showed  extensive  infestation  with  trichinae  in 
the  pieces  of  meat  still  to  be  found.  Two-thirds  of  the  meat,  however,  had 
already  been  eaten  in  a  cooked  condition  without  causing  any  harm. 


482  INVASION  DISEASES 

foods  in  a  thoroughly  cooked  condition.  The  favorable  effect  of 
only  a  slight  degree  of  heat  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  according  to 
Leuckart,  in  the  epidemics  in  Hettstadt  and  Hedersleben,  37  and  43 
per  cent.,  respectively,  of  the  persons  affected  after  eating  raw  meat 
died,  while  only  10  per  cent,  died  of  those  who  ate  prepared  meat. 
Similar  conditions  were  found  by  Holzhausen  in  the  epidemic  of 
trichinosis  in  Strenz-Neuendorf,  in  which  86  persons  were  affected 
and  12  died.  The  majority  of  those  affected  had  eaten  raw  meat, 
and  of  the  12  who  died,  10  had  eaten  raw  and  two  partially  broiled 
meat. 

METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE  WITH  THE  MEAT  OF  TRICHINOUS  HOGS. — 
In  Section  3677  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statutes,  which  forbids  the  sale 
of  trichinous  meat,  is  found  the  fundamental  principle  of  legal  regu- 
lations that  all  meat  affected  with  trichinae,  whether  the  parasites 
occur  sparingly  or  abundantly,  whether  they  are  still  undeveloped, 
fully  developed,  or  already  calcified,  is  to  be  excluded  from  the  mar- 
ket. The  great  danger  which  lies  in  eating  trichinous  meat  suffi- 
ciently explains  these  legal  regulations,  especially  since  the  total 
number  of  hogs  annually  found  to  be  trichinous  is  so  small  that  the 
hog  raisers  may  easily  bear  the  loss.  It  has  been  proposed  that  pork 
should  be  admitted  to  the  market  if  during  an  investigation  of 
several  dozen  preparations  the  presence  of  only  a  few  trichinae  was 
found.  It  may  be  objected  to  this  proposition,  however,  that  on 
account  of  the  great  fecundity  of  female  trichinae  the  matter  can 
not  be  considered  as  ending  with  the  invasion  of  a  single  trichina. 
Furthermore,  the  cases  of  hogs  which  are  infested  with  a  single 
trichina  are  so  rare  that  an  exception  in  favor  of  these  hogs  would 
be  without  practical  value. 

In  rendering  judgment  on  calcified  trichinae,  it  is  to  be  consid- 
ered that  trichinae  which  appear  to  be  completely  calcified  may  still 
be  quite  capable  of  producing  infestation  (page  462). 

From  a  scientific  standpoint  there  would  certainly  be  no  objec- 
tion against  admitting  to  the  market  well  cooked  or  steamed  meat. 

Encapsuled  trichinae  have  never  yet  been  observed  in  the  vis- 
cera. The  viscera,  however,  are  treated  as  "  meat "  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  transmission  of  trichinae  by  means  of  parts  of  muscles 
which  may  accidentally  remain  connected  with  the  viscera  (for 
example,  portions  of  the  diaphragm  attached  to  the  liver). 

The  intestines  of  trichinous  hogs  in  case  of  fresh  invasion 
may  contain  intestinal  trichinae,  and  for  this  reason  are  to  be 
excluded  from  the  market. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  483 

Official  Regulations  Concerning  the  Method  of  Procedure  with  the  Meat 

of  Trichinous  Hogs. 

(a)  Kingdom  of  Prussia. — By  a  ministerial  decree  of  January 
18,  1876,  concerning  trichinous  hogs  and  meat  products,  the  follow- 
ing utilization  of  these  materials  is  permitted  on  the  basis  of  an 
opinion  of  the  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service  : 

1.  The  skinning  and  removal  of  the  bristles,  as  well  as  the  free 
utilization  of  the  skin  and  bristles. 

2.  Simple  rendering  of  the  fat  and  the  free  use  thereof.* 

3.  The  utilization  of  parts  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  soap 
or  glue. 

4  The  chemical  utilization  of  the  whole  body. 

(b)  Kingdom  of  Saxony. — In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  addition 
to  the  above-named  uses,  it  is  also  permitted  that  the  meat  of 
slightly  trichinous  hogs  may  be  admitted  to  market  under  declara- 
tion after  it  has  been  cooked  or  thoroughly  pickled.     The  cooking 
is  to  be  considered  as  sufficient  when  it  is  done  either  in  a  steam 
cooking  apparatus  in  pieces  of  not  more  than  5  kg.  weight,  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  interior  of  the  pieces  is  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  at  least  80°  C.  for  a  period  of  30   minutes,  or  when  pieces  of 
not  more  than  3  kg.  weight  are  cooked  in  open  kettles  for  at  least 
3  hours.     The  pickling  process  must  be  continued  for  at  least  4 
weeks. 

Trichina  Inspection. 

STATES  WITH  TRICHINA  INSPECTION. — In  all  of  the  government 
districts  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  with  the  exception  of  Danzig, 
Koslin,  Stralsund,  Schleswig  and  Hohenzollern ;  also  in  the  whole 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach ;  Duchies  Auhalt,  Brunswick,  Oldenburg, 
Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  in  the  Principalities  of  Lippe-Schaum- 
Imrg,  Beuss,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt  and  Schwarzburg-Souders- 
hausen,  trichina  inspection — that  is,  the  microscopic  examination  of 
pork — has  been  introduced  as  an  obligatory  measure  for  the  pro- 
tection of  human  health.  In  the  Prussian  government  districts 
mentioned  as  exceptions,  as  well  as  in  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Meck- 

*  The  free  use  of  the  fat  of  trichinous  hogs,  as  shown  by  Schmidt-Mulheira,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  fat  of  measly  hogs,  stands  in  opposition  to  the  decisions  of 
the  Imperial  Court  of  February  3,  1888,  and  March  25,  1884.  The  sale  of  such  fat 
jnust  lake  place  under  declaration. 


484  INVASION  DISEASES 

lenburg-Schwerin  and  in  the  Principality  of  Lippe-Detmold,  there 
is  only  a  partial  inspection  for  trichinae,  since  the  introduction  of 
this  inspection  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  various  local  author- 
ities. 

OBJECTIONS  TO  INSPECTION  FOB  TRICHINA. —From  various  sides 
objection  has  been  raised  against  trichina  inspection  that  this  prac- 
tice is  very  expensive  and  that  its  object  is  not  fully  secured,  since 
outbreaks  of  trichinosis  occur  in  spite  of  it.  In  fact,  it  has  been 
objected  that  it  is  highly  disadvantageous  on  the  ground  that  the 
public  remains  in  a  sense  of  false  security  and  is  encouraged  in 
continuing  the  bad  practice  of  eating  raw  meat.  It  is  alleged  that 
the  only  effective  precaution  would  be  found  in  checking  that  prac- 
tice by  means  of  official  instructions  concerning  the  dangers  of  eat- 
ing raw  meat.  General  Physician  Wasserfuhr  has  from  the  begin- 
ning stubbornly  fought  against  the  introduction  of  obligatory 
trichina  inspection  and  even  a  few  years  ago  maintained  that  not  a 
single  case  was  known  in  which  a  human  being  had  been  affected 
with  trichinosis  after  eating  well-cooke.d  or  smoked  trichinous  pork. 
He  asserted  that  inspection  for  trichinae,  which  cost  Berlin  $125,OOQ 
annually,  was  of  advantage  only  to  those  people  who  did  not. 
observe  simple  precautions. 

REVIEW  or  THE  OBJECTIONS. — It  must  be  admitted  that  thor-- 
ough  cooking  is  a  satisfactory  precaution  against  trichinosis.  This, 
is  shown  by  the  example  of  southern  Germany  and  all  other  coun- 
tries in  which  pork  is  admitted  to  the  market  without  previous 
microscopic  examination.  It  is  also  to  be  recommended  that  the 
authorities  from  time  to  time  should  call  attention  to  the  dangers, 
which  may  be  connected  with  eating  raw  meat  in  spite  of  the  exist- 
ing meat  and  trichina  inspection.* 


*  The  Royal  Police  President  at  Berlin  publishes  annually  the  following  notice : 
"As  experience  has  frequently  shown,  the  public  does  not  yet  sufficiently 
realize  that  even  when  a  well  organized  and  reliable  meat  inspection  exists  for  all 
slaughterhouses  in  a  given  locality,  nevertheless,  partly  from  places  in  which  meat 
inspection  has  been  introduced,  but  is  not  required  for  all  slaughterhouses,  partly  from 
places  without  meat  inspection,  and  partly  also  by  an  evasion  of  existing  regulations, 
pork  not  at  all  or  imperfectly  inspected  may  find  its  way  to  the  market  and  great 
danger  may  thus  arise  to  the  life  and  health  of  the  consumers. 

"  An  earnest  warning  is  therefore  issued  against  the  consumption  of  all  raw  pork 
and  attention  is  further  called  to  the  fact  that  a  thorough  cooking  or  roasting  of 
pieces  of  meat  and  of  preparations  of  pork  (meat,  blood,  and  liver  sausages,  meat, 
croquettes,  etc.),  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  trichinae  which  may  be  present  and. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  485 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  authorities  have  to  reckon 
"with  a  custom  which  is  deeply  rooted  among  the  common  people 
and  have,  therefore,  to  make  sure  that  in  localities  where  the  con- 
sumption of  raw  or  insufficiently  cooked  meat  is  a  common  custom, 
-as  in  most  places  in  northern  Germany,  trichinous  hogs  are  not 
allowed  on  the  market,  and  this  can  not  be  accomplished  by  the 
cheap  advice  "help  yourself,"  but  only  by  obligatory  examination 
of  all  slaughtered  hogs.*  One  must  to  a  certain  extent  be  blind  to 
the  truth  if  he  refuses  to  recognize  the  good  which  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  introduction  of  trichina  inspection  in  the  dis- 
covery of  thousands  of  trichinous  hogs.  Since  the  life  of  a  human 
being  in  civilized  countries  is  considered  invaluable,  it  can  not  be 
urged  as  an  argument  against  the  practice  of  this  inspection  that 
the  identification  of  a  trichinous  hog  costs  on  an  average  several 
thousand  marks. 

"With  regard  to  the  above-mentioned  argument  against  the 
beneficial  action  of  trichina  inspection,  Bollinger  appropriately 
remarks  :  "  Even  if  the  objection  may  be  raised  against  obligatory 
trichina  inspection  that  it  does  not  protect  man  with  absolute  cer- 
tainty against  trichinosis,  nevertheless  it  shares  the  fate  of  all  other 
prophylactic  hygienic  measures,  including  even  the  consumption  of 
cooked  and  fried  pork." 

It  is,  unfortunately,  an  undisputed  fact  that,  despite  the  exist- 
ence of  trichina  inspection,  outbreaks  of  trichinosis  occur  among 
human  beings.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  it  has  been  shown  that 
it  is  not  the  system  which  is  at  fault,  but  merely  the  practice  of  it. 
In  all  cases,  either  a  gross  neglect  of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  inspec- 
tor or  a  fatal,  error  (interchange  of  samples,  substitution  of  false 
samples,  false  stamping,  etc.)  have  been  proved.  These  cases  always 
concerned  hogs  in  which  the  trichinae,  as  shown  by  subsequent 
inspection  of  such  parts  of  the  meat  as  were  still  to  be  had,  could 
have  been  easily  demonstrated  by  giving  proper  attention  to  the 
matter. 


thereby  to  exclude  all  danger  of  injury  to  health.  In  order  to  make  possible  the 
thorough  cooking  of  larger,  thicker  pieces  (ham,  neck  roasts,  etc.),  it  is  necessary  to 
make  deep  incisions  at  intervals  of  about  8  cm.  into  the  meat  to  allow  the  heat  to 
penetrate  sufficiently  into  the  deeper  portions  of  the  meat." 

*  As  a  warning  to  those  who  are  opposed  to  a  trichina  inspection,  the  follow- 
ing unfortunate  occurrence  may  be  related:  In  Linden,  near  Hanover,  the  micro- 
scopic investigation  of  pork  which  was  introduced  in  the  year  1866,  after  the  great 
^epidemic  of  trichinosis  in  Hanover,  was  allowed  to  lapse.  As  a  result  of  this  there 
-occurred  the  epidemic  of  trichinosis  of  1874,  in  which  more  than  400  persons  were 
-affected  and  over  40  died. 


£86  INVASION   DISEASES 

If  the  objection  is  raised  to  the  reliability  of  trichina  inspection 
that  it  might  easily  happen  that  isolated  trichinae  would  escape  the 
most  careful  inspection,  the  theoretical  possibility  of  such  an  occur- 
rence must  be  admitted,  but  the  fact  should  be  emphasized  that 
such  isolated  trichinae,  according  to  all  our  experience,  are  not 
capable  of  producing  trichinosis  in  man.  Gerlach  has  shown  that 
in  meat  the  consumption  of  which  could  produce  only  slight  cases 
of  trichinosis,  the  trichinae  can  be  detected  by  an  ordinary 
microscopic  examination.  Furthermore,  in  my  opinion,  the  example 
of  Berlin  shows  most  clearly  the  value  of  a  well  organized  trichina 
inspection.  A  city  system  of  trichina  inspection  has  been  in  force 
there  for  the  past  twenty  years.  During  this  time  not  only  no 
epidemic  of  trichinosis  has  occurred,  but  not  even  a  single  case  of 
trichinosis  as  a  result  of  eating  meat  which  was  inspected  in  that 
city;  and  this,  too,  although  the  number  of  hogs  annually  slaugh- 
tered in  Berlin  is  from  250,000  to  more  than  750,000  (1883-4, 
244,343;  1893-4,  518,073;  1900,  837,057).  All  cases  of  trichinosis 
which  have  been  observed  in  Berlin  during  this  period  are  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  consumption  of  uninspected  hams  which  were  sent 
to  consumers  from  outside  sources.* 

This  experience  argues  against  the  assumption  of  Piitz  that 
cases  of  trichinosis  may  occur  even  under  the  conscientious  practice 
of  trichina  inspection,  especially  when  hogs  are  but  slightly  infested 
with  trichinae.  Concerning  the  legal  responsibility  of  the  trichina 
inspector,  Piitz  says :  "  If,  after  repeatedly  eating  pork,  within  a 
short  time  the  persons  concerned  are  affected  with  trichinosis  in 
varying  degrees,  but  for  the  most  part  slightly,  it  is  to  be  assumed 
that  the  hog  in  question  was  infested  with  trichinae  only  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  failure  to  detect  them  in  the  legally  prescribed 
inspection  was  possible  without  any  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the 
inspector." 

Provided  the  proper  selection  of  meat  samples  is  made,  such  a 
failure  to  detect  trichinae  appears  to  be  impossible  on  the  basis  of 
the  Berlin  experience.  To  be  sure,  it  should  be  remembered  in 
this  connection  that  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different  in  Berlin 
than  in  the  country  where  in  case  of  slaughtering  for  home  use  a 
cumulative  effect  may  arise  much  more  easily  on  account  of  the  con- 

*  In  the  period  just  mentioned,  the  following  cases  of  trichinosis  occurred 
in  Berlin  after  eating  pork  which  was  sent  directly  to  the  consumers  from  outside 
localities  :  In  1881,  15  cases  with  2  deaths  ;  1882,  3  cases,  no  death  ;  1883-5,  1ft 
cases,  2  deaths  ;  1887,  5  cases,  1  death  ;  1889,  8  cases,  no  death  ;  1893-4,  9  cases,. 
no  death. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  487 

tinned  consumption  of  the  meat  of  one  animal.  In  doubtful  cases, 
therefore,  the  judge,  according  to  a  principle  of  criminal  process 
"  in  dub io  pro  reo,"  should  decide  in  favor  of  the  defendant. 

When  properly  practiced,  trichina  inspection  must  be  consid- 
ered as  a  measure  which  perfectly  fulfils  its  purpose. 

PRACTICE  OF  TRICHINA  INSPECTION. — For  the  proper  practice  of 
trichina  inspection,  the  fulfilment  of  the  following  conditions  is 
necessary : 

1.  Conscientious  inspectors,  persons  who  realize  fully  their  heavy 
responsibilities,  and  proper  compensation  therefor. 

One  mark  (24  cents)  may  be  considered  as  a  suitable  fee  for 
inspecting  a  hog  for  trichinae.  The  inspection  of  separate  pieces  is 
to  be  compensated  accordingly.  In  order  to  prevent  underbidding, 
limits  should  be  drawn  for  inspection  districts. 

For  example,  in  Sprottau,  several  trichina  inspectors,  on 
account  of  competition,  felt  themselves  compelled  gradually  to 
lower  the  fees  for  trichina  inspection.  Hereupon,  the  Counsellor 
of  the  district  issued  a  decree  in  the  interest  of  a  careful  practice  of 
meat  inspection,  in  which  he  fixed  the  fee  for  the  inspection  of  a 
hog  at  one  mark  and  at  the  same  time  made  it  a  punishable  offence 
to  alter  this  fee.  This  decree  of  the  Counsellor'  was  approved  by 
the  Ober-President  with  the  provision  that  a  variation  from  the  fee 
as  named  could  be  permitted  only  in  case»all  of  the  trichina  inspec- 
tors appointed  for  a  given  inspection  district  should  agree  upon  a 
uniform  increase  or  a  lower  fee. 

In  certain  provinces  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  stimulate  the 
zeal  of  trichina  inspectors  by  means  of  premiums,  10  to  30  marks 
for  a  trichina  finding.  In  reality,  such  an  inducement  is  not 
necessary,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  there  is  perhaps  no  less 
inviting  occupation  than  that  of  trichina  inspector.  The  offering  of 
premiums  may  also  give  occasion  to  underhand  dealing.  Thus,  in 
Griinberg,  a  trichina  inspector  fed  his  own  and  his  neighbor's  hogs 
with  trichinous  meat  in  order  to  obtain  the  premium  of  10  marks 
for  each  case  of  infestation  discovered  by  him. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  domestic  butchers  can  not  be 
appointed  as  trichina  inspectors  (Ministerial  decree  of  February 
18,  1897). 

2.  Careful  training  of  the  inspectors  by  the  proper  experts,  which,  in 
accordance  with  their  course  of  study,  can  be  found  only  among 
veterinarians.  j?or,  as  Steinbach  rightfully  asserts,  we  have  to  do 


488  INVASION  DISEASES 

with  a  method  of  diagnosing  an  animal  disease.  In  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony,  in  recognition  of  this  fact,  the  training  and  control  of 
trichina  inspectors  is  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  district  veterin- 
arians.* The  best  opportunities  for  the  training  of  trichina 
inspectors  are  found  in  abattoirs,  since  in  such  places  the  most 
abundant  demonstration  of  objective  material  is  possible. 

It  is  impossible  to  understand  why  apothecaries  should  be 
given  authority  in  ordinances  concerning  trichina  inspection  to 
practice  trichina  inspection  without  a  previous  examination ;  for 
information  concerning  trichinae  does  not  belong  to  the  subjects  of 
a  pharmaceutical  course.  Miiller,  in  Brunswick,  in  his  Anwei&ung 
zur  Untersuchung  auf  Tuichinen,  states,  on  the  basis  of  certain 
experiences,  that  apothecaries  which  he  had  previously  considered 
as  "  born  experts  "  should  be  subjected  to  an  examination  in  the 
same  manner  as  empirics.  Only  physicians  and  veterinarians  should 
be  exempt  from  an  examination. 

Physicians  and  veterinarians  who  practice  trichina  inspection 
as  a  profession  require  a  police  permit. 

3.  The  proper  selection  of  muscles  to  be  used  in  making  the 
examination. — It  has  not  proved  satisfactory  to  require  too  many 
samples.  For  making  an  inspection  for  the  presence  of  trichinae, 
the  following  muscles  are  the  most  suitable  :  The  pillars  of  the 
diaphragm,  the  costal  portion  of  the  diaphragm,  muscles  of  the 
tongue  and  laryngeal  muscles  ;  for  these  muscles  regularly  contain 
trichinae  even  in  the  case  of  slightest  infestation,  which  is  not  the 
case  in  other  muscles.f 


*  Formerly,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  the  training  and  supervision  of 
trichina  inspectors  was  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  district  physicians.  Now, 
however,  a  change  has  taken  place  in  so  far  as  in  several  governmental  districts, 
such  as  Madgeburg,  Oppeln,  Posen  and  Koln,  these  functions  are  performed  by 
official  physicians  and  veterinarians  in  cooperation. 

f  As  already  mentioned,  page  464,  the  distribution  of  trichina3  is  by  no  means 
uniform.  On  the  contrary,  as  a  result  of  numerous  investigations,  we  must  char- 
acterize certain  muscles  as  the  preferred  locations  for  trichinae.  For  example, 
Kiihn,  in  three  hogs  moderately  infested  with  trichinae,  found  25.3  per  cent,  in 
the  diaphragm,  14  per  cent,  in  the  scapular  muscles,  11.3  per  cent,  in  the  lumbar 
muscles,  8.5  per  cent,  in  the  iaryngeal  muscles,  7  per  cent,  in  the  flexor  muscles 
of  the  thigh,  etc.  Kiihn  demonstrated  1.3  per  cent,  in  one  case  in.  the  inter- 
costal muscles  and  in  another  22  per  cent.  Hertwig  made  a  report  concerning 
the  enumeration  of  trichinae,  which  was  undertaken  in  samples  10  square  centi- 
meters in  size  from  150  hogs.  In  all,  1,329  trichinae  were  found  in  the  pillars  of 
the  diaphragm,  1,115  in  the  muscles  of  the  tongue,  987  in  the  costal  portion  of 
the  diaphragm,  710  in  the  laryngeal  muscles,  491  in  the  abdominal  muscles  and 
308  in  the  intercostal  muscles.  This  count  discloses  at  the  same  time  the  highly 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  489 

In  taking  samples  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  the 
muscles  contain  the  most  trichinae  at  their  points  of  origin  and  at 
the  point  of  transition  into  tendons  (page  460).  Moreover,  outside 
of  abattoirs,  the  samples  must  be  taken  by  the  trichina  inspectors 
themselves  to  prevent  substitutions.  The  stamping  of  hogs  found 
to  be  free  from  trichinae  must  also  be  looked  after  by  the  inspec- 
tors. In  slaughterhouses,  the  taking  of  samples  and  stamping  may 
be  suitably  done  by  so-called  samplers,  and  this  practice  is  to  be 
recommended. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  dia- 
phragmatic, intercostal,  abdominal,  lumbar,  or  laryngeal  and  lingual 
muscles  are  prescribed.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia  the  require- 
ments in  this  respect  vary  in  different  provinces.  In  most  places 
too  many  and  quite  unsuitable  samples  (for  example,  even  the 
heart)  are  named  for  examination.  *  In  Berlin  samples  are  taken 
from  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  abdominal,  laryngeal  and  inter- 
costal muscles,  with  results  already  mentioned.  The  intercostal 
muscles,  however,  are  not  suitable  for  furnishing  samples  for 
trichina  inspection,  since,  as  a  rule,  in  slaughtered  hogs  they  are 
strongly  infiltrated  with  fat  tissue.  Objection  may  be  made  against 
taking  the  muscles  of  the  eye  as  samples,  as  prescribed  in  many 
localities,  th;»t  they  are  very  difficult  to  dissect  out,  and  objection 
may  be  made  against  samples  from  other  muscles,  except  those 
of  the  diaphragm,  tongue  and  larynx,  that  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
principal  locations  of  trichinae. 

Billings  considers  it  as  the  most  reliable  method  to  examine 
24  preparations  exclusively  from  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm.  To 
this  practice,  which  is  in  vogue  in  St.  Petersburg,  no  objection  can 
be  made  (Hertwig). 


interesting  fact  that  even  in  case  of  very  slight  invasion,  the  four  first-named 
muscles  regularly  contained  trichinae,  while  they  were  almost  as  uniformly 
wanting  in  the  abdominal  and  intercostal  muscles.  The  results  of  the  investi- 
gation undertaken  by  Hertwig  have  been  subsequently  confirmed  by  Goltz,  Mis- 
sel witz,  Trautwein  and  Giinther. 

In  accordance  with  recommendations  made  by  the  writer,  the  above-named 
four  muscles  have  been  prescribed  for  microscopic  inspection  for  the  presence  of 
trichinae,  in  the  Prusssian  governmental  districts  of  Hildesheim,  Posen,  Magde- 
burg, Koln,  Miinster,  as  well  as  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
and  in  the  Duchy  of  Gotha. 

*  As  a  model  regulation  for  the  practice  of  trichina  inspection,  we  may  re- 
commend the  police  regulation  for  the  governmental  district  of  Koln  concern- 
ing the  inspection  of  pork  for  trichina  and  cysticerci  of  May  12,  1898  (Ztschr. 
f .  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg.  VIII.). 


490  INVASION  DISEASES 

Examination  of  Isolated  Pieces  of  Meat  and  Meat  Preparations. — 
The  examination  of  6  suitable  preparations  each  from  the  pillars  of 
the  diaphragm,  the  costal  portion  of  the  diaphragm  and  the  muscles, 
of  the  larynx  and  tongue,  makes  it  possible  to  determine  with  cer- 
tainty whether  the  hog  is  infested  with  trichinae  or  not.  In  the 
investigation  of  isolated  pieces  of  meat  and  manufactured  articles 
the  certain  demonstration  of  trichinae  which  may  be  present  is  much 
more  difficult. 

Heretofore  this  difficulty  has  never  been  properly  appreciated. 
It  has  been  considered  that  hams  and  bacon  sides  are  sufficiently 
well  examined  if  one,  or  at  most  two,  samples  are  taken  from  them 
and  examined  in  the  ordinary  manner.  This  procedure  overlooks 
the  fact  that  these  parts  contain  trichinae  much  more  sparingly  than 
the  above-mentioned  preferred  locations  of  trichinae.  In  1882  Hog- 
ner  examined  various  muscles  from  21  trichinous  hogs  for  the 
presence  of  trichinae,  investigating  the  preparations  of  from  22  to 
25  square  centimeters  area  from  each  muscle,  and  thereby  demon- 
strated the  regular  occurrence  of  trichinae  in  the  muscular  portions 
of  the  diaphragm,  while  the  parasites  were  not  found  in  the  cervi- 
cal muscles  and  muscles  of  mastication  in  6  trichinous  hogs,  in  the 
hams  and  abdominal  muscles  of  9  trichinous  hogs  and  in  the  inter- 
costal muscles  of  10  trichinous  hogs. 

Goltz  took  samples  from  various  parts  of  26  hogs  and  made 
preparations  of  30  square  centimeters  area.  In  these  examinations, 
he  found  no  trichinae  in  the  abdominal  muscles  in  one  hog,  in  the 
dorsal  muscles  of  5  hogs  and  in  the  cervical  muscles  of  3  hogs ; 
only  1  to  4  trichinae  in  the  abdominal  muscles  of  11  hogs,  in 
the  dorsal  muscles  of  12  hogs  and  in  the  cervical  muscles  of 
10  hogs. 

Finally,  Giinther  examined  36  preparations  of  30  square  centi- 
meters area  from  various  muscles  in  50  hogs  and  found  no  trichinae 
in  the  hams  in  18  hogs,  in  the  abdominal  muscles  in  18  hogs,  in  the 
lumbar  muscles  in  13  hogs  and  in  the  intercostal  muscles  in  15  hogs, 
while  only  1  to  4  trichinae  were  found  in  the  hams  of  18  hogs,  in  the 
abdominal  muscles  of  9,  in  the  lumbar  muscles  of  19  and  in  the 
intercostal  muscles  of  17. 

From  these  counts  it  appears  that  the  previous  customary 
method  of  examining  hams,  sides  of  bacon  and  other  pieces  of  meat 
for  trichinae  is  unsatisfactory.  In  making  an  examination  of  only 
6,  or  at  most  12,  preparations  from  one  of  these  pieces,  trichinae  are 
quite  often  overlooked,  which  could  have  been  detected  by  making 
a  larger  number  of  preparations. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  49L 

To  be  sure,  it  should  be  admitted  that  hams  and  other  pieces, 
of  meat  in  which  no  trichinae  can  be  demonstrated  from  30  ordi- 
nary preparations  are  so  slightly  infested  that  their  consumption, 
as  a  rule,  is  without  danger.  AVith  regard  to  other  pieces  of  meat 
in  which  only  one  trichina  is  found  in  30  preparations,  the  possibil- 
ity of  danger  to  human  health  can  not  be  excluded.  It  appears, 
therefore,  that  as  many  preparations  must  be  examined  from  pieces 
of  meat  to  be  inspected  as  from  whole  hogs,  if  the  inspection  is  to> 
furnish  a  guaranty  against  trichinae. 

This  holds  good  for  hams,  shoulders,  sides  of  bacon,  backsr 
loins,  spare  ribs  and  necks.  Sides  of  bacon  which  are  perfectly- 
free  from  muscles  do  not  need  to  be  inspected  for  trichinae  (Prus- 
sian Ministerial  Decree,  June  21,  1878). 

In  halves  of  hogs  offered  for  inspection  without  larynx  and 
tongue,  two  samples  each  are  to  be  inspected  from  the  pillars  of  the 
diaphragm  and  costal  portion  of  the  diaphragm. 

With  regard  to  manufactured  pork  products  (sausage,  etc.),, 
their  inspection  is  to  be  carried  out  in  such  a  manner  that  portions 
consisting  as  nearly  as  possible  of  muscle  are  taken  from  cut  sur- 
faces for  making  preparations.  It  is,  however,  a  matter  of  chance 
if  the  presence  of  trichinae  is  discovered  in  this  kind  of  inspection, 
since,  in  the  commercial  preparation  of  products  which  are  intended 
exclusively  for  export,  sausage  is  made  from  the  mingled  meat  of 
many  hogs.  For  this  reason  the  inspection  of  sausage  and  pressed 
hogshead  furnishes  no  protection  against  trichinae. 

4.  Accurate  Statement  of  the  Size  and  Number  of  the  Preparations  to- 
be  Made  from  Samples  of  Muscle. — In  Berlin  the  custom  prevails  of 
inspecting  six  preparations  the  size  of  an  oat  grain  from  each  of  the 
four  muscle  samples,  which  in  that  city,  as  already  mentioned,  are 
taken    from    the    pillars    of   the   diaphragm    and    the    abdominal, 
laryngeal  and  intercostal  muscles.     The  preparations  of  the  size  of 
oat  grains  are  crushed  between  the  plates  of  a  so-called  compres- 
sorium  (Fig.  153),  so  as  to  render  them  perfectly  transparent. 

5.  Accurate  Statement  of  the  Minimum  Time  to  be  Devoted  to  the 
Inspection. — There  is   a    regulation    in    Berlin  to  the   effect    that, 
including  the  making  of  the  preparations,  but  excluding  the  taking 
of  the  samples,  eighteen  minutes  are  to  be  devoted  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  muscle  samples  of  one  hog.     In  abattoirs  this  time  may 
be  sufficient  for  the  examination  of  twenty-four  preparations  made 
as  just  described  in  paragraph  4  preceding.     For  the  examinations. 
of  more  preparations  more  lime  is  required,  and  for  trichina  inspec— 


492 


INVASION   DISEASES 


tion  iii  country  districts  in  general,  a  longer  time  is  to  be  prescribed. 
The  number  of  hogs  to  be  inspected  by  one  trichina  inspector  during 
a  single  day  should  in  general  not  exceed  twenty. 

The  governmental  president  at  Danzig  has  decreed  that  trichina 
inspectors  in  public  abattoirs  in  which  the  samples  are  taken  by 
special  samplers  may  inspect  as  many  as  twenty  whole  or  half  hogs 
and  shall  spend  at  least  fifteen  minutes  upon  each  inspection. 

6.  Constant  or  Frequent  Supervision  of  the  Trichina  Inspectors. — 
In  order  to  prevent  neglect  of  duty  or  carelessness,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  inspectors  be  subjected  to  some  sort  of  control.  The 
best  form  of  this  control  consists  in  the  so-called  double  trichina 
inspection,  in  which  the  same  or  different  preparations  from  one  and 
the  same  hog  are  examined  by  two  inspectors  working  independ- 
ently of  each  other.  This  system,  however,  can  be  practiced  only 

FIG.  153. 


Berlin  compressorium  for  trichina  inspection. 

in  abattoirs.  Where  it  is  not  practicable,  the  empirical  trichina 
inspectors  are  to  be  subjected  as  frequently  as  possible  to  a  control 
of  their  work  and  to  visits  at  regular  intervals,  in  which  an  exami- 
nation of  the  instruments  is  to  be  included.*  In  this  control  and 
supervision  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  some  cases  the  failure  on 
the  part  of  the  trichina  inspectors  to  perform  their  duty  is  not  due 
to  carelessness,  but  to  a  defect  of  vision.  In  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia,  the  trichina  inspectors  have  to  be  examined  every  two 
years  (Ministerial  regulations  of  January  20,  1885).  Persons  who 
-are  admitted  to  the  practice  of  trichina  inspection  without  an. 


*  If  such  methods  of  control  as  are  practiced  by  the  official  experts  on  their 
official  trips  were  regularly  enforced,  such  occurrences  as  the  epidemic  of 
trichinosis  in  Strenz-Neuendorf  in  1884  would  be  impossible.  The  trichina 
Inspector  who  was  responsible  for  86  cases  of  trichinosis  and  12  deaths  was  a 
habitual  drunkard  who  had  made  preparations  from  the  hog  in  question,  but  had 
not  inspected  them,  for  trichinae  could  be  easily  demonstrated  in  large  number* 
Jn  the  preparations. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  493 

examination  are  naturally  exempt  also  from  subsequent  examina- 
tion. 

For  the  rest,  the  control  and  supervision  should  be  practiced 
by  the  same  experts  who  make  the  original  examination,  with  the 
exception  of  trichina  inspectors  appointed  in  abattoirs,  who  are 
naturally  under  the  suitable  supervision  of  the  veterinary  abattoir 
directors  and  may  be  examined  as  occasion  requires.  The  same 
holds  true  for  the  confirmation  of  a  finding  of  trichinae  (page  494). 

With  regard  to  better  methods  of  control,  Herz  makes  the 
following  suggestion :  It  is  to  be  made  the  duty  of  trichina  inspec- 
tors to  preserve  all  preparations  inspected  by  them  together  with 
the  compressoriums,  which  may  be  cheaply  made  in  large  quantities 
from  window  glass,  and  to  submit  them  at  periods  of  from  two  to 
four  weeks  to  the  official  veterinarians  for  inspection  together  with: 
a  record  of  the  inspection  report.  In  order  to  make  it  possible  to 
re-examine  desiccated  preparations,  it  is  only  necessary  to  moisten 
them  with  salt  solution  or  with  glycerine.  Kabitz  recommended 
inspection  by  the  projection  apparatus  for  re-examining  compres— 
sorium  specimens  which  have  already  been  examined  under  the 
microscope.  This  method  of  making  a  re-examination  is,  according 
to  the  investigations  of  the  writer,  very  satisfactory  in  the  case  of 
fresh  meat.  It  requires  farther  investigation  to  determine  whether 
the  projection  apparatus  can  also  be  used  in  the  case  of  pickled  and 
smoked  meat. 

The  following  case  shows  the  necessity  of  the  control  of  the 
instruments.  According  to  the  report  of  the  Saxon  district  vet- 
erinarian, Peschel,  a  trichina  inspector  in  Dresden  had  to  be 
removed  for  the  reason  that  he  did  not  observe  a  single  one  of  twelve 
trichinae  in  a  certain  preparation.  The  lenses  of  the  microscope 
used  by  this  model  trichina  inspector  were  smeared  with  grease  and 
the  microscope  itself  was  so  covered  with  dirt  that  it  could  be 
scraped  off  with  a  knife. 

A  single  failure  to  see  trichinae  justifies  the  removal  of  the 
inspector  (Decision  of  the  Prussian  Administrative  Court  of 
November  21, 1895). 

For  further  details  on  the  practice  of  trichina  inspection,  consult 
special  books  concerning  this  subject  (Johne  and  Long).  In  this - 
connection  we  may  reiterate  that  for  the  practice  of  trichina  inspec- 
tion a  simple  microscope  with  a  magnification  of  40  diameters  and 
the  crushing  of  preparations  between  the  glass  plates  of  a  so-called 
<3ompressorium,  as  is  customary  in  Berlin,  are  especially  to  be 


494 


INVASION   DISEASES 


Tecom mended.  Fresh,  pork  is  best  examined  without  the  addition 
of  water  or  any  other  substance.  For  the  examination  of  hams,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  use  of  water,  dilute  acetic  acid,  or  potash  lye, 
is  desirable. 

For  preventing  erroneous  condemnation,  it  should  be  required 
that  all  findings  of  trichinae  and  all  doubtful  findings  should  be 
submitted  for  the  decision  of  the  supervising  expert. 

Extent  and  Results  of  Trichina  Inspection  in  the  Kingdom  of 
JPrussia. — An  approximate  idea  of  the  extent  and  results  of  obliga- 
tory trichina  inspection  in  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  as  well  as 
interesting  data  concerning  the  origin  of  outbreaks  of  trichinosis 
may  be  obtained  from  the  following  statistics  : 


YEAR 

No.  OF  HOGS 

INSPECTED 

No.  OP  TRICHIN- 
ous  HOGS 

No.  OF  MEASLY 
HOGS 

No.  OF  TRICHINA 
INSPECTORS 

1886 

4,834,8981 

2,114 

10,126 

22,939 

1890 

5,590,510 

1,756 

5,420 

24,454 

1896 

8,759,490 

1,877 

5,958 

27,602 

1899 

9,230,353 

1,021 

4,390 

28,224 

Cases  of  trichinosis  in  man  w<^re  frequently  observed  during 
the  years  1895  to  1900.  From  Mai  ch  7-13,  1885,  twelve  cases  of 
trichinosis  were  reported  in  Wandsbeck  on  account  of  eating 
trichinous  meat.  These  were  followed  by  two  in  Hamburg  and  two 
Tery  slight  doubtful  cases  in  Wandsbeck.  One  of  these  cases 
terminated  fatally,  while  all  the  others  were  mild.  About  the  middle 
of  August,  ten  persons  living  in  one  neighborhood  in  Halle,  took 
sick  after  eating  trichinous  pork.  They  were  boarding  at  the  same 
inn  and  all  cases  were  mild.  The  responsibility  for  the  matter  was 
never  determined. 

At  the  beginning  of  March,  1877,  two  cases  occurred  in 
Oerdauen,  and  in  January  and  February,  twelve  cases  with  one 
death  in  Heilsberg  as  a  result  of  eating  raw  meat.  Toward  the  end 
of  March  there  were  eight  cases  in  Mohrungen  ;  in  May,  four  cases 
with  one  death  in  Ortelsburg,  and  in  February,  ten  cases  in  Wehlau 
as  a  result  of  eating  insufficiently  smoked  sausage.  In  no  case  was 
the  meat  previously  inspected  for  trichinae.  Moreover,  toward  the 
-end  of  1887,  five  cases  of  trichinosis  with  one  death  in  1888  occurred 
in  Berlin  from  eating  non-inspected  pork  which  had  been  marketed 
in  the  city,  and  in  December,  twelve  cases  occurred  in  Miihlhausen. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  495 

In  the  year  1888,  six  cases  with,  two  deaths  occurred  in  Fisch- 
liausen;  in  January,  three  cases  in  Memel ;  in  February,  fifteen 
cases  in  Mohrungen.  All  these  cases  were  due  to  eating  the  meat 
of  hogs  which  had  not  been  inspected.  Furthermore,  in  February, 
six  cases  occurred  in  Mansfeld  (the  meat  was  only  slightly  infested 
with  trichinae  and  the  inspector  was  not  considered  guilty  of 
neglect).  In  the  district  of  Pinneberg,  three  cases  occurred  in 
December  (due  to  eating  raw  sausage  or  imperfectly  cooked  meat). 
One  child  merely  had  a  severe  case  of  diarrhea. 

In  January,  1889,  eight  cases  of  trichinosis  with  two  deaths 
occurred  in  the  district  of  Heilsberg  after  eating  raw  pork  or  smoked 
sausage.  The  meat  was  not  inspected  for  trichinae.  Moreover,  in 
January,  six  cases  with  one  death  occurred  in  the  district  of 
Allenstein,  and  in  February,  five  cases  at  Burgwenden.  In  the  latter 
case  the  meat  was  eaten  continuously  for  three  weeks.  Persons 
who  ate  only  once  on  the  day  when  the  animals  were  slaughtered 
remained  healthy.  Later  in  February,  seven  cases  with  one  death 
occurred  in  Fischhausen  from  eating  smoked  sausage.  The  meat 
was  not  inspected.  In  September  there  were  about  twenty  cases  in 
Eisleben,  twelve  in  "Wimmelburg  and  about  fifteen  in  Ahlsdorf, 
Hergesdorf  and  other  localities,  making  in  all  about  fifty  cases. 
The  cause  was  not  understood.  Finally,  mention  should  be  made 
of  eight  cases  in  December  in  the  district  of  Gratz — gross  neglect 
of  duty  on  the  part  of  the  inspector — and  fourteen  cases  in  seven 
families  during  autumn  in  Halle.  In  the  latter  case  the  cause  was 
not  clear. 

The  majority  of  cases  in  the  years  1889-1891  occurred  in  the 
governmental  district  Merseburg,  where,  during  4  successive  epi- 
demics, 75  persons  were  affected.  A  larger  epidemic  occurred  in 
the  district  of  Posen  with  44  cases  and  4  deaths.  As  a  result  of 
these  cases  2  meat  inspectors  in  that  district  were  tried  and  found 
guilty  of  gross  neglect  of  duty.  In  the  district  of  Bromberg,  24 
cases  were  observed  and  11  persons  were  affected  as  a  result  of  eat- 
ing dried  unsmoked  sausage  which  had  been  introduced  from  Rus- 
sian Poland.  These  cases  caused  a  proclamation  of  a  police  ordi- 
nance which  prescribes  obligatory  inspection  of  pork  introduced 
from  Russia.  A  particularly  unfortunate  case  occurred  in  Breslau. 
Although  the  meat  in  question  had  been  declared  trichinous,  it  was, 
nevertheless,  sold  from  a  sordid  desire  for  gain.  Fourteen  persons 
were  affected,  6  of  whom  died.  The  vendor  of  the  meat  was  con- 
demned to  15  years'  imprisonment. 

Other  epidemics  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  1890  on  an  estate 


496  INVASION  DISEASES 

in  the  district  of  Schrimm  and  in  Opalenitza,  during  which  16  per- 
sons were  affected,  all  of  whom  recovered. 

Iii  1891,  7  persons  in  one  family  were  affected  with  trichinosis, 
in  the  district  of  AllensteiL  All  of  these  persons  had  eaten  of  the 
meat  of  a  slaughtered  hog  b&lore  it  had  been  inspected  for  trichinae, 
which  were  later  found  to  be  present  in  large  numbers.  All  of 
the  cases  terminated  in  recovery.  Likewise  in  the  beginning  of 
1891,  in  the  district  of  Ortelsburg,  one  forester  and  two  dependent 
families,  as  well  as  two  other  grown  persons,  were  affected  with 
trichinosis.  The  cases  were  mild  and  appeared  after  eating  pork 
which  contained  but  few  trichinae.  The  inspector  who  had  not 
detected  the  trichinae  was  removed  from  his  post.  All  cases 
recovered.  In  Stettin,  during  the  same  year,  there  were  8  cases- 
from  eating  ham  which  came  from  Memel ;  6  cases  in  the  district 
of  Gratz,  8  cases  in  the  district  of  Schrimm,  3  of  whom  died,  and  fr 
in  the  district  of  Schrode,  one  of  whom  died.  The  inspector  who 
had  carelessly  caused  the  death  of  human  beings  received  6 
months'  imprisonment. 

In  the  year  1892,  4  cases  of  trichinosis  occurred  in  the  govern- 
mental district  Konigsberg,  with  a  favorable  course  of  the  disease  ; 
and  22  cases  in  the  governmental  district  Posen,  where  3  deaths 
occurred  in  a  butcher's  family.  In  1897,  242  cases  with  one  death 
occurred  in  Kelbra-Altendorf.  The  hogs  were  slaughtered  by~ 
"polka  butchers,"  and  the  meat  was  probably  not  inspected,  since 
the  trichina  inspector  did  not  take  samples  himself. 

In  August,  1900,  67  persons  were  affected  with  trichinosis  in 
JSangerhausen.  This  trichina  inspector  also  had  not  taken  the  sam- 
ples himself. 

Appendix. 

Is  inspection  for  trichina  necessary  in  the  case  of  salted  pork 
imported  from  America  ?  After  attention  had  already  been  called 
to  the  fact,  especially  by  Yirchow,  that  with  the  exception  of  one 
not  unquestionable  observation  in  Bremen,*  no  case  of  trichinosis- 
could  be  ascribed  to  the  consumption  of  salted  American  pork,  the 
question  of  the  viability  of  American  trichina  has  again  recently 
become  the  subject  of  the  most  searching  investigation  as  a  result 
of  the  admission  of  American  pork  (September  3,  1891).  America 

*  According  to  Roper,  40  persons  in  Bremen  who  had  eaten  only  American 
hams  were  affected  with  trichinosis.  Another  case  of  trichinosis  occurred  iix 
Diisseldorf  as  a  result  of  eating  American  pork. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  497 

liacl  guaranteed  tlie  trichina  inspection  of  all  pork  intended  for 
export.  However,  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  this  guaranty  is 
shown  by  the  extraordinarily  numerous  findings  of  trichinae  in. 
American  pork  which  have  been  made  in  this  country,  despite  the 
fact  that  these  products  bear  the  official  certificate  that  they  Lave 
been  inspected  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  March  3,  1891. 
Several  authorities,  especially  Wasserfuhr  and  C.  Frankel,  declared 
that  a  subsequent  inspection  of  American  pork  was  unnecessary, 
since  trichinae  which  might  be  contained  in  the  imported  products 
were  rendered  harmless  by  the  method  of  preservation  and  since 
the  best  protection  against  trichinosis  is  thorough  boiling  or  fry- 
ing. It  was  argued  that  numerous  negative  results  from  feeding 
experiments  with  American  trichinae  demonstrated  the  slight  dan- 
ger of  trichinosis  from  eating  imported  products. 

Against  this  line  of  argument,  Hertwig  contended  that  living 
trichinae  had  repeatedly  been  demonstrated  in  American  pork  dur- 
ing subsequent  inspection  in  Germany.  Johne  had  previously 
emphasized  this  fact.  It  was  stated  that  viable  parasites  were 
most  frequently  observed  in  the  interior  of  meat  products.  It  was 
held  also  that  boiling  and  roasting  furnish  no  certain  protection,  as 
long  as  meat  was  prepared  according  to  the  taste  of  the  consumer 
rather  than  according  to  the  thermometer.  A  subsequent  inspec- 
tion of  American  pork  was,  therefore,  considered  necessary.  Duncker 
argued  similarly.  This  author  emphasized  especially  the  fact  that 
not  only  he  himself,  but  other  authors  as  well,  for  example,  in 
Dresden  and  Hamburg,  had  succeeded,  by  means  of  feeding  Ameri- 
can pork  to  rabbits,  in  demonstrating  the  reproductive  power  of 
trichinae  in  American  meat.  Similar  results  were  previously 
obtained  by  Chattin  and  Fourment,  and  recently  again  by  Janssen, 
Kievel,  Bohrn  and  the  author.  Furthermore,  the  fact  should  be 
emphasized  that  in  a  given  case  no  guaranty  whatever  is  furnished 
of  an  effective  process  of  pickling  which  kills  trichinae.  It  may 
readily  occur  that  the  pickling  of  certain  pieces  is  incomplete  and 
Hertwig  has  demonstrated  that  this  does  occur.  Hertwig  repeat- 
edly found  American  hams  which  were  pickled  so  defectively  that 
the  deeper  parts  had  decomposed.  Moreover,  it  should  also  be 
considered  that  calcified  trichinae  are  not  killed  by  pickling  and 
that  they  are  sometimes  found  to  be  still  viable  in  perfectly  pickled 
products.  Finally,  the  Deutsche  Fleischer  Zeitung  called  attention  to 
the  fact  that  Section  367  of  the  German  Criminal  Law  Statutes  for- 
bids the  sale  of  meat  containing  trichinae  and  that,  therefore,  for 
the  traffic  it  is  quite  immaterial  whether  American  pork  contains 


498  INVASION   DISEASES 

trichinae  in  a  living  or  dead  condition.  Moreover,  this  journal 
recounted  the  fact  that  American  bacon  is  also  utilized  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  mettwurst  and  cervalatwurst,  which,  as  is  well  known,  are 
eaten  in  a  raw  condition. 

What  has  been  said  regarding  the  necessity  of  inspecting  pork 
imported  from  America  holds  true  also  for  pork  imported  from 
other  foreign  countries. 

For  the  older  literature  concerning  trichinae  in  American  pork, 
reference  should  be  made  to  Frankel  (Deutsche  Med.  Wochenschr., 
1891,  No.  51).  According  to  more  recent  experiments,  Janssen  suc- 
ceeded in  cultivating  a  few  intestinal  trichinae,  but  no  muscle 
trichinae,  from  the  specimen  of  American  pork  with  which  he 
worked.  Blevel,  Bohm  and  the  author  succeeded  also  in  producing 
a  development  of  muscle  trichinae  by  feeding  experiments  with 
thoroughly  dehydrated  American  ham.  On  the  other  hand,  Klap- 
hake,  Ernst,  Frankel,  the  Imperial  Health  Office,  Hintzen  and 
Schenck  obtained  only  negative  results. 

Trichinae  Findings  in  Imported  American  Pork  Inspected  According  to  the 
Act  of  Congress  of  March  3,  1891. 

After  the  readmission  of  American  pork  it  was  found  that 
pieces  of  American  pork  were  very  frequently  trichinous.  In  these 
instances  it  was  not  a  case  of  slight  infestation,  but  the  pieces  of 
pork  were  frequently  so  extensively  infested  with  trichinae  that  the 
failure  to  detect  the  worms,  even  by  a  superficial  examination  at  the 
point  of  export,  had  to  be  considered  as  absolutely  impossible. 

During  the  subsequent  inspection  in  Germany,  trichinae  were 
found  in  pork  of  American  origin,  as  shown  by  the  following 
statistics  : 

In  Altona,  1891-7,  in  63  hams,  2  sides  of  bacon,  6  pieces  of 
cutlets,  and  in  one  large  shipment  of  sausage ;  in  Bremen,  1891-7, 
in  130  hams,  5  sides  of  bacon ;  in  Dusseldorf,  1891-7,  in  182  hams, 
227  sides  of  bacon,  one  piece  of  pickled  meat  and  6  sausages  ;  in 
Elberfeld  and  Barmen,  1891-7,  in  114  hams  and  9  sides  of  bacon  ; 
in  Stettin,  in  8  hams  and  1,049  sides  of  bacon ;  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Prussia,  1894-5,  in  1,624  hams  and  sides  of  bacon. 

Bockelmann,  in  Aachen,  examined  60  boxes  of  American  sausage 
and  found  that  11  contained  trichinous  products. 

That  in  this  regard  no  change  has  occurred  even  at  the  present 
time  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1899  trichinae  were  found  in  1,263 
hams  and  sides  of  bacon  of  American  origin  and  these  findings  were 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  499 

made  in  pieces  of  meat  in  which  the  parasites  could  not  have  been 
demonstrated  if  the  animals  had  not  been  extensively  infested. 


3.— Parasites  Which  Are  Not   Immediately  Harmful  to  Man, 

But  Which   May  Become  So  After  A  Preliminary 

Change  of  Host. 

Among  the  parasites  of  food  animals  which  can  not  be  directly 
transmitted  to  man,  but  only  after  a  previous  change  of  host,  belong 
the  echinococci  and  the  larvae  of  Pentastomum  tcenioides.  The 
developmental  stages  of  these  parasites  which  occur  in  food 
animals  are  not  directly  transmissible  to  man.  In  fact,  human 
beings  may  eat  organs  infested  by  these  parasites  without  danger 
to  health ;  nevertheless,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  sanitary  police  to 
destroy  these  internal  parasites,  since  they  can  be  transmitted  to 
man  by  dogs  after  maturing  in  this  animal. 

The  echinococcus  disease  of  man,  compared  with  which  pen- 
tastomatosis  plays  an  unimportant  role,  is  a  relatively  frequent  and 
also  a  very  dangerous  disease.  According  to  accurate  statistics, 
one  case  of  echinococcus  disease  is  found  in  every  130  autopsies  in 
middle  Europe.  Furthermore,  medical  experience  shows  that  50 
per  cent,  of  the  echinococcus  patients  die  before  the  lapse  of  five 
years.  The  disease  formerly  had  a  very  wide  distribution  in  Ice- 
land, where,  according  to  Eschricht,  one-sixth  and,  according  to 
Schleisner,  one-seventh  of  all  the  inhabitants  suffered  from  it. 
Finsen  and  Jouassen,  as  well  as  Krabbe  (personal  communication) 
consider  these  figures  as  too  high.  According  to  Finsen,  one 
echinococcus  patient  is  found  in  each  43  inhabitants  of  Iceland, 
and,  according  to  Jonassen,  one  for  every  61.  These  figures,  how- 
ever, show  a  very  wide  distribution  of  the  echinococcus  disease  on 
the  Danish  Island.  According  to  further  statistics  collected  by 
Finsen,  one  out  of  every  27  patients  in  the  nine  years  from  1857  to 
1865  was  infested  with  echinococci. 

"We  have,  however,  even  in  Germany,  districts  in  which  the 
echinococcus  disease  is  frequent,  especially  Mecklenburg  and 
Hither-Pomerania. 

The  Mecklenburg  Medical  Society  has  collected  valuable 
statistics  concerning  the  etiology  of  the  echinococcus  disease  in  that 
locality.  It  is  shown  by  the  report  of  Madelung,  who  summarized 
the  results  of  this  investigation,  that  since  1850,  not  less  than  182 
•cases  of  echinococcus  disease  in  man  have  been  observed  in  Meek- 


500  INVASION  DISEASES 

lenburg,  among  which  it  should  be  remembered  that  scarcely 
one-third  were  rightly  diagnosed.  In  Mecklenburg,  one  in  7,108 
inhabitants  is  affected  with  the  disease,  and  in  Rostock,  one  in 
1,414. 

According  to  Madelung,  echinococci  were  found  in  the  various 
cities  of  Germany  and  neighboring  countries  in  autopsies  with  the 
following  frequency :  Rostock,  25  cases,  or  2.43  per  cent.,  in  1,026 
autopsies  ;  Breslau,  20  cases,  or  1.47  per  cent.,  in  1,360  autopsies  ; 
Berlin,  33  cases,  or  0.76  per  cent.,  in  4,770  autopsies  ;  Gottingen,  3 
cases,  or  0.46  per  cent.,  in  639  autopsies  ;  Dresden,  7  cases,  or  0.34 
per  cent.,  in  2,002  autopsies ;  Vienna,  3  cases,  or  0.24  per  cent,  in 
1,229  autopsies ;  Prag,  3  cases,  or  0.23  per  cent.,  in  1,287  autopsies  ; 
Basel,  Bern  and  Zurich,  11  cases,  or  0.14  per  cent.,  in  7,982 
autopsies  ;  Erlangen,  2  cases,  or  0.11  per  cent,  in  1,812  autopsies. 

Echinococci  in  man  are  rarer  in  middle  and  southern  than  in 
northern  Germany.  In  northern  Germany,  the  greatest  number  of 
cases  are  observed  in  Pomerania  and  Mecklenburg. 

Madelung  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  frequency  of  the  echino- 
coccus  disease  in  Mecklenburg  is  not  explained  by  the  number  of 
dogs  (the  ratio  of  dogs  to  man  is  1  : 18  or  1 : 19  ;  while  in  Berlin 
the  ratio  is  1  :  36  ;  and  in  Bavaria,  1 : 16  to  1 :  25).  It  is  stated  that 
the  reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no  meat  inspection 
in  Mecklenburg.* 

The  distribution  of  the  echinococcus  disease  in  Hither- 
Pomerania  is  similarly  explained  by  statistics  collected  by  Peiper, 
who,  by  means  of  inquiries  directed  to  all  physicians  and  to  the 
heads  of  hospitals  of  Hither-Pomerania,  succeeded  in  demonstrating 
the  occurrence  of  150  cases  of  the  disease  in  question  between  1860 
and  1894.  Of  these  cases,  54  occurred  in  the  Greifswald  Patholog- 
ical Institute.  The  percentage  of  echinococcus  disease  observed  in 
this  institute  is  very  high  (1.9  per  cent).  In  Hither-Pomerania, 
according  to  Peiper,  there  is  one  case  of  echinococcus  disease  for 
every  3,336  inhabitants.  In  the  northern  districts  of  Bergen, 
Stralsund,  Franzburg,  Greifswald  and  Anklam,  the  disease  is  more 
widely  distributed  (1.2,  or  1  : 2,096)  than  in  the  southern  districts  of 
Demmin,  Usedom,  "Wollin,  Ueckermuude  and  Eandow  (0.44,  or 
1 : 7,265).  The  greatest  number  of  cases  occurred  in  the  city  of 

*  Bellinger  remarks,  with  regard  to  the  work  of  Madelung,  that  the  latter 
confirms  his  opinion,  elsewhere  stated,  that  the  frequency  of  zooparasitic  diseases 
in  man,  like  that  of  tapeworms  in  man,  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  kind  of 
meat  inspection,  and  that  the  means  for  combating  these  dangerous  diseases  is 
found  in  a  better  system  of  meat  inspection. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  501 

'Greifswald  (16)  and  the  district  of  Greifswald  (39  ;  =  1 : 1,535) ;  so 
that  we  may  speak  of  the  endemic  appearance  of  the  echinococcus 
disease  in  this  region.  In  other  parts  of  Pomerania,  echinococcus 
disease  is  no  more  frequent  than  in  the  rest  of  Germany. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  Peiper,  the  echinococcus 
disease  in  man  bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  distribution  of  the 
disease  among  domesticated  animals.  The  disease  is  comparatively 
frequent  among  domesticated  animals  in  Hither-Pomerania,  where 
large  numbers  of  domesticated  animals  are  raised.  There  are  44 
cattle,  180  sheep  and  40  hogs  for  each  100  inhabitants,  as  against 
34.5,41.9  and  20.1,  respectively,  in  the  whole  German  Empire.  A 
very  large  number  of  dogs  is  also  kept. 

The  average  percentage  of  echinococcus  disease,  according  to 
the  results  of  meat  inspection  in  abattoirs  located  in  52  different 
parts  of  Germany,  is  10.39  in  cattle,  9.83  in  sheep  and  6.47  in  hogs  ; 
while  in  the  abattoirs  of  Hither-Pomerania,  on  the  other  hand 
(Greifswald,  "Wolgast,  Anklam,  Demmin  and  Swinemtinde),  it  is 
37.73,  27.1  and  12.8,  respectively ;  in  Greifswald,  64.58,  51.02  and 
4.93,  respectively. 

(a)  Echinococci. 

NATURE. — The  echinococcus  is  the  asexual  stage  of  a  tapeworm 
•with  three  to  four  segments  ( Tcenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog). 

HISTORY. — Tcenia  echinococcus,  which  lives  as  a  parasite  in  the 
small  intestine  of  the  dog  and  wolf,  was  recognized  as  an  inde- 
pendent species  of  tapeworm  by  von  Siebold  in  1853.  This  tsenia 
is  2.5  to  6  mm.  long,  0.3  mm.  wide,  and  furnished  with  a  protruding 
rostellum  and  with  from  28  to  50  hooks.  The  last  proglottid  is 
about  2  mm.  long  and  contains  ripe  eggs  (Fig.  154).  Von  Siebold 
first  reared  the  tsenia  by  feeding  the  echinococcus  to  sheep. 
Leuckart  also  succeeded  in  producing  the  echinococci  by  feeding 
ripe  echinococcus  tseiiia  to  a  young  pig. 

YARIOUS  FORMS  OF  THE  ECHINOCOCCI.— The  echinococci  occur  in 
two  chief  forms  :  (1)  as  Ecliinococcus  polymorphic  s.  unilocularis  and 
(2)  as  E.  multilocularis  s.  alveolaris. 

E.  polymorphus  forms  simple  cysts  surrounded  by  connective 
tissue.  They  are  of  quite  uniform  appearance  in  their  outer  form, 
but  may  be  distinguished  in  their  internal  anatomy  by  the  fact  that  in 
some  cases  daughter  cysts,  or  daughter  vesicles,  are  developed  from 


502 


INVASION  DISEASES 


FIG.  154. 


the  mother  cysts ;  in  other  cases  not.  Moreover,  the  mother 
together  with  the  daughter  cyst,  is  a  simple  structure  which  ist 
delimited  from  the  neighboring  organic  tissue  by  a  connective  tissue 
capsule.  As  contrasted  with  this  form,  the  multilocular 
echinococcus  forms  daughter  cysts  by  constriction,, 
which  in  turn  are  furnished  with  the  same  reproductive 
power.  E  multilocular  is  develops  from  a  central  mother 
cyst  and  exhibits  an  uninterrupted  peripheral  growth. 
The  second  difference  consists  in  the  fact  that  in  the 
case  of  E.  muUilocularis  the  daughter  cysts  do  not 
remain  in  the  mother  cyst,  or  inside  of  the  organic- 
membrane  formed  about  the  latter,  but,  after  being, 
constricted  off,  they  become  separated  from  the  mother 
cyst  by  connective  tissue.  Consequently,  the  vesicles- 
in  the  case  of  E.  muUilocularis  attain  no  great  size  and 
lie  in  the  connective  tissue  framework  like  the  epithelia, 
of  an  acinous  gland  (E.  alveolaris). 

As  a  result  of  the  feeding  experiments  of  Mangold, 
it  must  be  considered  as  proved  that  E.  polymorp/ms- 
and  E.  muUilocularis  are  not,  as  was  previously  assumed^, 
two  different  growth  forms  of  one  and  the  same  species,, 
but  are  the  immature  stages  of  two  different,  but  ex- 
ternally very  similar,  tseniss.  The  chief  difference^ 
according  to  Mangold,  lies  in  the  length  of  the  hooks.  The  total 
length  of  the  hooks  of  the  multilocular  form  bears  a  ratio  to  that  of" 
the  hooks  of  the  unilocular  species  of  18  or  19  to  16;  and  the 

FIG.  155. 


Adult  Tsenia 

echinococcus 

cystic  us, 

X  ISdiam. 

(Leuckart). 


Intact  and  ruptured  brood  capsules  in  their  connection  with  the  parenchymatous 
layer  (Leuckart).     X  40  diameters. 

length  of  the  basal  portion  bears  a  ratio  of  10  to  7.  Moreover^ 
Miiller  demonstrated  that  in  T.  echinococcus  muUilocularis  the  eggs 
were  grouped  together  in  a  conical  or  spherical  mass  in  the  mature? 
proglottid. 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


503 


Echinococcus  Polymorphic  S.  Unilocularis. 


MORPHOLOGY. — Echinococcus  polymorphus  is  found  in  the  form  of 
round  structures  in  the  interior  of  various  organs.  When  occupy- 
ing a  superficial  position,  the  parasite  appears  like  a  section  of  a 
sphere.  Two  chief  portions  are  to  be  distinguished  in  the  para- 
site :  the  echinococcus  membrane  filled  with  fluid  and  the  so-called 
organic  membrane  and  connective  tissue  formed  by  reaction  of  the 
surrounding  tissue  after  the  invasion  of  the  parasites. 

FIG.  156. 


Echinococcus  polymorphus  with  brood  capsules  in  natural  size  and  position. 

(Leuckart.) 

After  being  removed  from  the  connective  tissue  capsule,  the 
echinococcus  membrane  is  not  of  so  regular  a  form  as  the  encysted 
parasite,  but  easily  becomes  wrinkled  and  corrugated.  The  color 
of  the  echinococcus  membrane  in  the  case  of  young  echinococci  is 
light-gray  to  grayish-blue  and  pure  white  in  older  forms.  The 
membranes  of  young  echinococci  are  thin  and  transparent;  those  of 
older  ones,  thick  and  opaque. 

Two  layers  are  to  be  distinguished  in  the  echinococcus  mem- 
brane :  the  striated  or  lamellate  cuticula,  and  the  parenchymatous 


504 


INVASION   DISEASES 


layer     The  latter  has  a  structure  similar  to  that  of  the  cyst  of 
cysticerci  and  also  possesses  calcareous  corpuscles  (Fig.  163). 

The  parenchymatous  layer  may  be  smooth  on  the  internal  sur- 
face and  may  contain  only  fluid.  It  is  customary,  then,  to  speak  of 
a  simple,  non-fertile  echioococcus  (Echinococcus  cysticus  sterilus). 
This  is  the  form  of  Echinococcus  polymorphus  which  is  most  fre- 
quently observed  in  all  food  animals.  The  parenchymatous  layer, 
however,  may  produce  so-called  brood  capsules  (Fig.  155),  which 
are  connected  with  the  parenchymatous  layer  by  short  stalks  and 
which  contain  a  variable  number  of  scoleces  (Echinococcus  cysticus 
fertilis,  Fig.  156).  This  echinococcus  form  is,  as  a  rule,  more  rare. 

FIG.  157. 


Echinococcus  hydatidosus  of  the  liver  (Thoma). 

It  is  comparatively  frequent  only  in  sheep,  and  less  common,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  cattle  and  hogs.  Moreover,  daughter  cysts  may 
be  formed  from  the  small  remnants  of  the  parenchyma  layer  which 
remain  lying  between  the  different  layers  of  the  cuticula  of  the 
mother  cyst  (Braun).  The  daughter  cysts  project  either  outwardly 
or  inwardly.  A  portion  of  them  may  be  dissolved  and  may  fall  into 
the  fluid  of  the  mother  cyst.  Echinococci  with  outwardly  project- 
ing daughter  cysts  are  known  as  Echinococcus  granulosus  ;  those  with 
inwardly  projecting  daughter  cysts,  as  E.  hydatidosus  (Fig.  157). 
The  daughter  cysts  in  turn  may  form  further  daughter  cysts  and 
may  be  sterile  or  fertile. 

Echinococcus  granulosus  is  the  rarest  form  of  echiuococcus  in. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


505 


food  animals.  The  author  observed  this  form  in  a  few  cases  in 
sheep.  Somewhat  more  frequent,  but  still  rather  rare,  is  E.  hydcts- 
tidosus  in  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs. 

The  size  of  the  polymorphous  echinococcus  varies  from  that 
of  a  sago  grain  or  small  pea  to  that  of  a  man's  head.  E.  hydatidosus 
is  usually  largest  in  cattle ;  in  horses,  echinococci  are  rarely  larger 
than  a  pea. 

The  youngest  forms  of  echinococci,  a  knowledge  of  which  is 
due  to  the  feeding  experiments  of  Leuckart,  are  distinguished  from 
the  older  forms  by  the  fact  that  they  do  not  possess  any  internal 
cavity  filled  with  fluid,  but  appear  as 
solid  round  structures.     These   struc-  FIG.  158. 

tures  have  the  size  of  sago  grains,  are 
grayish-white  or  yellowish-white  in 
color  and  of  a  gelatinous  consistency. 
Under  the  microscope  we  may  dis- 
tinguish a  hyaline  surrounding  mem- 
brane and  a  granulated  internal  layer 
in  the  young  echinococci  (Fig.  158). 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  ECHINOCOCCI.  — 
The  development  of  echinococci  takes 
place  very  slowly.  According  to  Leuc- 
kart, echinococci  reach  a  size  of  0.25  to 
,3  mm.  at  4  weeks  ;  1  to  1.25  mm.  at  8 
weeks ;  and  15  to  20  mm.  at  20  weeks 
of  age.  The  central  cavity  is  not  to 
be  seen  until  after  8  weeks  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  brood  capsules  not  until 
after  5  months. 


Young  echinococcus,  just  out  of 
the  capsule,  four  weeks  old 
(Leuckart).  X  50  diameters. 


OCCURRENCE,  LOCATION  AND  PATHOGENIC  IMPORTANCE. — Echino- 
coccus polymorplms  occurs  as  a  frequent  parasite  in  sheep,  cattle 
and  hogs  ;  less  often,  on  the  other  hand,  in  goats  and  horses.  The 
usual  locations  of  polymorphous  echinococci  are  the  liver,  lungs 
and  spleen  ;  less  often,  the  heart,  kidneys,  peritoneum,  marrow  cavi- 
ties of  the  bones,  lymphatic  glands,  udder  and  muscles.  The  mus- 
cles are  infested  with  echinococci  only  in  cases  of  the  most  exten- 
sive invasion.  In  exceptional  cases  even  the  brain  and  eyes  may  be 
the  seat  of  echinococci  (Langrich).  It  is  worthy  of  mention  that 
in  cattle  and  sheep  the  lungs  are  more  frequently  infested  with, 
echinococci  than  the  liver. 


506  INVASION  DISEASES 

As  to  the  pathogenic  importance  of  echinococci,  the  fact  should 
be  emphasized  that  the  general  condition  and  nutrition  of  affected 
animals  is  usually  not  disturbed  even  in  cases  of  the  most  exten- 
sive invasion.  Cardiac  echinococci  may,  however,  produce  sudden 
death ;  pulmonary  echinococci  may  cause  symptoms  of  dyspnea ; 
hepatic  echinococci  are  usually  without  effect  on  the  health  of  the 
host,  even  when,  as  a  result  of  echinococcus  invasion,  the  liver  is 
enlarged  10  to  20  times  its  normal  volume  and  is  so  thoroughly 
infested  with  echinococci  that  the  parasites  lie  side  by  side.  This 
tolerance  of  the  liver  toward  an  invasion  of  echinococci  is  to  be 
explained  by  the  slow  development  of  the  parasites  and  the  repro- 
ductive power  of  the  liver  (page  300). 

As  a  result  of  extensive  invasion  by  echinococci,  the  liver  may 
reach  an  unusual  volume  and  an  enormous  weight.  Echinococcus 
livers  have  been  observed  in  cattle  with  a  weight  of  75  kg.  and  in 
hogs  with  a  weight  of  36  kg. 

The  following  figures  may  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  the  common  echinococci :  In  Berlin 
during  the  year  1883-4,  infestation  with  echinococci  caused  the 
condemnation  of  the  lungs  of  4,085  cattle,  1,896  sheep  and  906  hogs  ; 
and  the  livers  of  1,164  cattle,  967  sheep  and  1,485  hogs  in  a  total 
number  of  93,387  cattle,  78,220  calves,  171,077  sheep  and  244,343 
hogs.  In  the  year  1888-9,  the  lungs  of  6,578  cattle,  5,041  sheep  and 
5,010  hogs,  as  well  as  the  livers  of  2,668  cattle,  3,363  sheep,  5,285 
hogs  were  condemned  for  the  same  cause  in  a  total  number  of 
141,814  cattle,  115,793  calves,  338,798  sheep  and  479,124  hogs.  In 
1896-7,  the  lungs  of  3,284  cattle,  4,561  sheep,  7,788  hogs,  and  the 
livers  of  1,156  cattle,  1  calf,  1,939  sheep,  5,398  hogs  and  203  various, 
other  parts,  especially  spleens  and  kidneys,  of  all  kinds  of  food 
animals,  as  well  as  2  hog  hearts,  were  condemned  for  the  same  cause 
from  a  total  number  of  146,612  cattle,  141,869  calves,  395,769  sheep 
and  694,170  hogs. 

These  figures  do  not  give  the  actual  frequency  of  echinococci, 
but  include  only  those  cases  in  which,  as  a  result  of  very  extensive 
invasion,  the  organs  could  not  be  put  in  a  marketable  condition  by 
the  removal  of  the  parasites. 

Mejer  in  Leipsic  found  that  when  isolated  echinococci  were 
included,  parasites  were  present  in  13  per  cent,  of  sheep  and  also 
in  3.75  per  cent,  of  native  hogs  and  21.47  per  cent,  of  Hungarian 
hogs.  In  native  hogs  the  echinococci  were  more  frequent  in  the 
livers  than  in  the  lungs  (3.81  per  cent,  of  the  livers  as  against  .26 
per  cent,  of  the  lungs).  On  the  other  hand,  in  sheep  the  ratio  was 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  507 

inverted  ;  viz.,  12.71  per  cent,  of  the  lungs,  3.73  per  cent,  of  the 
livers.  Finally,  in  Hungarian  hogs,  1479  percent,  of  the  lungs  and 
12.3  per  cent,  of  the  livers  were  infested  with  echinococci. 

According  to  Sahlmann,  one-half  of  the  animals  in  Mecklen- 
burg are  infested  with  echinococci.  Metelmann  gives  the  following 
figures :  25  per  cent,  of  cattle,  15  per  cent,  of  sheep,  5  per  cent,  of 
hogs. 

Langrich  reports  the  following  statistics  concerning  the  fre- 
quency of  echinococci  in  animals  slaughtered  at  the  Rostock 
abattoir  :  In  1895,  37  per  cent,  of  sheep,  26.2  per  cent,  of  cattle,  5.4 
per  cent,  of  hogs  and  1  per  cent,  of  horses  were  infested  with 
echinococci,  while  in  1895-6,  36.8  per  cent,  of  sheep,  26.6  per  cent, 
of  cattle,  5  per  cent,  of  hogs,  1  per  cent,  of  goats  and  1  per  cent,  of 
horses  were  infested,  and  in  1896-7,  35.2  per  cent,  of  sheep,  26.2 
per  cent,  of  cattle,  5.3  per  cent,  of  hogs,  2  per  cent,  of  goats  and  1 
per  cent,  of  horses  were  affected. 

With  regard  to  the  frequency  of  echinococci  in  the  liver  and 
lungs,  Langrich  in  1895-6  found  the  parasites  in  cattle  in  from 
two-thirds  to  three-fifths  of  all  cases  in  the  lungs  and  liver,  one- 
sixth  to  one-fifth  of  the  cases  in  the  lungs  and  liver  only ;  in  sheep 
the  lungs  and  liver  were  always  simultaneously  affected.  With 
hogs  the  liver  was  most  affected,  and  in  goats  the  liver,  and  in 
horses  the  lungs  and  liver  were  most  seriously  infested. 

In  Stettin,  Olt  calculated  the  following  data  from  Pomeranian 
food  animals  :  293,  or  7.1  per  cent.,  in  1,425  cattle  ;  1,238,  or  7.3  per 
cent.,  in  16,829  hogs  ;  3,807,  or  25.8  per  cent.,  in  14,717  sheep.  Olt 
also  demonstrated  the  presence  of  Tcenia  echinococcus  in  three  out 
of  twelve  dogs  which  were  inspected  in  Stettin. 

Steuding  kept  a  record  of  the  occurrence  of  echinococci  in  the 
abattoir  at  Gotha  during  the  months  June  to  August,  1893,  and 
found  the  following  numbers  infested  with  echinococci :  274,  or 
24.6  per  cent,  in  1,113  cattle  ;  633,  or  21.4  per  cent,,  in  2,949  hogs  ; 
549,  or  35.4  per  cent.,  in  1,551  sheep. 

Prettner,  in  the  abattoir  at  Prag,  demonstrated  the  presence  of 
echinococci  in  23.2  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  and  5.5  per  cent,  of  sheep  ; 
in  cattle,  14  per  cent,  of  the  echinococci  were  found  in  the  liver,  7.6 
per  cent,  in  the  lungs  and  1.8  per  cent,  in  the  liver  and  lungs 
simultaneously. 

According  to  Gurin,  the  frequency  of  echinococci  in  the  various 
Russian  governments  varies  in  cattle  between  0.1  to  80  per  cent.;  in 
sheep,  between  0.01  and  60  per  cent.;  in  hogs,  between  0.01  and  70 
per  cent.;  in  horses,  between  0.005  and  40  per  cent.  Among  the 


508  INVASION  DISEASES 

3,542  goats  slaughtered  in  an  abattoir  in  central  Asia,  14.3  per  cent, 
were  infested  with  echinococci. 

NATURAL  DEATH  or  POLYMORPHOUS  ECHINOCOCCT. — Echinococci, 
like  cysticerci,  may  die  from  natural  causes  in  any  developmental 
stage.  According  to  my  observations,  there  are  two  chief  modes  of 
death :  coagulation  necrosis  of  the  echinococcal  membrane  and 
inflammation  of  the  organic  membrane.  In  the  first  mode  of  death 
one  observes  a  shrinking  and  cloudiness  of  the  echinococcal  mem- 
brane ;  later,  caseation  and  calcification.  In  the  second  form,  on 
the  other  hand,  one  observes  fibrinous,  or,  rarely,  even  a  bloody 
exudation  between  the  organic  and  echinococcal  membranes,  union 
and  adhesion  of  these  two  membranes  with  necrosis  of  the 
echinococcal  membrane.  At  the  same  time,  the  echinococcus  fluid 
begins  to  disappear  as  a  result  of  resorption.  In  case  of  coagula- 
tion necrosis  of  the  echinococcal  membrane,  the  organic  membrane 
is  intact  and  undergoes  but  slight  alteration  in  its  external  appear- 
ance, even  when  the  parasites  die  as  a  result  of  inflammation.  It 
is  only  in  sheep  that  one  sometimes  observes  chondrification  and 
calcification  of  the  organic  membranes  after  the  parasites-  have 
died. 

The  disintegrated  echinococci  present  cysts  filled  with  yellow, 
moist  or  dry,  caseous,  purulent  or  partially  or  totally  calcified  con- 
tents. Occasionally  the  caseous  content  of  dead  echinococci  is  of  a 
greenish  color. 

Echinococcus  Multilocularis  s.  Alveolaris. 

OCCURRENCE. — This  species  of  echinococcus  occurs  in  food 
animals,  or,  more  properly,  in  one  of  them,  the  bovine,  more  fre- 
quently than  has  previously  been  supposed.  The  author  called 
attention  to  this  fact  in  Deutsche  Ztsch.  fur  Tiermedizin,  XVII.,  and 
in  that  connection  described  30  cases  which  he  observed  during  the 
course  of  13  months.  Later,  Mejer  reported  the  occurrence  of 
E.  multilocularis  in  cattle  in  Leipsic  in  7  per  cent,  of  the  total  num- 
ber of  cases  of  echinococcus.  According  to  Gurin,  this  parasite 
occurs  in  0.2  per  cent,  of  all  cattle  slaughtered  in  Russian  abattoirs. 
Moreover,  Mobius  observed  cases  in  sheep,  in  the  lungs,  liver  and 
bronchial  glands,  and  Schmidt,  in  the  lungs.  Gurin  observed  3 
cases  of  this  parasite  in  sheep.  Raillet  and  Morot  reported  100 
cases  of  E.  multilocularis  which  were  observed  in  cattle  and  sheep  in 
the  abattoir  at  Troyes.  Among  the  200,000  hogs  which  the  author 
lias  inspected  in  the  course  of  several  years,  E.  multilocularis  was 


ANIMAL   PARASITES 


509 


found  only  once.     Strose  and  Gurin  have  observed  other  cases  in 
hogs. 

MORPHOLOGY. — In  veterinary  works  the  alveolar  echinococcus  is 
not  well  described.  According  to  my  observations,  the  parasite  is 
distinguished  by  the  following  characters  :  E.  muliilocularis  forms 
in  the  liver,  less  often  in  other  organs  (spleen,  lungs,  kidneys,  lym- 
phatic glands  and  bones),  tumors  of  various  sizes,  which  usually 
exhibit  a  constant  growth.  These  tumors,  which  resemble  specific 

FIG.  159. 


Echinococcus  multilocularis  in  a  beef  liver,  natural  size. 


granulations,  and  are  most  nearly  related  to  actinomycomata  and; 
botryomycomata,  exhibit  two  distinct  portions :  a  central  casefied 
and  partly  calcified,  and  an  intact  peripheral  portion.  In  the  peri- 
pheral zone,  the  tumors  exhibit  an  elastic  consistency,  while  in  the 
casefied  portion  the  consistency  is  tough  and  soft.  The  tumor  as  a 
whole  feels  moderately  firm.  A  hard  consistency  is  a  rare  occur- 
rence and  is  not  caused,  as  in  man,  by  a  great  proliferation  of  con- 
nective tissue,  but  by  extensive  calcification.  A  characteristic 
feature  is  the  rather  strong  connective  tissue  framework  which- 


310 


INVASION   DISEASES 


penetrates  the  whole  tumor  in  a  net-like  manner  and  which  sepa- 
rates the  casefied  parts  and  also  the  recent  cysts  from  one 
another.  The  young  cysts  arise  by  evagination  and  subsequent 
constriction  of  the  whole  wall  of  the  mother  cyst.  After  the 
young  cysts  are  constricted  off,  the  formation  of  connective  tissue 
around  the  cyst  takes  place. 

Distinction  Between  Echinococcus  multilocularis  of  Man  and  the 
Domestic  Animals. — The  echinococcus  of  cattle  is  distinguished  from 

FIG.  160. 


Section  through  Echinococcus  multilocularis  of  cattle.  N 


J£  multilocularis  of  man  (1)  by  the  fact  that  it  produces  no  clinical 
symptoms,  but  may  be  unexpectedly  found  in  perfectly  healthy 
animals ;  (2)  by  the  absence  of  any  considerable  local  alterations 
in  the  surrounding  hepatic  tissue  (no  icterus  or  cirrhosis);  (3)  by. 
the  complete  absence  of  ulcerative  processes;  (4)  by  the  greater 
development  of  separate  cysts;  (5)  by  the  less  extensive  develop-! 
ment  of  the  connective  tissue  framework. 

In  contrast  with  the  alveolar  echinococcus  of  cattle,  the  case 


ANIMAL  PARASITES  511 

observed  by  the  author  in  a  hog  showed  a  great  similarity  with  the 
alveolar  echinococcus  of  man. 

On  the  costal  and  pulmonary  pleura  of  the  hog  in  question 
there  were  numerous  round,  lenticular  tubercles,  as  well  as  round- 
ish and  elongated  plaques  with  a  granulated  surface  (Fig.  162). 
The  color  of  the  tubercles  was  gray  or  yellow  and  the  con- 
sistency hard.  The  whole  condition  resembled  the  pearl  disease. 
Tinder  the  microscope,  however,  it  appeared  that  the  tubercles  and 
plaques  consisted  of  a  connective  tissue  framework  which  inclosed 
casefied  and  intact  echinococcal  cysts.  Special  mention  should  be 
made  of  the  fact  that  scoleces  were  present  even  in  the  macro- 


FIG.  161. 


Section  through  the  cortical 
zone  of  Echinococcus  raulti- 
locularis  of  cattle,  X  2dia.ni. 


a,  Echinococcus  raultilocularis  under  the  costal 
pleura  of  a  hog. 

scopically  invisible  cysts.     A  similar  case  was  recently  observed  in 
cattle  by  Benedictis. 

By  a  careful  microscopic  examination  one  observes  giant  cells 
immediately  surrounding  the  cysts  of  the  multilocular  echinococci, 
a  condition  to  which  attention  was  first  called  by  Guillebeau  in 
connection  with  E.  multilocularis  of  cattle. 

DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS  OF  ECHINOCOCCI.— Intact 
polymorphous  echinococci  should  offer  no  difficulty  in  diagnosis  if 
we  disregard  the  above  described  immature  forms.  Quite  often, 
however,  dead  polymorphous  and  multilocular  echinococci  are  con- 
fused with  other  pathological  alterations,  especially  tuberculosis. 


512 


INVASION   DISEASES 


Casefied  or  calcified  polymorphous  ecliinococci,  however,  are 
distinguished  from  tubercles  by  the  integrity  of  the  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands,  the  easy  separability  of  the  casefied  contents 
from  the  connective  tissue  membrane,  and  the  peculiar  striated 
condition  of  the  echinococcal  membrane  (Fig.  163),  which  is. 
easily  demonstrable,  even  in  the  case  of  extensively  casefied  echino- 
cocci. 

Ef  multilocularis  likewise  causes,  as  a  rule,  no  alterations  in  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands  and  exhibits  on  the  periphery  fresh 

FIG.  163. 


_~J 


I  111        \ 

Oblique  section  through  the  wall  of  a  fertile  echinococcus. 
lamellate  stratification  of  the  cuticula;  &,  scoleces,  partly  in  the  brood  capsule, 
partly  free  as  a  result  of  maceration ;  c,  calcareous  corpuscles.     X  35  diam. 


cysts  and  echinococcal  membranes  with  striated  cuticula,  at  least 
when  examined  under  the  microscope. 

Tuberculous  conglomerates,  to  which  E.  multilocularis  may  show 
great  similarity,  possess  a  firm,  dry,  or  purulent  character  in  con- 
trast with  the  elastic  and  tough,  but  soft,  consistency  of  E.  multilo- 
cularis. 

Under  certain  conditions,  unilocular  echinococci  may  give  rise 
to  confusion  with  cysticerci.  Lungwitz  reported  two  such  cases  in 
which  echinococci  of  the  size  of  peas  and  located  in  the  heart  of 
a  hog  were  mistaken  for  cysticerci. 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  513 

JUDGMENT  OF  ECHINOCOCCI. — Organs  infested  with  echinococci 
are  not  dangerous  to  health,  but  are  to  be  considered  merely  as- 
spoiled  (inferior)  food  material,  for  the  larvae  of  echinococcus  taenia 
which  occur  in  the  organs  of  food  animals  can  not  develop  in  man, 
even  if  fertile,  and  do  not  cause  any  other  harm.  The  majority  of 
the  organs  infested  with  echinococci  can  be  saved  for  food  by  care- 
fully removing  the  echiuococci.  This  is  permissible  in  cases- 
where  the  echinococci  are  present  only  in  moderate  numbers  and  of 
such  size  that  removal  is  possible.  They  are  best  removed  by 
cutting  the  organs  into  thin  disks.  Parasites  which  are  excised 
during  this  process  and  whole  organs  which  are  condemned  on 
account  of  extensive  invasion  are  to  be  rendered  innocuous. 
Special  effort  should  be  made  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the 
parasites  which  have  been  removed  from  organs,  or  of  parts  which 
are  infested  with  parasites,  becoming  accessible  to  dog& 

FIG.  164. 


Intestinal  mucous  membrane  of  a  dog,  with  Ta?nia  echinococcus  in  natural  size. 

Tcenia  echinococcus. — T.  echinococcus  develops  from  the  fertile 
echinococcus  of  food  animals  and  is  parasitic  in  the  intestinal 
canal  of  dogs.  On  account  of  its  small  size  (Fig.  164),  this  tape- 
worm easily  escapes  observation.  We  can  not,  therefore,  do 
otherwise  than  approve  the  opinion  of  the  faculty  of  the  Veteri- 
nary Institute  at  Brussels,  as  handed  down,  with  regard  to  the 
admission  of  dog  meat  as  human  food ;  viz.,  that  the  esophagus, 
stomach  and  intestines  of  all  slaughtered  dogs  should  be  excluded 
from  the  market. 

(b)   Larvae  of  Pentastomum  Taenioides. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Pentastomum  (Linguatula)  tcenioides, 
Eudolphi,  was  formerly  erroneously  classified  with  the  Helminthes, 
but  belongs  to  the  mite-like  Arachnoidea,  a  class  of  Arthfopoda. 


514 


INVASION   DISEASES 


The  sexually  mature  parasite  is  from  8  to  20  mm.  long  and  is 
found  in  the  nasal  and  frontal  cavities  of  the  dog,  wolf,  horse,  fox, 
goat  and  occasionally  man ;  while  the  larvae  are  found  in  the  vis- 
cera of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  deer,  hare  and  rabbits.  Only  the 
larvae  of  Pentastomum  tcenioides  are  of  importance  in  meat  inspection. 
These  were  described  by  Budolphi  as  P.  denticulatum  under  the 
assumption  that  they  were  a  distinct  species. 

HISTORY. — The  occurrence  of  pentastomes  in  domestic  animals 
has  long  been  known.     Ziirn  states  that  P.  tcenioides  was  discovered 


FIG.  165. 


FIG.  166. 


L.arva  of  Pentastomum  taenioides  from 
a  mesenteric  gland  of  a  beef  animal, 
X  15  diameters.  (In  natural  size  on 
the  left.) 


Pentastomum  tsenioides  from 

the  nasal  cavity  of  a  dog. 

(Natural  size.) 


by  Chabert  in  1757  in  the  nasal  cavities  of  horses  and  dogs  and  that 
P.  denticulatum  was  discovered  a  few  years  later  by  Abilgaard  and 
Frbhlich  in  the  viscera  of  a  goat  and  hare.  It  was  not  until  100 
years  later,  however,  that  the  ontogenetic  connection  of  these  two 
forms  was  established.  It  was  reserved  for  the  brilliant  investi- 
gations of  Leuckart  to  demonstrate  that  P.  denticulatum  was  not  a 
distinct  species,  but  merely  the  larva  of  P.  tcenioides. 


AND  BIOLOGY.  —  According   to    the    statements   of 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  515 

Xieuckart  and  Ziirn,  the  larvae  of  pentastomum  are  flat,  white,  trans- 
parent structures,  4.5  to  5  mm.  long  and  1.2  to  1.3  mm.  broad  at 
the  widest  point.  They  are  divided  into  about  80  segments  which 
are  furnished  with  numerous  backwardly-directed  bristles  or  tooth- 
like  spines.  (Rudolphi,  therefore,  chose  the  name  denticulatum). 
Underneath  the  mouth  opening  there  are  two  slit-like  apertures 
on  either  side,  from  each  of  which  the  points  of  two  claws  pro- 
trude. (The  name  Pentastomum,  "five-mouth,"  was  given  from  the 
erroneous  interpretation  of  these  slit-like  openings).  The  sexual 
organs  of  the  larvae  are  rudimentary  (Fig.  165). 

The  embryos  of  P.  tcenioides  are  provided  with  a  boring  appara- 
tus in  the  form  of  a  stylus-like  spine  underneath  the  mouth  open- 
ing. Moreover,  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  body  of  the  tail-bearing 
embryo,  one  observes  several  spines  which  serve  for  locomotion. 
According  to  Ziirn,  the  embryos  bore  through  the  intestinal  wall, 
and,  chiefly  by  means  of  the  circulating  blood,  migrate  under  the 
peritoneum  into  the  liver,  mesenteric  glands,  and,  in  exceptional 
cases,  even  into  the  lungs,  where  they  beeome  encapsuled  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  membrane. 

Statements  concerning  the  further  fate  of  P.  denticulatum  are  at 
Tariance.  Ziirn  says  that  after  seven  months  the  parasites  become 
somewhat  more  active,  leave  their  cysts,  and  make  their  way  into 
the  body  cavity  of  their  host.  Here  they  await  an  accident  to  free 
them  "  from  this  prison."  If  such  an  accident  does  not  occur, 
they  become  encysted  again,  but  only  to  die.  On  the  other  hand, 
Gerlach,  on  the  basis  of  a  feeding  experiment,  holds  the  view  that 
pentastomes  do  not  remain  in  their  host  until  the  death  of  the 
latter,  but  that,  after  the  development  of  their  spines  and  powerful 
claws,  they  change  their  location  and  migrate  into  the  lungs  and 
thence  into  the  trachea.  Von  Ratz  agrees  with  this  view  condition- 
ally. In  a  goat  which  exhibited  a  cachetic  condition,  this  writer 
observed  numerous  pentastomes  under  the  peritoneum  and  also  in. 
the  lungs.  In  the  latter  organs  the  worms  had  bored  deeply  into 
the  tissue.  In  another  case,  a  roebuck,  the  pulmonary  pentasto- 
mata  were  partly  encapsuled.  Babes  calls  attention  to  the  fact 
that,  in  spite  of  the  abundant  material  which  he  had  occasion  to 
examine,  he  was  unable  to  observe  the  migration  of  the  pentas- 
tomes described  by  Gerlach  through  the  lungs  and  respiratory 
passages.  On  the  contrary,  he  found  a  regular  migration  of  the 
parasites  into  the  intestines,  whence  they  were  carried  out  by  the 
-excrement.  Tempel,  also,  who  observed  encysted  and  migrating 
pentastomum  larvae  in  the  lungs  of  a  goat,  argues  against  the 


516  INVASION  DISEASES 

assumption  of  a  migration  of  the  parasites  through  the  trachea,, 
for  the  reason  that  he  found  the  larvae  under  the  pleura,  but  not 
in  the  trachea,  and  not  in  a  single  instance  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  bronchi. 

DISTRIBUTION. — Concerning  the  distribution  of  the  larvae  of 
pentastomum,  Ziirii  states  that  P.  denticulaium  is  found  in  hares, 
goats  and  sheep,  more  rarely  in  cattle.  Similar  statements 
are  made  by  Piitz  and  Friedberger  and  Frohner.  Colin  reports 
from  France  that  during  the  course  of  2J  months  he  found  pentas- 
tomes  in  300  sheep  and  1  dromedary.  Two  years  later,  Colin 
incidentally  mentions  cattle  also  as  the  host  of  P.  denticidatum. 

Accordingly,  in  Germany  and  France,  the  occurrence  of  pentas- 
tomum larvae  in  cattle  must  be  considered  as  comparatively  rare, 
while  Babes  made  the  surprising  report  from  Boumania  that  he 
found  pentastomum  larvae  in  all  of  20  steers  which  had  died  of 
contagious  hemoglobinuria.  Babes  was  inclined  to  connect  this 
finding  directly  with  the  disease,  but  he  soon  convinced  himself 
that  in  Roumania,  especially  in  the  swampy  low-lands  of  the 
Danube,  all  cattle  are  extensively  infested  with  pentastomes. 

On  account  of  their  different  economic  conditions  in  Eoumania, 
this  statement  does  not  necessarily  hold  true  for  Germany.  How- 
ever, at  the  Central  Abattoir  in  Berlin,  I  became  convinced  that 
even  in  Germany  pentastomes  frequently  occur  in  cattle. 

Finally,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  larvae  of  pentastomum 
may  occur  also  in  deer  and  rabbits  and  have  been  observed  also 
in  two  cases  in  hogs. 

SEAT  OF  THE  LARVAE. — According  to  Ziirn,  pentastomum  larvae 
are  found  under  the  peritoneum,  in  the  liver,  in  the  mesenteric 
glands  and,  exceptionally,  also  in  the  lungs.  Von  Ratz  observed 
them  in  one  of  his  cases  under  the  peritoneal  covering  of  the  liver 
and  in  the  lungs ;  in  a  second  case,  however,  only  in  the  lungs, 
Tempel  was  also  able  to  demonstrate  the  parasites  only  in  the 
lungs  of  a  goat.  Babes,  in  his  numerous  cases,  discovered  the 
parasites  chiefly  in  the  wall  of  the  folds  of  the  small  intestines 
and  in  the  mesenteric  glands,  but  also  under  the  serous  covering 
of  the  liver  and  under  the  pleura.  Thirty  years  ago  Colin  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  in  cases  of  natural  invasion,  these  para- 
sites are  found  in  the  mesenteric  glands,  while  in  his  feeding  experi- 
ments with  a  large  amount  of  material,  the  liver  and  lungs  were 
also  infested  with  the  worms.  The  writer  has  observed  pentasto- 


ANIMAL  PARASITES 


517 


mum  larvae,  as  a  rule,  in  the  mesenteric  glands  and  in  isolated 
cases  also  in  the  mediastinal,  prescapular,  iliac,  kneefold  and  lum- 
bar glands,  as  well  as  in  the  liver  and  spleen. 

PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY.  — Pentastomes  produce  various  altera- 
tions in  the  mesenteric  glands.  The  most  striking  alterations  are 
foci  of  yellowish-green  or  gray  color,  varying  in  size  from  a  mil- 
let seed  to  a  pea.  They  may  occur  in  all  parts«of  the  lymphatic 
glands,  but  usually  lie  near  the  peripheral  zone.  The  smaller 
ioci  appear  round  on  cross  section.  The  larger  are  of  a  more 

FIG.  167. 


Bovine  mesenteric  gland  with  calcified  pentastome  foci. 

irregular  form.  The  consistency  of  these  structures,  which  are 
plainly  distinguished  from  the  surrounding  tissue  of  the  lymphatic 
glands,  is  sometimes  that  of  gruel  (in  yellow-colored  specimens) ; 
sometimes  more  caseous  (in  case  of  green  color) ;  or,  finally,  firmer, 
plaster-like,  due  to  the  deposition  of  lime  (in  gray-colored  speci- 
mens). 

Under  the  microscope  one  observes  intact  pentastomes  in  the 
yellowish  and  greenish  foci,  but,  in  the  gray  foci,  the  parasites 
are  cloudy  as  a  result  of  fatty  degeneration  and  deposition  of  lime. 
In  the  yellowish  foci,  the  worms  are  surrounded  by  disintegrated 
tissue  of  the  lymphatic  glands ;  in  the  greenish  foci,  by  pus  cor- 
puscles ;  and,  in  the  calcified  foci,  by  detritus  and  lime  deposits.  I 


518  INVASION  DISEASES 

have  never  observed  the  formation  of  a  capsule  in  the  lymphatic* 
glands,  such  as  regularly  occurs  in  the  liver  and  spleen.  Whole 
worms  may  be  absent  in  a  portion  of  the  gray-colored  foci,  but 
characteristic  claws  are  found  as  the  undoubted  remains  of  dead 
parasites.  These  claws  apparently  resist  the  process  of  calcifica- 
tion like  the  hooks  of  the  armed  cysticerci. 

According  to  my  investigations,  bloody  foci  in  the  lymphatic? 
glands,  such  as  described  by  Babes  as  an  almost  uniform  occur- 
rence around  pentastomes,  are  rare.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
these  hemorrhages  were  due  to  the  hemoglobinemia  with  which 
the  cattle  examined  by  Babes  were  affected.  Even  migrating  pen- 
tastomes which  had  already  bored  quite  large  canals  in  the  lympha- 
tic glands  lay,  in  the  case  which  I  observed,  in  the  milk-white  or 
slightly  yellow-colored  semi-fluid  tissue. 

In  contrast  with  the  pentastomes  in  the  lymphatic  glands, 
those  which  are  found  in  the  liver  and  lungs  are  regularly  sur- 
rounded with  blood  when  the  parasites  are  migrating.  Encysted, 
parasites  in  these  organs  are  white  structures,  varying  in  size- 
from  a  millet  seed  to  a  vetch  seed. 

DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Old  pentastome  foci 
in  the  lymphatic  glands  closely  resemble  tuberculous  alterations. 

When  carefully  examined,  however,, 
there  are  marked  differences  between 
these  two  conditions.  Tubercles  are 
sharply  delimited  from  the  surround- 
ing  tissue.  The  most  recent  tubercles... 
possess  a  cloudy,  casefied  center  and  a 
transparent  periphery;  older  tubercles,, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  almost  entirely 
casefied  and  of  a  pronounced  yellowish 
color.  The  consistency  is  like  that  of 
moist  or  dry  cheese.  As  a  rule,  fresh 
tubercles  may  be  observed  around  the 
Pentastome  claws  from  a  strongly  larger  tubercles.  As  contrasted  with 
calcified  focus  in  a  lymphatic  thig  conditioil  only  yellowish-colored,. 

never  deep  yellow-colored,  foci  are- 
found  in  pentastomatosis.  Furthermore,  these  yellow-colored  peu- 
tastomes  are  of  a  semi-fluid  consistency.  Tke  pentastome  foci,, 
however,  which  exhibit  a  more  cheesy  consistency,  are  of  a  greenish 
color.  Finally,  partially  calcified  remains  of  pentastomes  are  gray^ 
while  tuberculous  foci,  even  in  an  advanced  stage  of  calcification^ 


ANIMAL   PARASITES  519 

retain  their  yellow  color.  Young  tubercles  with  casefied  centers 
and  transparent  periphery  are  not  observed  in  pentastomatosis. 
Finally,  by  means  of  a  simple  teased  preparation,  the  nature  of 
pentastome  foci  may  be  demonstrated  beyond  question  (demonstra- 
tion of  whole  larvae  or  claws,  Fig,  168).  In  this  connection  I  may 
remark  that,  according  to  my  investigations,  pentastomes,  after 
migrating,  leave  smooth  cicatrices,  but  no  granules  of  a  tuberculous 
character. 

In  distinguishing  between  pentastomes  and  tubercles,  the 
intermuscular  lymph  glands  are  of  special  significance,  since  a  false 
interpretation  of  tubercle-like  pentastomes  in  these  lymphatic 
glands  may  lead  to  an  unjust  condemnation  of  whole  animals  or 
quarters. 

JUDGMENT. — Statistics  concerning  the  frequency  of  entozoa  in 
dogs  furnish  a  convincing  proof  that  after  the  introduction  of  meat 
inspection  in  a  locality  or  country,  the  number  of  dogs  infested  with 
worms  diminishes  greatly.  Deffke  demonstrated  in  Berlin  that 
after  the  introduction  of  obligatory  meat  inspection,  tapeworms  of 
dogs  became  less  frequent.  For  example,  according  to  Deffke, 
Tcenia  marginata,  which  was  formerly  quite  frequent  in  Berlin  and 
which  in  Iceland  infested  75  per  cent,  of  the  dogs  (Krabbe),  and  in 
Saxony,  27  per  cent.  (Schone),  at  the  end  of  the  80's  was  found  in 
only  7  per  cent,  of  the  dogs  which  were  examined.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  effect  of  obligatory  meat  inspection  on  pentastomes  is  not 
yet  observable.  Pentastomes  are  still  frequent  parasites  in  the  dogs 
of  Berlin.  Deffke  found  them  in  13,  or  6.5  per  cent.,  out  of  200 
dogs.  No  doubt  can  remain  that  dogs  are  the  source  of  pentastome 
larvae;  for  Deffke  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  especially  the 
butchers'  dogs  and  dogs  used  for  draft  purposes  which  are  infested 
with  Pentastomum  tcenioides. 

Through  intimate  association  with  dogs,  man  runs  the  risk  of 
becoming  infected  by  the  ingestion  of  pentastome  eggs.  Zenker  in 
Dresden  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  larvae  of  Pentastomum 
tcenioides  in  4  per  cent,  of  all  cadavers  which  were  examined  by  him. 
In  one  case  (Laudon)  a  developed  pentastomum  was  observed  in 
man.  Occasionally,  also,  organs  infested  with  pentastomes  may 
have  an  injurious  effect.  As  a  rule,  however,  this  is  not  the  case, 
and  for  this  reason  organs  infested  with  pentastome  foci  can  not  in 
general  be  considered  as  dangerous  food  material. 

In  order  to  prevent  further  distribution  of  pentastomes,  Ziirn 
recommends  "careful  examination  of  food  animals  in  which 


520  INVASION  DISEASES 

Pentastomum  denticulatum  may  be  found.  If  this  parasite  is  found, 
especially  in  the  livers  and  meseuteric  glands  of  goats  and  sheep,  or 
in  the  peritoneal  cavity  of  rabbits  and  hare,  it  should  be  imme- 
diately destroyed,  preferably  by  burning."  According  to  the 
investigations  of  the  writer,  meat  inspectors  should  give  especial 
attention  to  the  mesenteric  glands  of  cattle  and  sheep.  It  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  burn  all  viscera  infested  with  pentastomes. 
Fortunately,  however,  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary.  By  far  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  mesenteries  are  rendered  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  tallow  and  in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  The  possibility  of 
the  transmission  of  pentastome  larvae  to  dogs  is  thereby  excluded, 
so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  condemn  the  more  extensively 
infested  mesenteric  glands  in  all  cases  in  which  the  above  men- 
tioned utilization  is  permitted.  This  should  be  practiced  in  the 
case  of  the  infected  lymphatic  glands  of  poor  mesenteries  which  are 
not  rendered  out. 


APPENDIX. 


1.— Protozoa. 

In  the  skeletal  musculature,  esophagus,  mucous  membranes  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  as  well  as  in  the  liver  of  our  food 
animals,  various  parasites  occur  which  belong  to  the  lowest  known 
animal  forms,  Protozoa,  and  which  were  formerly  quite  generally 
characterized  as  Gregarinidee,  or  psorosperms.  These  names,  how- 
ever, are  not  in  accordance  with  zoological  nomenclature. 

According  to  zoological  classification,  the  parasites  in  question 
belong  to  the  second  subdivision  of  Protozoa,  or  Sporozoa.  Under 
this  name  Leuckart,  in  1879,  included  a  number  of  unrelated 
•unicellular  parasites  which  form  spores  with  shells.  According  to 
Braun,  Sporozoa  are  divided  into  several  orders,  of  which  the 
following  are  of  importance  for  meat  inspection :  Coccidia, 
Myxosporidia,  Sarcosporidia  and  Hematosporidia. 

Sarcosporidia  and  Hematosporidia  are  the  most  important 
orders  for  meat  inspection.  The  Coccidia  play  a  much  less 
important  role  in  food  animals,  and  the  Myxosporidia  occur  only  in 
fish  and  lower  animals. 


PROTOZOA  521. 

(a)  Coccidia. 

The  Coccidia  are  parasites  of  epithelia.  They  are  small, 
spherical  or  oval  structures,  which  destroy  the  epithelial  cells  by 
their  rapid  growth  and  then  divide  into  a  number  of  parts.  These 
penetrate  into  the  intact  epithelia  of  the  infested  organ  (merozoites) 
or  become  changed  into  microgametes  and  macrogametes  (male  and 
female  sexual  cells).  By  the  copulation  of  these  forms,  sporoblasts 
are  produced  and,  finally,  permanent  forms  with  shells  (sporozoites) 
arise.  The  latter  cause  infestation  of  new  hosts.  The  following 
forms  belong  to  the  Coccidia  : 

1.  COCCIDIUM  OVIFOEME  (Leuckart).  —  The  sporoblasts  are 
elongated,  oval  and  surrounded  by  a  double  membrane  ;  length,  0.0& 

FIG.  170 
FIG.  169. 


Sporoblasts  of  Cocciditim 
oviforme  from  a  rabbit  liver. 


Rabbit  liver  with  coccidial  foci. 


to  .04  mm.;  width,  .015  to  .028  mm.  At  first,  the  protoplasm  fills 
the  whole  inside  of  the  parasites  with  a  coarsely  granular  mass,  but 
soon  becomes  contracted  into  a  sphere  from  which  four  sporozoites 
arise. 

C.  oviforme  is  found  in  rabbits  in  the  epithelium  of  the  bile  duct 
and  produces  coccidiosis  of  the  rabbit  liver.  Occasionally 
coccidiosis  of  the  liver  is  observed  in  man. 

Coccidiosis  of  the  rabbit  liver  is  characterized  macroscopically 
by  the  appearance  of  abscess-like  foci  which  are  white  in  color  and 
roundish  in  form.  Root-like  projections  are  observed  on  the  larger 
tubercles  which  correspond  to  the  pathologically-altered  bile  ducts 
(Fig.  170).  By  examination  of  cross  sections  it  is  seen  that  the 
-abscess-like  structures  are  formed  of  greatly  distended  bile  ducts, 


522 


INVASION   DISEASES 


partly  fused  together,  which  are  sharply  delimited  from  the  almost 
unaltered  hepatic  tissue  by  means  of  fibrous  connective  tissue  and 
contain  immense  numbers  of  coccidia,  besides  epithelial  detritus. 

The  process  begins  with  the  invasion  of  the  coccidia  into  the 
epithelia  of  the  bile  ducts.  The  epithelial  cells  which  are  attacked 
by  the  coccidia  are  destroyed.  Later  a  marked  hyperplasia  of  the 
epithelia  and  a  papillary  proliferation  of  the  bile  ducts  arise,  so  that 
these  structures  do  not  represent  simple  canals,  but  much-branched 
cavities  (Fig.  171). 


FIG.  171. 


FIG.  172. 


Red  dysentery  of  cattle.  Coccidia  in. 
the  mucosa  of  the  large  intestine. 
X  1,200  diameters,  b-d,  various, 
developmental  stages.  At  a  and 
b  the  cell  nucleus  is  visible.  (After 
Zschokke). 


Coccidiosis  of  the  rabbit  liver.  Section  through  the 
cortical  part  of  a  coccidial  focus.  Papillary  hyper- 
plasia and  enlargement  of  the  bile  ducts  due  to 
localization  of  the  parasites. 


Coccidia  in  the  Liver  of  Hogs. — Johne  described  cyst-like  cavities 
"with  cloudy,  chocolate-colored  fluid  contents  in  the  liver  of  a  hog 
and  was  able  to  demonstrate  coccidia  in  them.  I  have  also  found 
these  foci  quite  frequently  in  the  liver  of  hogs  and  can  corroborate 
the  statements  of  Johne  on  this  point.  As  a  rule,  we  find  isolated 
tubercles  varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  walnut,  with  tough  con- 
nective tissue  walls  and  pronounced  radiate  cirrhosis  in  the 
surrounding  tissue.  Occasionally,  however,  the  whole  liver  is 
permeated  with  such  tubercles  and  the  tissue  becomes  cirrhotic  in 
toto.  The  inner  surface  of  the  wall  of  the  cyst  shows  evaginations 
and  the  above-described  discolored  and  rather  scanty  contents. 


PROTOZOA  523 

always  exhibit  unicellular  sporozoa,  but  in  small  numbers.  Johne 
leaves  the  question  unsettled  whether  these  structures  are  identical 
with  Coccidium  oviforme  or  not. 

2.  COCCIDIUM  PEKFORANS  (Leuckart). — The  sporoblasts  of  C. 
perforans  are  smaller  and  more  spherical  than  those  of  C.  oviforme 
(0.017  to  .024  mm.  long  and  .012  to  .014  mm.  wide).  According  to 
Rieck,  they  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the  latter  chiefly  by 
the  fact  that  in  the  division  of  the  protoplasm  to  form  the  four 
sporozoites  a  portion  of  it  remains  as  the  "  residual  division  cor- 
puscle." 

Coccidium  perforans  is  found  in  the  intestinal  epithelia  of 
rabbits  and  produces  a  desquamative  catarrh  of  the  whole  intestinal 
tract  characterized  by  a  profuse  diarrhea.  Moreover,  C.  perforans 
or  a  related  species  occurs  in  the  intestinal  epithelium  of  sheep  and 
calves. 

Red  Dysentery  of  Cattle. — In  the  Swiss  Cantons,  Lucerne  and 
Bern,  a  peculiar  disease  of  an  epizootic  nature  occurs  in  cattle, 
especially  in  young  stall-fed  animals,  which  has  been  described 
by  Zschokke  as  "  red  dysentery "  ("  dysenteria  hemorrhagica 
coccidiosa,"  Hess).  This  name  was  chosen  on  account  of  the  con- 
stant bloody  discharges  observed  in  this  disease.  In  the  epithelium 
of  the  granulated  or  longitudinally  folded  mucous  membrane  of  the 
<?olon  in  the  animals,  Zschokke  demonstrated  spherical  or  oval 
coccidia,  or  0.01  to  .22  mm.  in  diameter.  They  were  homogenous 
and  strongly  refractive  and  with  a  double  contour.  After  staining 
with  anilin  stains,  nuclei  may  be  demonstrated  which  may  be 
three  times  as  large  as  those  of  the  epithelial  cells.  The  finding  of 
Zschokke  has  been  confirmed  by  Hess  and  Guillebeau.  Guillebeau 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  coccidium  of  red  dysentery  is  C.  oviforme* 

Judgment. — Zschokke  and  Hess  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of 
red  dysentery  is  always  admitted  to  the  market  and  is  eaten  without 
any  bad  results.  The  meat,  however,  possesses  the  character  of  a 
spoiled  (inferior)  food  material  and  is,  therefore,  to  be  sold  under 
declaration. 

C.  tenellum  occurs  in  fowls  and  may  produce  an  epizootic, 
croupous,  diphtheritic  enteritis,  during  which,  according  to  Rieck, 
small  disintegration  foci  caused  by  invasion  of  coccidia  appear  in 
the  mesenteric  glands. 


524  INVASION  DISEASES 

Chicken  Pox. — "Chicken  pox"  is  a  disease  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  head  and  neck  and  of  the  general  integument  of 
fowls,  and  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  tubercles.  The 
disease  begins  with  a  catarrh  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  head 
in  the  further  course  of  which  wart- like  proliferations  appear  on 
the  mucous  membrane.  The  pathological  processes  spread  from 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  head  to  the  skin,  on  which,  especially 
on  the  unfeathered  areas,  miliary  to  bean-sized  neomorphs  are 
formed  (epithelioma  contagiosum,  Bollinger).  The  dermal  epithe- 
liomata  are  at  first  gray,  often  shining  like  mother-of-pearl,  firm, 
and  furnished  with  a  smooth  surface.  Later  they  become  covered 
with  a  scab.  Rivolta  and  Silvestri  consider  coccidia  to  be  the  cause 
of  this  readily  transmissible  epizootic  disease.  In  the  proliferating 
epithelial  cells  strongly  refractive  homogeneous  corpuscles  are 
observed  which  stain  yellow  with  picrocarmine  and  are  thereby 
readily  distinguished  from  the  epithelial  cells,  which  stain  brownish 
red.  Croupous,  diphtheritic  deposits  may  arise  on  the  proliferating 
portions  of  the  mucous  membrane  (gregarinous  form  of  avian 
diphtheria,  according  to  Friedberger  and  Frohuer).  The  disease 
may  become  so  extensive  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  head  that 
the  animals  are  no  longer  able  to  close  the  beak,  take  nourishment 
or  breathe.  According  to  more  recent  investigations,  "chicken 
pox  "  is  said  to  be  due  to  bacteria. 

"Chicken  pox"  is  a  local  disease  of  certain  parts  of  the  head 
and  neck  and  has  no  effect  upon  the  food  qualities  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  animal.  The  customary  removal  of  the  head  and 
neck,  together  with  the  trachea  and  esophagus,  is  sufficient  to 
permit  the  admission  of  the  animals  to  market  without  any  re- 
striction. The  carcasses  of  fowls  affected  with  epitheliomata  are 
to  be  excluded  from  the  market  as  highly  spoiled  (unfit)  food 
material  only  in  cases  where-  symptoms  of  general  disease  have 
appeared  as  a  result  of  mechanical  hindrances  to  the  ingestion 
of  food  or  respiration.  Pigeons  affected  with  epitheliomata  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  body  are  to  be  judged  in  the  same 
manner. 

Coccidia  in  tlie  Fourth  Stomach  and  Intestines  of  Sheep. — Maske 
demonstrated  coccidia  very  frequently  (in  70  per  cent,  of  the 
inspected  stomachs)  in  the  epithelium  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  fourth  stomach  of  sheep,  especially  in  the  depths  of  the  folds  of 
the  mucous  membrane.  The  sporoblasts  of  these  coccidia  are 
comparatively  large  and  are  surrounded  with  a  double  contoured, 


PROTOZOA  525 

strongly  refractive  capsule.     The  coccidia  caused  tubercles  of  the 
size  of  a  pinhead. 

For  SPIRIDENITIS  COCCIDIOSA  (granular  eruption  of  hogs),  com- 
pare page  270. 

(b)  Myxosporidia. 

Myxosporidia  are  parasitic  chiefly  in  fish.  A  large  number  of 
species  are  known.  Myxosporidia  are  usually  surrounded  with  a 
tough  cuticula,  and  contain  numerous  nuclei.  The  size  varies  from 
microscopic  smallness  to  the  volume  of  a  hazel  nut.  The  location 
is  sometimes  free  in  the  body  cavities,  sometimes  in  the  viscera, 
gills,  muscles  and  dermal  epithelium. 

FIG.  173. 


Barbel  with  myxosporidial  tumors  due  to  Myxobolus  pfeifferi  (Doflein). 

Among  the  numerous  species  of  myxosporidia,  the  most  inter- 
esting one  for  us  is  Myxobolus  pfeifferi,  which  may  produce  the 
epizootic  death  of  barbel.  An  epizootic  myxosporidiosis  of  the 
barbel  was  first  observed  in  the  Mosel  in  1870,  whence  it  spread  to 
the  Maas,  Meurte,  Rhine,  Marne  and  Seine.  In  1890,  Ludwig 
Pfeiffer  investigated  the  disease  which  had  broken  out  in  this 
region  and  found  myxosporidia  in  the  muscles  of  diseased  barbeL 
The  affected  fish  were  sluggish,  scarcely  able  to  swim  against  the 
current,  and  exhibited  discolored  swellings  of  the  skin  (Fig.  173) 
and  crater-like  ulcers  on  the  head,  body  and  tail.  Immense  num- 
bers of  the  myxosporidia  were  found  in  the  ulcers,  their  primary 
location  being  in  the  muscle  cells.  Pfeiffer  found  the  other  organs 
of  barbel  to  be  free  from  myxosporidia,  while,  in  the  tench,  the  gall 
bladder,  swimming  bladder,  spleen  and  arteries  were  affected.  The 
pathologico-anatomical  processes  in  an  invasion  of  myxosporidia  irt 


526 


INVASION   DISEASES 


barbels  were  carefully  studied  by  Thelohan.  According  to  his 
investigations,  the  invasion  of  myxosporidia  causes  a  hyaline 
degeneration  of  the  muscle  fibers,  which  become  disintegrated  and 
are  replaced  by  connective  tissue.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  finally 
one  finds  the  spores  of  the  myxosporidia  surrounded  by  fibrous 
cysts.  The  frequently  observed  eruption  of  tumors  on  the  body  of 
barbels  and  the  evacuation  of  a  pus-like  spore-containing  mass  is 
due  to  the  secondary  localization  of  a  large  bacterial  organism 
described  by  L.  Pfeiffer,  which  finds  favorable  conditions  for  its 
development  in  the  degenerated  muscle  tissue  of  barbels  affected 
•with  myxosporidia.  The  bacterial  organism  in  question  appears  to 
possess  pyogenic  properties. 

FIG.  174. 


Tench  with  "skin  pox." 

Myxobolus  cyprini  occurs  in  the  kidneys  of  carp  and  tench.  In 
affected  fish,  white  cartilaginous  thickenings  of  epidermis  ("  pox 
marks  ")  occur,  in  which,  however,  strange  to  say,  no  organisms  are 
found  (Hofer  and  Doflein). 

JUDGMENT  OF  COCCIDIA  AND  MYXOSPORIDIA.— Nothing  is  yet 
known  concerning  the  injurious  effect  of  eating  organs  which  are 
infested  with  coccidia  and  myxosporidia.  Practically  no  careful 
investigations  have  been  made  on  this  subject,  and  until  this  ques- 
tion is  settled,  we  must  exclude  from  the  market  all  organs  affected 
with  coccidia  and  myxosporidia.  This  method  of  procedure  is 
justified  by  the  alterations  which  extensive  invasions  produce  in 
affected  parts.  In  the  myxosporidial  disease  of  the  barbel,  we 
should  also  remember  that  even  uninfested  parts  of  the  diseased 
fish  are  discolored  yellow,  are  of  a  gelatinous  consistency  and 
assume  a  more  or  less  conspicuous  bitter  taste  on  cooking. 


PROTOZOA 


527 


(c)   Sarcosporidia. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS. — In  1884  Balbiani  characterized  as  sar- 
<josporidia  the  parasites  which  had  previously  been  known  under 
the  name  of  Miescher's  sacs  in  the  musculature  of  warm-blooded 
animals.  Sarcosporidia  are  elongated  or  oval  structures  which 
have  their  seat  either  in  the  muscle  fibers  (Miescheridse),  or  in  the 
connective  tissue  (Balbianidse).  Some  of  the  former  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  thin  structureless  membrane  (Miescheria) ;  others 
possess  a  thick  membrane  provided  with  transverse  striae  or  bristles 
(Sarcocystis,  Blanchard). 

FIG.  175. 


FIG.  176. 


End  of  a  Miescher's  sac  with  contents. 
At  the  side,  sporozoites  greatly  mag- 
nified. (Leuckart.) 


Meischer's  sac  from  the  musculature 
of  a  hog,  X  30  diameters. 


According  to  Bertram,  whose  brilliant  investigations  con- 
tributed greatly  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  Sarcosporidia,  one 
finds  the  youngest  forms  as  small  sacs  consisting  of  a  surrounding 
membrane,  and  round  or  oval  cells.  From  these  the  sporoblast 
mother  cells  are  formed  and  from  the  latter  in  turn  the  sporoblasts. 
In  the  meantime  the  surrounding  membrane  becomes  two-layered. 
From  its  inner  layer  a  supporting  substance  develops  around  the 
sporoblasts  and  also  the  cells  which  are  later  formed  from  the 
layer  out  of  which  arise  the  sporozoites,  formerly  known  as  sickle- 
shaped  corpuscles.  The  whole  sac  is  thereby  divided  into  a  sys- 
tem of  chambers  which  contain  sporozoites  in  the  form  of  balls. 


528  INVASION  DISEASES 

According  to  Braun,  the  sporozoites  of  sarcosporidia  are  very 
small,  apparently  membraneless  corpuscles,  with  a  nucleus,  and 
often  with  one  or  two  transparent  spots.  The  form  is  elongated, 
C-shaped,  or  fusiform  and  clavate  (Fig.  176). 

The  function  of  the  sarcosporidia  is  completed  with  the  forma- 
tion of  the  sporozoites.  They  may  then  disintegrate,  while,  as 
assumed  by  Bertram,  the  sporozoites  become  disintegrated  in  the 
central  chambers.  So  long  as  the  surrounding  membrane  is  unin- 
jured, the  cyst  persists,  and  in  its  chambers  a  granular  detritus  is- 
found,  together  with  a  few  sporozoites  which  are  still  preserved. 
If  the  necrotic  process  attacks  also  the  surrounding  membrane, 
leucocytes  may  apparently  penetrate  into  the  sac.  Finally,  the 
sacs  may  calcify. 

FIG.  177. 


Sarcosporidia  from  the  abdominal  musculature  oi'  a  sheep.     Natural  size. 

To  the  Miescheridse  belong  Miescher's  sacs,  so  widely  dis- 
tributed in  the  musculature  of  herbivorous  and  omnivorous  ani- 
mals. These  are  observed  most  frequently  in  the  skeletal  muscu- 
lature of  hogs  and  sheep ;  also  in  horses,  cattle,  goats,  deer,  dogs,, 
hare  and  chickens.  Miescher's  sacs  become  located  inside  the 
striated  muscle  fibers  in  their  long  axis.  The  elongated  smaller 
specimens  exhibit  throughout  the  surrounding  tissue  a  layer  of 
striated  substance  of  varying  thickness  (Fig.  175).  In  the  case  of 
larger  specimens,  on  the  other  hand,  the  striated  substance  dis- 
appears as  far  as  the  distended  sarcolemma.  The  size  varies. 
Bertram  observed  Miescher's  sacs  which  were  only  0.04  mm.  long 


PROTOZOA  520 

and  .006  inm.  wide.     When  fully  developed,  they  are  0.5  to  3  mm. 
long  and  of  various  "widths  up  to  0.4  mm. 

SPECIAL  FEATURES  IN  VARIOUS  FOOD  ANIMALS.— Miescher's  sacs 
(Sarcocystis  Miescheriana,  Kiihu)  are  quite  regularly  found  incident- 
ally during  the  microscopic  inspection  of  pork.  Kiihn  found  these 
parasites  in  98  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  which  he  inspected.  When 
Miescher's  sacs  are  completely  or  even  partially  calcified,  they 
may  be  detected  with  the  naked  eye.  Calcification  begins  in  the 
middle  of  the  sac  in  the  form  of  irregular  masses  of  lime  deposits, 
which,  from  their  reaction  to  acids,  must  be  considered  as  consist- 
ing principally  of  calcium  carbonate.  Occasionally  delicately 
twisted  and  coiled  lime  deposits  are  observed  in  Miescher's  sacs 
resembling  the  appearance  of  primarily  calcified  trichinae.  In  cases 
of  total  calcification,  Miescher's  sacs,  when  examined  macroscopi- 
cally,  appear  to  be  white,  but  under  the  microscope  they  appear 
as  dark,  almost  black,  structures.  Calcified  Miescher's  sacs  form 
one  kind  of  so-called  calcareous  concretions  in  the  musculature 
of  hogs. 

With  regard  to  the  seat  of  Miescher's  sacs  in  hogs,  it  should 
be  stated  that  they  may  occur  in  all  striated  muscles,  in  the  myo- 
cardium as  well  as  in  the  skeletal  muscles.  As  a  rule,  however,  in 
hogs,  the  abdominal  muscles  and  muscular  portion  of  the  dia- 
phragm appear  to  be  more  extensively  infested  than  the  other 
muscles. 

In  sheep,  Miescher's  sacs  reach  a  larger  size  than  in  hogs 
(Fig.  177).  Quite  frequently  one  observes  sacs  which  show  a 
length  of  1^  cm.  and  a  maximum  width  of  0.3  mm.*  In  the  sheep 
also  sarcosporidia  appear  to  be  almost  uniformly  present.  At  any 
rate  Bertram  observed  them  in  Rostock  in  182  out  of  185  sheep 
inspected  at  that  place.  One  observes  macroscopically- visible 
parasites  in  the  dermal  and  abdominal  muscles,  as  should  be  stated 
in  opposition  to  the  assertion  of  Bertram,  according  to  which  the 
larger  sarcosporiclial  forms  are  found  in  sheep  only  in  the  mus- 
cles of  the  tongue,  esophagus,  pharynx  and  larynx.  According  to 
Bertram,  microscopically-visible  forms  may  be  demonstrated  in 
the  muscles  of  the  head  and  neck  and  in  the  intercostal,  diaphrag- 
matic, abdominal  and  lumbar  muscles,  as  well  as  in  the  heart. 

In  horses,  macroscopically- visible  Miescher's  sacs  appear  most 
commonly  in  the  musculature  of  the  esophagus  and  neck.  With 

*  The  largest  sarcosporidia   are   found  in  the  fallow   deer.     Thus,   Manx 
reports  sarcosporidia  in  this  animal  more  than  6  cm.  long. 


530  INVASION   DISEASES 

regard  to  the  distribution  of  Miescher's  sacs  in  the  horse,  the  state- 
ment of  Siedamgrotzky  is  interesting,  to  the  effect  that  he  was 
able  to  demonstrate  these  parasites  in  the  majority  of  horses 
which  he  inspected  for  this  purpose  in  Dresden.  Csokor  in 
Vienna  inspected  241  horses  and  found  10  per  cent,  infested  with 
them. 

In  cattle,  one  occasionally  observes  that  the  musculature  is 
infested  with  roundish  or  elongated  foci  of  a  yellowish  or  dirty 
ground  color,  varying  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  kernel  of 
rye.  When  examined  under  the  microscope  they  are  found  to  be 
Miescher's  sacs.  These  foci  may  be  present  in  very  large  num- 
bers in  the  whole  musculature.  Sanfelice  asserts  that  he  regularly 
observed  sarcosporidia  in  the  tongue  of  Sicilian  cattle. 

PATHOGENIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  MIESCHER'S  SACS. — In  isolated 
cases,  which,  however,  require  further  explanation,  Miescher's  sacs 
are  said  to  have  caused  inflammatory  phenomena  in  the  muscula- 
.  ture.  On  account  of  their  rare  occurrence,  however,  these  cases 
have  only  a  slight  importance  for  us.  As  a  rule,  Miescher's  sacs 
heal  in  the  muscle  fibers  without  reaction  (Fig.  175). 

Rieck  described  a  case  in  which  he  assumed  the  pathogenic 
action  of  Miescher's  sacs.  This  case  was  a  beef  animal  which  had 
exhibited  no  pathological  symptoms  during  life,  but  which,  after 
slaughter,  presented  hard  tumors  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a 
fist  to  that  of  a  child's  head  in  nearly  all  muscles,  especially  in  the 
muscles  of  the  abdomen,  back,  shoulder  and  thigh.  Under  the 
microscope,  extensive  infiltration  of  the  periinysium  internuin  and 
externum  with  small  cells  was  observed  in  those  parts  which  were 
affected  with  the  first  stages  of  the  disease.  In  addition  to  the 
leucocytes,  isolated,  membranous,  round  structures,  with  a  perfectly 
homogeneous  body,  were  observed  in  the  muscle  fibers.  In  the  sec- 
ond stage  a  chronic  interstitial  inflammation  was  present,  together 
with  sarcosporidia  in  the  muscle  fibers;  and  in  a  third  stage,  a 
granular  disintegration  was  observed  in  the  muscle  fibers  infested 
by  sarcosporidia. 

A  similar  case  was  observed  by  Piitz  in  the  horse.  He,  how- 
ever, left  the  question  undecided  whether  or  not  the  pathological 
alterations  (interstitial  myositis)  were  due  to  the  presence  of  the  not 
very  numerous  Miescher's  sacs. 

As  is  well  known,  Miescher's  sacs  have  also  been  considered  as 
the  cause  of  the  muscle  tumors  in  horses  known  by  the  name  of 
"  ice  balls." 


PROTOZOA  531 

In  slaughtering  a  steer  which  had  shown  a  stiff  gait  during  life, 
Tokarenko  found  the  musculature  pale-red  and  exhibiting  yellow 
^stripes  and  spots  at  certain  points.  The  intermuscular  tissue 
showed  a  serous  infiltration  and  small  hemorrhages  were  observed 
in  the  musculature  of  the  posterior  extremities.  Microscopic 
examination  demonstrated  the  presence  of  an  immense  number  of 
Miescher's  sacs,  especially  in  the  muscles  of  the  thigh.  The  muscle 
fibrillaa  appeared  pale  ;  the  transverse  striation  in  some  parts  was 
totally  obliterated,  and  a  granular  disintegration  had  appeared  in. 
its  place. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS.  —  Intact  Miescher's  sacs  should 
scarcely  give  occasion  to  confusion  with  other  phenomena  in  the 
musculature.  Nevertheless,  calcified  sacs  in  hogs  have  frequently- 
been  mistaken  for  calcified  trichinae.  For  the  differentiation  of 
calcified  trichinae  from  calcified  Miescher's  sacs,  see  page  540. 

JUDGMENT  OF  SABCOSPORIDIA. — From  a  sanitary  police  stand- 
point, sarcosporidia  are  to  be  judged  somewhat  differently  than 
•cocciclia  and  myxosporidia.  For,  in  the  first  place,  they  produce 
no  striking  alterations  in  the  affected  organs.  Furthermore,  it  has 
been  proved  that  sarcosporidia  are  an  exceedingly  rare  occurrence 
in  the  muscles  of  man.  From  the  fact  of  their  unusual  occurrence 
in  food  animals,  it  can  not  be  assumed  that  sarcosporidia  can  be 
transmitted  to  man  by  eating  meat. 

Quite  recently,  Rosenberg  described  a  case  of  "undoubted 
Miescher's  sacs  "  in  the  heart  of  a  man,  and,  in  this  connection, 
called  attention  to  three  cases  which  were  described  in  1863  by  the 
Russian  scientist,  Lindermann.  As  contrasted,  however,  with  the 
almost  constant  occurrence  of  Miescher's  sacs  in  domestic  animals, 
such  cases  must  be  considered  as  rare. 

L.  Pfeiffer  asserts  that  feeding  experiments  with  Miescher'a 
sacs  in  hogs,  sheep,  dogs  and  rabbits  have  given  negative  results. 
Moreover,  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  muscle  infections,  analogous  to 
those  in  hogs,  have  not  been  observed  with  certainty  in  man.  In 
the  cases  of  alleged  sarcosporidial,  acute,  progressive  polymyositis, 
described  by  Unverricht,  it  is  stated  that  neither  Miescher's  sacs 
nor  the  crescent  forms  were  found. 

In  the  practice  of  meat  inspection,  it  is  quite  customary  to 
disregard  the  ordinary  slight  invasions  of  Miescher's  sacs  in  hogs 
and  to  admit  the  meat  of  such  animals  to  market  without  restric- 
tion. This  practice  is  justified  so  long  as  the  musculature  shows  ncv 


532 


INVASION  DISEASES 


FIG.  178. 


macroscopically-recognizable  alterations,  and  this  is  the  usual  case. 
Exceptionally,  however,  the  meat  must  be  considered  as  spoiled 
(inferior)  food  material,  in  case  calcification  has  appeared  in  many~ 
of  the  Miescher's  sacs  ;  and  the  meat  must  be  considered  as  highly 
unfit  for  food  in  case  the  musculature  is  greatly  altered ;  for 
example,  with  yellow  or  green  spots  or  gray  discolorations  and 
watery  as  a  result  of  extensive  invasion  of  Miescher's  sacs.  In  the 
last-named  cases,  the  meat  loses  the  quality  of  human  food,  for  it  is 
exceedingly  repulsive  and  unappetizing.  The  case  is  different  with 
hogs  in  which  numerous  Miescher's  sacs  appear  as 
calcareous  concretions  (Fig.  183).  In  such  cases 
the  meat  has,  to  be  sure,  lost  somewhat  in  proteicl 
content  on  account  of  the  lime  deposits,  but  aside 
from  the  calcified  parasitic  foci,  the  musculature 
possesses  a  normal  consistency  and  color,  and,  as  a 
rule,  also  an  unaltered  fat  content.  For  these 
reasons  no  objection  can  be  made  to  the  sale  of 
such  meat  under  declaration.  If  the  occurrence  of 
calcified  Miescher's  sacs  is  restricted  to  certain 
muscle  groups,  only  these  muscle^  are  to  be  treated 
as  spoiled  (inferior)  food  material. 

Sheep  in  which  more  or  less  numerous  saico- 
sporidia  of  macroscopic  size  are  found  in  all  of  the 
muscle  groups,  are  to  be  excluded  from  free  sale  011 
account  of  their  inferior  quality,  and,  under  certain 
conditions,  are  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the 
market.  If,  however,  the  parasites  are  restricted  to 
certain  muscle  groups  (for  example,  dermal  and 
abdominal  muscles)  the  meat  may  be  admitted  to 

Balbianidae  from     the  market  after  removal  of  these  parts, 
the  esophagus  of 
a  sheep. 

Balbianidce. — The  sarcosporidia  which  occur  sa 

frequently  in  the  interfibrillar  tissue  of  the  esophagus  in  sheep 
and  goats  and  which  in  some  years  are  present  in  almost  every 
individual,  belong  to  the  family  Balbianidse.  Bailliet  gave  this 
parasite  the  name  Balbiania  gigantea*  They  present  white  sacs 
filled  with  pus-like  contents,  varying  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to 


*  Bertram  held  the  opinion  chat  the  small  sarcosporidia  which  occur  in  sheep 
(Sarcocystis  tenella,  Railliet)  and  Balbiania  gigantea,  wei:e  merely  different 
stages  of  one  and  the  same  species.  He  believed  that  at  first  the  parasites  were 
found  in  the  muscle  fibers,  while  later  they  grew  through  the  sarcolemma  and  in. 
this  manner  became  transformed  into  psorosperm  sacs. 


PROTOZOA 

a  hazel  nut  (psorosperm  sacs),  which  are  often  found  to  the  num- 
ber of  several  dozen  in  a  single  esophagus.  Morot  found  them 
present  to  the  number  of  227  in  one  esophagus.  In  addition  to  this 
location,  the  Balbianidse  have  their  seat  also  in  the  connective 
tissue  of  the  lingual  and  laryngeal  musculature,  as  well  as  in  the 
thoracic  and  abdominal  muscles. 

Judgment. — Formerly  the  esophagus  was  not  utilized  for  food. 
Since,  however,  it  has  come  to  be  so  used — less  scrupulous  butchers 
utilize  the  "  gullet  meat  "  of  sheep  in  the  preparation  of  sausage — 
it  becomes  the  duty  of  meat  inspectors  to  condemn  all  esophagi 
infested  with  Balbianidae  and  to  render  them  innocuous.  By  this 
means  also  the  further  distribution  of  the  disease  would  be  corre- 
spondingly prevented. 

(d)  Hematosporidia. 

The  Hematosporidia,  the  relationship  of  which  to  the  Sporozoa 
is  not  yet  established  with  certainty,  are  unicellular  parasites  of  the 
red  blood  corpuscles  of  vertebrates.  The  first  Hematosporidia  were 
observed  by  Gaule  in  1880  in  frogs,  tritons  and  turtles.  In  the 
same  year  Laveran  made  his  epoch-making  discovery  that  unicellu- 
lar motile  parasites  occur  also  in  the  blood  of  malarial  patients. 
The  Hematosporidia  acquired  importance  for  veterinary  science 
through  the  classical  investigations  of  the  American  author,  Theo- 
bald Smith,  on  the  subject  of  Texas  fever,  in  which  Hematosporidia 
were  likewise  found  and  demonstrated  beyond  question  to  be  the 
<3ause  of  the  disease. 

TEXAS  FEVER. — On  the  subject  of  Texas  fever,  we  owe  to  Smith 
and  his  co-worker,  Kil borne,  the  following  data  : 

Home  of  the  Disease. — In  the  southern  United  States  the  station- 
ary focus  for  Texas  fever  is  found  in  a  wide  zone  extending  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  37°  or  38°  north  latitude.  The  native  cattle 
of  this  region  are  apparently  healthy.  If,  however,  cattle  from, 
northern  regions  mingle  with  these  apparently  healthy  animals,  the 
former  fall  ill  of  the  plague.  If  cattle  from  the  infested  territory 
pass  over  the  northern  or  southern  boundary  line,  they  may  carry 
the  disease  with  them.  The  incubation  stage  is  about  fifty  days. 

Clinical  Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  the  disease  is  a  high 
fever  (40.5°  to  42°  C.).  An  acute  anemia  rapidly  follows  this  stage. 
Clinical  hemoglobinuria  is  rare.  -The  latter,  for  the  most  part,  ia 


534: 


INVASION  DISEASES 


FIG.  179. 


Demonstrated  on  post  mortem.*  The  fever  persists  until  death  or- 
recovery.  At  the  crisis  of  the  fever,  one-eighth  to  one-sixth  of  th& 
led  blood  corpuscles  are  destroyed  within  twenty-four  hours.  After 
the  temperature  falls,  however,  their  regeneration  takes  place 
Tapidly. 

Pathologico-anatomical  Findings. — Upon  making  a  post-mortem- 
examination  one  finds  red-colored  urine  in, 
the  bladder  (hemoglobinuria).  The  kidneys 
are  dark,  brownish-red,  or,  if  the  period  of 
hemoglobinuria  is  passed,  they  are  pale- 
brown  and  soft.  A  bloody  edema  is  observed 
in  the  perirenal  fat  tissue.  The  spleen  is. 

jKmfig*^m£f&^$$        enlarged  from  two  to  five  times  its  normai 
^(iii>i^      s*ze  an(^  *s  °^  a  dark-red  color.     The  liver 
is  swollen  and   either  filled  with  blood  (in 
the  first  stage)  or    poor  in  blood  and  dis- 
colored yellowish.     Petechiae  under  the  epi- 
cardium  and  endocardium  ;  bloody  erosions- 
on  the  mucosa  of  the  fourth  stomach  ;  in  the 
small  intestines,  on  the  other  hand,  oleaceous. 
deposits  which  consist  of  sloughed-off  epithelial  cells. 

Etiology. — As  the  cause  of  the  disease,  Smith  discovered  pro- 
tozoan micro-organisms  of  a  pale  color  and  exhibiting  amoeboid 
movements  at  a  temperature  of  24°  C.  These  organisms  live  inside 


Texas  fever.  Cover  glass 
preparation  from  the 
spleen  pulp  of  a  beef 
animal,  with  quite  num- 
erous intraglobular  par- 
asites, X  900  diameters. 
(After  Smith.) 


FIG.  180. 


Texas  fever.     Different  forms  of  Piroplasma  bigeminum  due  to  amoeboid  movements. 
c  and  d  still  possess  nuclei ;  d  shows  the  pear-shape  characteristic  of  the  acute- 
Much  enlarged.     (After  Smith.) 


the  red  blood  corpuscles  and  pass  through  several  developmental 
phases  there.  According  to  Smith,  the  parasite,  called  by  him 
fyrosoma  bigeminum,  is,  in  mild  forms  of  the  disease,  small,  round- 
ish, coccus-like;  in  the  acute,  summer  forms,  however,  it  is  larger 


*This  account  is  based  on  the  investigations  of  Smith  and  Kilborne  (Bulletin 
1,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture).  Later  investiga- 
tions, however,  have  shown  that  hemoglobinuria  is  a  characteristic  clinicaL 
symptom,  especially  in  severe  cases,  terminating  fatally. — TRANSLATOR'S  NOTEL 


PROTOZOA 


535 


(2.5  to  4  /*  long  and  1.5  to  2  ^  broad) ;    amoeboid,  and  in  the  fully 
developed  condition  pyroform  in  shape.* 

Demonstration  of  Parasites. — In  the  circulating  blood  these 
•structures  are  found  usually  in  only  one  or  two,  or,  at  mo:st,  10 
per  cent,  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles.  The  capillary  blood  of  dead 
animals  is  more  extensively  infected,  the  blood  of  the  renal  capil- 
laries being  most  infected,  in  which  location  as  many  as  80  per 

FIG.  181 


Texas  fever.  Boophilus  bovis.  a,  recently  hatched  young  tick,  X  40  diameters; 
b,  sexually  mature  male,  X  10  diameters;  c,  sexually  mature  female,  X  10  dia- 
meters. (After  Smith.) 

cent,  of  the  erythrocytes  contain  the  parasitic  organism.  For 
demonstrating  Texas  fever  parasites,  air-dried  cover-glass  prepara- 
tions are  kept  in  a  hot-air  incubator  for  from  one  to  one  and  one- 
half  hours  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  120°  C.,  then  stained  for 
one-half  to  two  minutes  with  alkaline-methylene  blue,  washed  with 
water,  dipped  momentarily  into  1  per  cent,  acetic  acid,  and  again 
washed  with  water.  In  doubtful  cases,  the  staining  method  of 
Bomanowsky  gives  good  satisfaction  (with  polychromic  methylene- 

*  Wandolek  changed  the  name  of  the  organism  of  Texas  fever  to  Apiosoma 
bigeminum,  since  Pyrosoma  is  preempted  for  a  genus  of  Tunicates.  As  noted 
by  Stiles,  however,  even  the  name  chosen  by  Wandolek  is  not  free.  It  is  sug- 
gested, therefore,  that  the  name  proposed  by  Patten.  Piroplasma  bigeminnm,  is 
the  proper  species  name  for  the  parasitic,  organism  of  Texas  fev<  r. 


536  INVASION   DISEASES 

blue,  to  which  eosine  is  added  until  precipitation  begins  to  take 
place,  and  differentiation  with  water  slightly  acidified  with  acetic 
acid).  The  Texas  fever  parasites  then  appear  blue  and  the  red 
blood  corpuscles  red. 

Method  of  Infection. — The  disease  is  transmissible  by  inoculat- 
ing the  blood  of  infected  cattle  into  other  cattle.  Inoculation  with 
the  blood  of  apparently  healthy  cattle  from  the  infected  region 
also  produces  the  disease,  for  these  animals  regularly  contain 
intraglobular  parasites  in  small  numbers.  Babbits,  guinea  pigs, 
pigeons  and  sheep  are  immune.  Under  natural  conditions,  the 
infection  is  produced  by  means  of  ticks  (Ixodes  bovis,  Riley;  s. 
Boopliilus  bovis,  Curtice).  The  eggs  of  these  ticks  are  laid  in  pas- 
tures. The  young  ticks  hatch  in  from  two  to  six  weeks,  attach 
themselves  to  cattle,  attain  sexual  maturity,  and,  after  about  23 
days,  fall  off  for  the  purpose  of  depositing  their  eggs.  The  period 
of  incubation,  therefore,  includes  the  time  necessary  for  the  develop- 
ment of  young  ticks  out  of  females  which  have  dropped  (about 
30  days),  and  the  true  incubation  period  of  the  disease  (10  to  15 
days). 

Judgment. — Thus  far,  nothing  is  known  concerning  any  disease 
in  man  due  to  eating  the  meat  of  cattle  affected  with  Texas  fever. 
Nevertheless,  the  meat  of  such  animals  is  to  be  withheld  from  the 
market  and  rendered  innocuous,  for  the  possibility  is  by  no  means 
excluded  that  Texas  fever  may  be  distributed  by  means  of  meat 
traffic.  Texas  fever,  therefore,  possesses  chiefly  a  veterinary  police 
interest.  In  cases  of  the  introduction  of  American  cattle,  the 
officials  of  the  veterinary  police  should  give  special  attention  to  this 
disease,  which  in  1894  was  introduced  into  Hamburg  by  means  of  a 
transport  loaded  with  American  beef  cattle,  and  caused  all  the 
States  of  the  European  continent  to  prohibt  the  introduction  of 
American  cattle. 

Recent  Investigations  Concerning  the  Nature  and  Occurrence  of 

Texas  Fever. 

Weisser  and  Maassen  confirmed  the  belief  that  Texas  fever 
was  introduced  into  Hamburg  by  the  importation  of  American 
cattle.  They  demonstrated  the  parasites  discovered  by  Smith  in 
smear  preparations  from  the  kidneys,  spleen,  liver,  lymphatic 
glands  and  heart,  but  found  them  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  capil- 
laries of  the  kidneys  and  myocardium.  The  spherical  structures 
found  in  the  majority  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles  sometimes 


PROTOZOA  537 

resemble  large  cocci  or  diplococci.  As  a  rule,  there  was  only  one 
spherical  parasite  in  each  red  blood  corpuscle,  but  in  many  cases 
there  were  two,  and  then  they  possessed  a  somewhat  elongated,, 
occasionally  pyriform,  shape.  The  parasites  stained  fairly  well 
with  the  ordinary  basic  auilin  dyes.  The  elongated  forms,  how- 
ever, take  the  stain  actively  only  in  the  wider  ends.  Good  results 
were  obtained  on  sections  by  the  use  of  hematoxylin,  methylene- 
blue  and  gentian  violet,  the  latter  in  dilute  solutions  for  a  period 
of  24  hours. 

R.  Koch  demonstrated  that  Texas  fever  occurs  also  in  coast 
regions  of  German  East  Africa  and  that  in  this  country  also  it  is 
transmitted  by  ticks  as  in  America.  Koch  confirmed  the  essential 
statements  of  Smith  and  Kilborne,  but  found  the  pyroform  phase 
of  the  parasite  even  in  mild  cases  of  the  disease. 

According  to  Smith,  the  epizootic  hemoglobinuria  of  Rou- 
manian cattle,  investigated  by  Babes,  and  the  red  water  which 
occurs  in  South  Africa,  are  related  or  identical  with  Texas  fever. 
According  to  Starcovici,  the  epizootic  of  sheep  investigated  by 
Babes  and  called  "  carceag,"  belongs  to  Texas  fever.  Bonome  in 
Padua  found  an  endoglobular  "  amoebosporidium "  in  a  disease 
characterized  by  him  as  "parasitic  ictero-hematuria  of  sheep." 
However,  according  to  Babes,  the  disease  investigated  by  Bonome 
is  nothing  more  than  carceag. 

Furthermore,  the  same  findings  as  in  Texas  fever  have  been 
made  by  Saufelice  and  Loi  in  hematuria  of  Sardinian  cattle ;  by 
Celli  and  Santori  in  bovine  malaria  of  the  Campagna  of  Rome  ;  by 
Krogius,  von  Hellens  and  Kossel  in  an  epizootic  hemoglobinuria  of 
Finnish  cattle ;  and  by  Laveran  and  Nicolle  in  an  epizootic  of 
sheep  which  is  prevalent  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople.  Texas 
fever  is  widely  distributed  also  in  Australia. 

Finally,  according  to  the  investigation  of  Jackschath  and  von 
Ziemann,  it  must  be  assumed  that  the  so-called  bloody  urine  of 
cattle,  which  is  enzootic  in  Germany,  is  a  disease  etiologically 
related  to  Texas  fever. 

Diseases  Caused  by  Infusoria. 

(a)  NAGANA  AND  SURRA  DISEASE.— The  nagana  and  surra  dis- 
ease has  been  known  for  a  long  time  in  South  Africa  and  India  and 
has  recently  been  identified  by  R.  Koch  in  German  East  Africa. 
The  disease,  as  shown  by  Bruce,  is  caused  by  a  parasite  which 
lives  in  the  blood  of  the  affected  animals  and  which  is  transmitted 


538  INVASION   DISEASES 

from  one  animal  to  another  by  biting  insects ;  in  South  Africa  and 
in  Togo,  by  the  tsetse  fly  (tsetse  disease).  The  parasite  does  not, 
like  the  parasite  of  Texas  fever,  belong  to  the  sporozoa,  but  rather 
to  the  infusoria,  particularly  to  the  trypanosomata  (flagellate  infu- 
soria). It  is  two  to  three  times  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  a  red 
blood  corpuscle,  has  a  fish-like  form,  and  progresses  with  active 
sinuous  motions  between  the  red  blood  cells  (Fig.  182).  It  is  color- 
less, but  takes  anilin  stains.  The  incubation  period  is  from  nine 
to  eleven  days.  The  onset  of  the  disease  may  be  recognized  by 
the  increase  of  bodily  temperature  and  the  appearance  of  parasites 
in  the  blood.  Other  characteristic  symptoms  do  not  appear.  The 

FIG.  182. 


Trypanosoma  of  surra  between  red  blood  corpuscles.     (After  R.  Koch.) 

animals  either  die  quickly  with  great  depression,  anemia  and  ema- 
ciation, or  they  become  affected  with  the  chronic  form  and  die  after 
several  months. 

Surra  has  been  observed  in  cattle,  horses  and  also  in  camels  and 
elephants. 

Judgment. — According  to  E.  Koch,  restrictions  on  the  traffic  in 
the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  surra  are  not  necessary.  In  Ger- 
man East  Africa  it  frequently  occurs  that  an  animal  affected  with 
surra  has  been  slaughtered  and  eaten  without  the  slightest  injurious 
effect. 

(b)  DOUBINE. — Schneider  and  Buffard  found  the  cause  of  dourine 
to  be  trypanosomata,  which  resemble  the  organisms  of  surra  and 


CALCAREOUS  CONCRETIONS  539 

tsetse  fly  diseases.  The  trypanosomata  are  20  to  30  //  long,  1.5  to 
2  /*  wide,  and  may  be  easily  transmitted  to  horses,  dogs,  rabbits, 
rats,  mice  and  asses  by  subcutaneous  or  subdural  injection,  through 
the  conjunctival  sac,  or  by  copulation. 


2.— So-Called   Calcareous   Concretions  in  the   Musculature   of" 

the  Hog. 

MEANING  OF  THE  TERM. — The  term  "  calcareous  concretions  "" 
is  not  appropriate,  since  we  do  not  have  to  deal  with  pure  lime  de- 
posit or  calcareous  concretions,  but  with  calcined  (petrified)  animal 
parasites.     It  would,  therefore,  be  more  appropriate  to  speak  of" 
"calcified  parasites"  instead  of  "calcareous  concretions"  in   the 
musculature.     However,  the  term  has  become  established  in  meat 
inspection  and  may  as  well  be  retained. 

GENERAL  KEMARKS  ON  THE  SIZE,  OCCURRENCE  AND  PRINCIPAL 
LOCATIONS. — Calcareous  concretions  in  the  musculature  of  hogs  may 
be  of  microscopic  size,  but  as  a  rule  they  attain  such  size  that  they 
may  be  detected  with  the  naked  eye  ;  their  number  varies  exceed- 
ingly in  individual  cases.  One  observes  all  intermediate  conditions 
between  a  few  and  innumerable  calcifications.  Hogs  are  sometimes 
observed  in  which  the  musculature  appears  to  be  literally  sprinkled 
and  permeated  with  white  dots  or  tubercles.  The  chief  location  in- 
cases where  only  a  few  calcifications  are  present  varies,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  parasites  which  furnish  the  basis  of  the  calcifica- 
tion. In  general,  however,  the  abdominal  muscles,  muscular 
portion  of  the  diaphragm,  as  well  as  the  semi-membranosus 
(adductor  magnus),  which  is  exposed  to  view  in  the  ordinary  method 
of  cutting  up,  are  to  be  considered  as  the  chief  locations. 

ETIOLOGY. — The  following  organisms  lead  to  the  formation  of 
calcareous  concretions :  Miescher's  sacs,  trichinae,  cysticerci  and 
echinococci.* 


*The  opinion  of  Duncker,  that  calcifications  may  occur  also  in  hyaline 
muscle  degeneration,  which  Duncker  formerly  considered  as  an  actinomycotic 
disease,  has  not  been  confirmed.  Among  the  large  number  of  cases  of  calcareous 
concretions  in  hogs  which  I  had  occasion  to  inspect  during  a  long  period  of  years, 
no  case  was  found  which  could  have  been  attributed  to  the  presence  of  degen- 
erated muscle  foci. 


540  INVASION   DISEASES 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  differentiation  of  calcareous 
concretions  in  the  musculature  of  hogs  is  of  great  practical  value, 
since  the  sanitary  police  judgment  of  it  is  not  a  simple  matter.  For 
example,  calcified  trichinae  are  to  be  judged  quite  differently  from 
calcified  Miescher's  sacs.  The  latter  at  most  merely  render  of 
inferior  quality  the  meat  infested  by  them,  while  calcified  trichinae 
always  make  the  meat  dangerous.  For  it  is  an  established  fact  that 
even  apparently  wholly  calcified  trichinae  may  still  be  capable  of 
producing  an  invasion  (page  462).  Trichinae  are  not  to  be  considered 
as  disintegrated  and  dead  until  the  whole  worm  body  is  affected 
•with  calcification  and  dissolves  completely  when  treated  with  acetic 
acid.  But,  even  in  case  of  the  presence  of  totally  calcified  trichinae, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  intact  trichinae  may  be  present  in  one 
and  the  same  animal  with  specimens  which  have  disintegrated. 

So  long  as  the  calcification  of  the  structures  in  question  is  not 
complete,  it  is  not  ordinarily  difficult  to  make  a  correct  diagnosis 
from  the  organic  remains  which  are  preserved.  Occasionally  it  is 
possible,  even  in  cases  of  complete  calcification,  to  restore  the 
original  conditions  by  treatment  with  weak  acids  (acetic  acid  or 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid),  and  thus  to  recognize  with  certainty  the 
organic  substratum  of  the  calcification,  as,  for  example,  in  normally 
calcified  trichinae.  In  other  cases,  such  a  possibility  is  excluded, 
since  calcification  may  entirely  destroy  the  structure  of  the 
organisms.  In  such  cases,  after  treatment  with  weak  or  diluted 
strong  acids,  at  most  there  remain  mere  fragments  of  tissue,  which 
do  not  permit  a  definite  conclusion  as  to  the  nature  of  the  cal- 
cification. 

For  these  doubtful  cases  the  following  characters  may  serve  as 
criteria  for  recognizing  calcareous  deposits  of  different  origins  : 


(a)  Calcified  Miescher's  Sacs. 

The  varying  size  is  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  calcified 
Miescher's  sacs,  which  furnish  the  chief  contingent  of  calcareous 
concretions  in  the  musculature  of  hogs.  In  Miescher's  sacs,  calcifi- 
cation is  by  no  means  associated  with  a  certain  developmental  stage, 
but  may  appear  in  sacs  of  small  size.  Calcification  begins  in 
Miescher's  sacs  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  granular  deposit  which 
appears  at  first  centrally  and  thence  spreads  gradually  toward  the 
periphery.  One  also  observes,  however,  S-shaped  and  spirally- 
^coiled  lime  deposits  in  Miescher's  sacs. 


CALCAREOUS   CONCRETIONS  541 

In  cases  of  incomplete  calcification  of  Miescher's  sacs,  one  may 
still  demonstrate  the  characteristic  reniform  and  crescent-shaped 
corpuscles  in  the  peripheral  chambers  (page  527).  In  cases  of  total 
calcification  in  Miescher's  sacs,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  they  lie  in  the 
muscle  fibers,  possess  an  elongated  form  and  are  surrounded  with 
a  connective  tissue  membrane.  This  membrane,  in  contrast  with 
the  trichina  capsule,  dissolves  upon  the  addition, of  potash  lye 
(Duncker).  Furthermore,  the  striation  of  the  muscle  fibers  at  the 
boundary  of  the  sacs  is  unaffected,  as  contrasted  with  the  condition 
in  trichinae  (Fig.  175). 

Calcified  Miescher's  sacs  are,  as  a  rule,  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
but  some  of  them  are  demonstrable  only  by  microscopic  examination. 
They  may  occur  in  the  heart  as  well  as  in  the  skeletal  musculature* 

FIG.  183. 

~  FIG.  184. 


Human  muscle  fibers  with 
strongly  calcified  trich- 
inae. Natural  size. 


Calcified  Miescher's  sacs  from  the  musculature 
of  a  hog.  The  white  points  are  the  calcifica- 
tions. Natural  size. 


(b)  Calcified  Trichinae. 

The  intact  trichina  capsule  possesses  a  length  of  0.4  to  .5  mm. 
As  a  rule,  therefore,  even  when  calcified,  trichinae  are  not  readily 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  if  calcification  is  restricted  merely  to  the 
mass  of  the  capsule.  There  are  cases,  however,  in  which  calcifica- 
tion extends  beyond  the  poles  of  the  trichina  capsule,  so  that  the 
whole  calcified  structure  attains  a  length  of  1  mm.  and  becomes 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  These  cases,  however,  are  extremely  rare 
in  hogs,  as  contrasted  with  man,  in  whom  muscle  trichinae  frequently 
become  macroscopically  visible  as  a  result  of  calcification  (Fig.  184). 


4542 


INVASION  DISEASES 


The  rare  occurrence  of  extensive  calcification  of  the  muscle  trichinae 
of  hogs  is  readily  understood  if  we  consider  that  the  deposition  of 
lime  in  the  capsule  of  muscle  trichinae  usually  does  not  begin  until 
several  months  after  the  invasion.  Most  hogs,  however,  are  slaugh- 
tered at  from  seven  to  ten  months  of  age. 

The  calcification  of  muscle  trichinae  in  hogs  may,  as  shown  on 
pages  461  to  465,  proceed  in  a  normal  and  pathological  manner. 

In  normal  calcification,  the  glandular  cloudiness  extends  from 
the  poles  of  the  trichina  capsule  over  the  whole  capsule,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  coiled  worm  finally  becomes  invisible.  The  latter, 

FIG.  185. 


Totally  calcified  trichina  from  one  and  the  same  hog.  Neither  the  capsules  nor  the 
parasites  could  be  made  visible  by  the  use  of  acetic  acid.  But  at  a  the  capsule  is 
differentiated  in  spite  of  calcification  and  the  outlines  of  the  trichina  can  be  seen. 
At  b  also  the  trichina  can  be  seen.  Fat  tissue  has  developed  at  the  poles  of  the 
calcifications.  The  calcareous  concretion  c  is  smaller  than  a  and  b  although  from 
the  same  hog,  and  shows  no  differentiation  or  fat  tissue.  It  broke  under  pressure 
of  the  cover  glass.  Calcification  probably  began  before  development  was  complete. 

towever,  may  still  be  completely  intact  and  viable.  In  such  cases 
the  trichina  capsule,  as  well  as  the  parasite,  may  be  rendered  visi- 
ble by  the  addition  of  acetic  or  weak  hydrochloric  acid.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  capsule  and  the  worm  inclosed  in  it  may  finally 
become  totally  calcified,  so  that  no  positive  finding  can  be  made 
after  treatment  with  acids  (Fig.  185). 

In  cases  of  pathological  calcification,  no  characteristic  capsula 


CALCAREOUS   CONCRETIONS  543 

is  formed  on  account  of  the  extensive  connective  tissue  prolifera- 
tion in  the  region  in  the  invading  parasites.  There  is  at  most 
merely  a  hint  at  a  capsule,  and  the  trichinae  die  prematurely.  In 
these  cases,  calcification  begins  with  the  parasites  and  is  usually 
so  complete  that  there  is  nothing  left  by  which  to  recognize  them 
after  the  addition  of  acids  (Fig.  186). 

In  both  cases  of  total  calcification  of  trichinae,  in  which  after 
treatment  with  lime-dissolving  acids  the  presence  of  trichinae  can 
not  be  demonstrated,  sufficient  criteria  for  recognition  are  found  in 
the  elongated  spindle-form  (Figs.  185,  186),  in  the  size,  which  does 
not  exceed  J  to  1  mm.,  in  the  seat  of  lime  deposits  in  muscle 

FIG.  186. 


Encapsuled  calcareous  concretions  from  dead  trichinaB.     Pathological 
calcification  of  trichinae.      (Leuckart.) 

fibers,  and  in  the  alteration  of  the  latter  (disappearance  of  the  con- 
tractile substance  and  the  development  of  fat  tissue  at  the  poles  of 
the  lime  deposits). 

Calcified  trichinae  are  found  in  the  skeletal  musculature  and 
not  in  the  heart. 

(c)   Calcified  Cysticerci. 

The  cysticerci  which  occur  in  the  musculature  of  the  hog  may 
die  in  any  developmental  stage  and  may  calcify  after  undergoing 
caseation.  The  size  of  calcified  cysticerci  varies,  according  to  the 
stage  of  development  in  which  the  parasites  die,  between  that  of  a, 
millet  seed  and  that  of  an  oat  kernel.  The  smallest  calcified  cysfci- , 


INVASION   DISEASES 

cerci,  however,  are  larger  than  the  previously-described  structures. 
Moreover,  calcified  cysticerci  do  not  lie  in  the  muscle  fibers,  but 
between  them,  and  are  characterized  by  a  macroscopically-visible 
connective  tissue  membrane  (Fig.  187).  Moreover,  the  calcified 
content  is  usually  separable  from  the  membrane.  Furthermore, 
in  the  calcified  cysticerci  of  larger  size,  the  characteristic  hooks 
may  be  demonstrated  under  certain  conditions  and  more  frequently 
the  calcareous  corpuscles  of  the  cysticercal  neck  are  to  be  seen. 

FIG.  187. 


Cysticerci  calcified  while  young,  with  strongly  developed  connective  tissue 
capsules.     X  35  diameters. 

(Fig.  125).  Calcified  cysticerci  are  found  not  only  in  the  skeletal 
musculature,  but  also  in  the  heart,  since  this  forms  a  favorite  loca- 
tion for  cysticerci. 

(d)  Calcified  Echinococci. 

Calcified  echinococci,  as  well  as  echinococci  in  general,  are 
rarely  found  in  the  voluntary  musculature.  As  a  rule,  they  are 
observed  in  the  musculature  only  in  case  of  very  extensive  inva- 
sion in  which  the  viscera  are  sprinkled  with  the  parasites.  This 
fact  points  the  way  to  the  recognition  of  calcified  echinococci  in 
the  skeletal  musculature.  With  regard,  however,  to  the  objective 
characters  of  calcified  echinococci,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  latter, 
like  the  cysticerci,  lie  between  the  muscle  fibers  and  are  likewise^ 


CALCAREOUS  CONCRETIONS 


545 


always  larger  tlian  calcified  trichinae.  Moreover,  iu  older  cal- 
cified echinococci,  remains  of  the  character]  stically-lamellated 
echinococcal  cuticula,  calcareous  corpuscles  and  hooks  are  present 
(Fig.  163). 

Tyrosin  Deposits  in  Smoked  Pork. — In  smoked  pork,  most  fre- 
quently in  "Westphalian  hams,  white  spots  occur,  which,  macro- 
scopically,  may  be  confused  with  calcified  trichinae,  but  which 
under  the  microscope  are  easily  recognized  as  granular  deposits. 
In  these  deposits,  the  occurrence  of  which  was  first  made  known 
by  Virchow,  we  have  a  case  of  artificial  product,  due  to  the  method 
of  preservation.  They  are  found  in  the  form  of  irregular  heaps 


FIG.  189. 


FIG.  188. 


Tyrosin  deposits 

from  a  Westphalian  ham. 

Natural  size. 


Masses  of  tyrosin  crystals  in  smoked 
pork,  enlarged.     (Leuckart.) 


of  crystals,  varying  in  size  from  one  to  several  millimeters,  which 
exceed  the  breadth  of  several  muscle  fibers,  and  are  surrounded 
by  a  capsule  (Fig.  189).  According  to  Yoit,  these  deposits  consist 
of  tyrosin.  Aside  from  their  irregular  form  and  their  location,  they 
are  further  distiaguished  from  the  parasitic  calcification  by  the  fact 
that  they  may  be  dissolved  not  only  by  means  of  acids,  but  also  by 
potash  lye.  The  process  of  dissolution  in  hydrochloric  acid  takes 
place  without  the  development  of  carbon  dioxide  and  in  sulphuric 
acid  without  the  formation  of  crystals  of  gypsum.  If  nitric  acid 
is  added  to  tyrosin  deposits,  a  yellow  solution  is  obtained,  which, 
by  the  addition  of  potash  lye,  together  with  the  application  of  heat, 
becomes  red. 


546  INVASION   DISEASES 

(According  to  Kitfc,  one  may  artificially  produce  the  excretion 
of  tyrosin  crystals  by  laying  meat  in  old  alcohol  which  has  already 
been  used  for  preserving  purposes). 

Triple  Phosphate  Crystals  in  Decomposing  Meat. — In  decompos- 
ing meat,  triple  phosphate  crystals  are  observed,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  are  distinguished  by  their  coffin-lid  form.  These  facts 
serve  as  sufficient  criteria  and  aids  in  differentiating  crystalline 
deposits  which  are  formed  post-mortem  in  the  musculature  from 
calcifications  which  arise  during  life  on  the  basis  of  pathological 
processes. 


XII. 
PLANT  PARASITES  (INFECTIOUS  DISEASES}. 


GENERAL  ACCOUNT. — In  recent  times,  no  field  of  pathology  has 
experienced  such  scientific  advancement  as  that  of  infectious  dis- 
eases. If,  according  to  Brieger's  plan,  all  known  diseases  are 
divided  into  four  groups,  (1)  diseases  of  traumatic  origin,  (2)  infec- 
tious diseases,  (3)  metabolic  diseases,  and  (4)  neuroses,  we  have 
first  to  emphasize  the  unexpected  development  which  infectious 
diseases  have  made  at  the  expense  of  the  other  groups.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  mention  the  discovery  of  the  vegetable  parasitic  nature 
of  certain  infectious  diseases  of  wounds,  especially  tetanus,  which 
was  previously  considered  as  a  neurosis,  the  etiological  investiga- 
tions of  certain  diseases  of  the  intestines,  inflammations  of  the  lungs, 
etc.,  diseases  the  origin  of  which  was  formerly  not  explainable,  or 
was  merely  attributed  to  a  "cold."  In  addition  to  the  extension 
of  this  field,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  whole 
•doctrine  of  infectious  diseases  was  without  a  scientific  basis  until 
•our  time.  Compare,  for  example,  treatises  on  the  infectious  dis- 
eases of  earlier  times,  say  from  the  60's  of  the  preceding  century, 
with  those  which  we  have  to-day  on  the  same  subject.  We  may 
thus  realize  properly  the  great  progress  which  the  most  recent  of 
medical  sciences,  bacteriology,  has  shown  in  the  field  of  infectious 
diseases. 

It  is  frequently  asserted  that  bacteriology  has  never  fulfilled 
the  expectations  which  have  been  entertained  regarding  its  develop- 
ment, from  the  standpoint  of  practical  medicine.  As  far  as  cura- 
tive medicine  is  concerned,  this  must  be  granted.  In  prophylactic 
medicine,  however,  bacteriology,  during  the  short  period  of  time 
since  its  origin,  has  made  the  greatest  progress,  or  has  entered  upon 
lines  of  progress.  The  doctrine  of  infectious  diseases  first  became 
3,  well  grounded  science  in  consequence  of  the  development  of  bac- 
teriology under  the  school  of  Robert  Koch.  In  this  science  the 
earlier  problems  and  philosophical  speculations  have  been  replaced 
l>y  positive  didactic  principles. 


547 


548  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

No  less  fruitful  has  been  the  effect  of  the  progress  of  bac- 
teriology upon  meat  inspection.  The  greatest  number  and  at  the 
same  time  the  most  important  diseases  of  food  animals  belong  to 
the  infectious  diseases.  So  far  as  these  diseases  are  concerned,, 
however,  meat  inspection  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  applied  bac- 
teriology. The  field  of  contagious  diseases  was  formerly  the 
weakest  point  in  meat  inspection.  Gross  empiricism  and  arbitrary 
doctrinarianism  prevailed  to  a  great  extent  in  this  field.  At  any 
rate  it  was  the  recognition  of  this  fact  which  led  Haubner  to 
express  the  opinion  that  "  the  whole  science  of  meat  inspection  can 
never  be  based  and  regulated  on  scientific  principles."  It  may  be 
asserted  without  fear  of  contradiction  that  the  respect  which  the 
science  of  meat  inspection  has  earned  in  recent  times  is  attribut- 
able in  no  small  degree  to  the  fact  that  with  regard  to  infectious 
diseases  it  operates  upon  more  scientific  principles  than  formerly.. 
We  have  made  great  advances  in  the  accurate  determination  of 
infectious  diseases  and  in  the  sanitary  police  procedure  with  the 
meat  of  animals  affected  with  such  diseases. 

In  an  address  on  "Antisepsis  in  Surgery,"  Johne  once 
remarked  that  whoever  had  not  learned  to  feel  and  think  antisepti- 
cally  would  never  become  a  master  in  surgery.  The  same  may  be 
said  for  meat  inspection.  Whoever  is  unable  to  think  bacteriologi- 
cally  and  to  operate  according  to  the  requirements  of  bacteriology, 
grossly  violates  the  elementary  principles  of  hygiene,  daily.  To 
cite  but  one  of  the  many  examples  :  Persons  who  are  unschooled 
in  bacteriology  neglect  the  disinfection  of  knives  with  which  they 
have  examined  infectious  alterations,  tubercles,  abscesses,  etc. 
Other  sound  organs  are  incised  with  the  same  knives  and  are  in 
this  manner  artificially  infected. 

It  requires  no  detailed  argument  to  show  that  the  mere  wiping 
of  knives,  which  is,  perhaps,  never  neglected,  is  not  sufficient  to 
remove  infectious  material.* 

For  the  purpose  of  general  orientation  and  in  order  to  avoid 
repetitions  in  the  discussion  of  the  different  infectious  diseases,  the 
following  general  remarks  concerning  infectious  diseases  and  patho- 


*  In  order  to  prevent  the  bad  results  of  this  reprehensible  and  dangerous 
practice,  it  is  desirable  that  every  inspector  carry  with  him  in  the  abattoirs  two 
knives,  one  for  ordinary  use  and  the  other  for  use  in  examining  diseased  organs. 
If  a  knife  becomes  contaminated  with  virulent  material,  disinfection  may  be; 
easily  accomplished  by  passing  it  through  a  flame  after  a  previous  cleaning. 
This  procedure  offers  the  least  difficulty ,  since  flames  are  accessible  in  every  roomv 
of  an  abattoir. 


GENERAL  ACCOUNT  549 

;genic  bacteria  may  be  made  in  this  connection.  In  a  special  study 
i}f  bacteriology,  however,  one  should  not  fail  to  consult  Bauingarten, 
*' Pathologische  Mykologie";  for  bacteriological  technique,  Kitt, 
"  Bakterieukunde  und  Pathologische  Mikroscopie  ";  "and  for  animal 
diseases,  Friedberger  and  Fiohner,  "Pathologie  und  Therapie," 
^Vol.  II.  Many  statements  in  the  following  chapters  are  taken  from 
these  works. 

NATURE  AND  ETIOLOGY  OF  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES.  —  Infectious 
diseases  are  characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  are  either  trans- 
mitted by  natural  means  from  animal  to  animal  and  occasionally 
-acquire  an  extensive  distribution  (plagues),  or  are  artificially  trans- 
missible from  one  animal  to  another  (infectious  diseases  of  woundsj, 
.for  the  organisms  of  these  diseases  are  living  structures,  capable  of 
multiplication. 

Pathogenic  organisms  are  small  plants  (micro-organisms)  which 
were  formerly  included  among  schizomycetes.  The  schizomycetes, 
together  with  the  schizophytous  algae,  constitute  the  large  group  of 
schizophytes.  They  are  distinguished  from  related  plants  by  the 
absence  of  chlorophyl,  on  account  of  which,  like  other  fangi  and 
animals,  they  must  obtain  their  nutriment  from  organic  materials 
which  they  metabolize  in  a  peculiar  manner  (Zopf).  Since,  how- 
ever, it  has  been  shown  that  some  chlorophyl-bearing  organisms 
are  found  among  the  micro-organisms  in  question,  the  name  schizo- 
mycetes has  been  replaced  by  the  term  bacteria.  The  organisms 
of  infection  are  called  pathogenic  bacteria  in  contrast  with  the 
immense  number  of  saprophytic  bacteria  which  can  not  thrive  in 
living  tissue.  Saprophytic  bacteria,  to  which  the  large  group  of 
putrefactive  organisms  belongs,  find  suitable  conditions  of  growth 
only  when  a  portion  of  the  body  dies,  or  is  not  in  contact  with  other 
living  tissue  ;  as,  for  example,  when  the  blood  supply  in  the  part  in 
question  is  cut  off.  As  compared  with  the  pathogenic  bacteria,  the 
pathogenic  molds  play  only  a  subordinate  role  (see  page  325). 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  PATHOGENIC  BACTERIA. — The  bacteria  which 
are  pathogenic  for  domesticated  animals  are  either  cocci  (spherical 
bacteria)  or  bacilli  (rods).  Furthermore,  distinction  is  made 
according  to  form  between  Leptothrices  (thread  bacteria),  Strepto- 
thrices  (branched  bacteria)  and  Spirilla  (spiral  bacteria). 

The  cocci  are  further  classified  into  diplococci,  tetrads,  sarcinse, 
^streptococci  and  staphylococci. 


•£50  INKECTIOUS   DISEASES 

DIAGNOSIS  OF  BACTERIA. — The  morphological  differences  between 
"bacteria  constitute  an  important  means  of  recognition.  As  a  rule,, 
however,  the  form  alone  is  not  enough  for  the  identification  of  the 
species  of  bacteria ;  it  is  necessary  to  consider  their  characters  t. 
motility,  behavior  toward  stains,  growth  on  artificial  nutrient  media, 
appearance  of  pure  cultures,  production  of  certain  chemical  sub- 
stances, and  the  effect  of  an  artificial  inoculation  of  experimental 
animals. 

BIOLOGICAL  CHARACTERS  OF  PATHOGENIC  BACTERIA.— In  the 
artificial  cultivation  of  bacteria,  it  has  been  found  that  they  have 
the  power  of  growth  and  multiplication  only  under  definite  external 
conditions. 

All  bacteria  require  for  their  development  protein  in  an  easily 
assimilable  form,  salts,  moisture  and  a  certain  temperature.  The 
optimum  temperature  for  pathogenic  bacteria  is  that  of  the  blood. 
The  most  of  these  bacteria,  moreover,  grow  only  in  material  of  an 
alkaline  or  neutral  reaction. 

A  certain  proportion  of  pathogenic  bacteria  thrive  only  in  the 
presence  of  oxygen ;  for  example,  anthrax  bacilli.  These  bacteria 
are  called  aerobic  in  contrast  with  anaerobic  species  which  multiply 
only  when  oxygen  is  completely  excluded ;  as,  for  example,  the 
tetanus  bacillus.  This  difference  is  of  great  importance  for  meat 
Inspection,  for  anaerobic  bacteria  are  limited  to  local  development 
in  the  animal  body.  They  die  in  the  circulating  blood  for  the 
reason  that  it  carries  oxygen.  Aerobic  bacteria,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  not  form  spores  in  the  meat  of  food  animals,  since  they  do  not 
find  oxygen  in  this  material  (see  "Anthrax  "). 

In  the  experimental  inoculation  of  bacteria  into  animals  of 
different  species,  it  appears  that  their  infective  power  is  by  no 
means  the  same  for  all  animals.  Only  a  small  proportion  of 
bacteria  are  pathogenic  for  all  domesticated  animals  and  man — 
considering  only  these  species  for  the  present — (for  example,  the 
pyogenic  bacteria,  bacilli  of  anthrax,  tetanus  and  tuberculosis). 
The  majority  of  pathogenic  bacteria,  on  the  other  hand,  possess  a 
power  of  infection  merely  toward  a  certain  species  of  animal.  This 
elective  behavior  of  bacteria  is  of  great  significance  in  rendering 
judgment  on  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  infectious  diseases. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  of  pathology  that  the 
most  serious  diseases  of  animals  are  not  communicable  to  man. 
liinderpest,  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia,  blackleg  and  swine 
erysipelas  can  not  be  transmitted  to  man  in  any  form.  The  kumaiL 


GENERAL  551 

organism  appears  to  be  absolutely  immune  or  refractory  to  these 
plagues. 

We  seek  in  vain  for  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  highly 
remarkable  behavior  of  man  toward  the  majority  of  the  infectious 
diseases  of  domesticated  animals.  The  investigator  stands  here 
before  a  complete  mystery  of  nature,  for  the  solution  of  which  our 
wisdom  is  unavailing.  We  must  content  ourselves  with  a  demon- 
stration of  the  fact  that  the  human  organism  treats  the  majority  of 
bacteria  which  are  highly  pathogenic  for  animals  absolutely,  or  afc 
any  rate  when  taken  by  way  of  the  mouth,  as  saprophytes — that  is, 
as  harmless  plants  or  bacteria. 

In  a  number  of  other  extremely  devastating  diseases  of  domes- 
ticated animals  there  is,  to  be  sure,  no  absolute  immunity,  but  a 
more  or  less  complete  insusceptibility  to  infection  from  eating  the 
meat  of  animals  which  are  affected  with  those  diseases.  This  fact 
indicates  that  we  have  to  distinguish  between  bacteria  which  are 
transmissible  to  man  only  by  inoculation  into  the  skin  or  subcu- 
taneous tissue,  and  those  which  are  at  the  same  time  transmissible 
by  means  of  the  alimentary  tract  (compare  "Anthrax"). 

CHEMISM  OF  BACTERIA. — In  spite  of  their  microscopic  size, 
bacteria  develop  vigorous  chemical  activity.  They  produce  simple 
chemical  bodies  ;  for  example,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  hydrogen 
sulphid,  or  peculiar  organic  substances  the  chemical  composition  of 
which  is  less  understood  than  their  action.  We  are  under  obliga- 
tions to  Brieger  for  calling  attention  to  the  chemism  of  bacteria  and 
for  having  indicated  the  methods  by  which  it  is  possible  to  isolate 
the  poisons  (toxins)  produced  by  bacteria.  The  isolation  of  bacterial 
poisons  is  secured  most  easily  by  the  filtration  of  living  pure  cul- 
tures or  by  the  extraction  of  dead  cultures.  In  this  manner  the  best 
success  has  been  had  in  obtaining  the  poisonous  metabolic  products 
of  bacteria,  and  much  better  success  has  been  achieved  than  by 
means  of  complicated  methods  of  obtaining  them  in  a  pure  state, 
since  by  the  latter  methods  these  bodies  are  partly  destroyed. 

The  chemism  of  bacteria  is  very  important  for  meat  inspection, 
since  it  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  fact  that  bacteria,  although 
of  themselves  unable  to  produce  an  infection  in  man,  are,  however, 
capable  of  becoming  injurious  to  man  through  the  toxins  produced 
by  them  (see  "  Sausage  Poisoning  "). 

RESISTANCE  OF  BACTERIA  AND  THEIR  TOXINS  TO  HIGHER 
.DEGREES  OF  TEMPERATURE. — Most  pathogenic  bacteria  and  a  small 


552  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

percentage  of  the  toxins  formed  by  them  are  destroyed  by  a  high; 
degree  of  heat.  The  knowledge  of  this  fact  possessed  for  a  long 
time  merely  a  scientific  value.  For  the  poor  conductive  property 
of  meat  offered  considerable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  any  thor- 
ough heating  of  the  meat  to  a  high  temperature.  These  difficulties 
are  now  to  be  considered  as  obviated,  since  Hertwig  has  shown  that 
by  means  of  a  steam  cooking  apparatus  even  the  larger  pieces  of 
meat  may  readily  be  heated  to  the  temperature  of  100°  C.  This 
discovery  constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  steps  in  advance  in  the 
long  and  warmly  disputed  question  concerning  the  utilization  of 
the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  contagious  diseases. 

It  is  only  by  means  of  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  facts 
briefly  indicated  above,  and  which  we  owe  to  bacteriology,  that  we 
acquire  a  proper  understanding  of  the  nature  and  sanitary  police 
judgment  of  infectious  diseases.  These  facts  also  furnish  us 
important  criteria  for  dealing  with  the  meat  of  animals  affected 
with  contagious  diseases. 

1.— Putrid  Intoxication  and  Traumatic  Infectious  Diseases. 

(a)   Putrid  Intoxication  (Sapremia). 

NATURE  AND  ORIGIN. — In  bacteriology  distinction  is  made,  as 
already  indicated,  between  saprophytic  and  pathogenic  bacteria. 
The  former,  in  contrast  with  the  pathogenic  organisms,  thrive  only 
on  dead  bodies  or,  in  living  organisms,  only  on  such  parts  as  have 
lost  organic  connection  with  the  vital  operations  (masses  of  blood, 
secretions,  excretions,  necrotic  masses).  The  typical  saprophytic 
bacteria,  or  those  which  are  "strictly  obligate  saprophytes,"  are 
the  bacteria  of  putrefaction.  These  bacteria  are  found  only  on 
dead  parts  which  are  in  connection  with  the  outside  world,  and  not 
in  the  blood.  They  may,  however,  produce  acute  symptoms  of 
poisoning  since  they  possess  the  power  of  producing  poisonous  sub- 
stances which  may  pass  from  the  putrefactive  foci,  by  resorption, 
into  the  blood.  This  sort  of  poisoning  is  characterized  as  putrid 
intoxication  or  sapremia. 

A  possibility  of  the  development  of  sapremia  is  presented  in. 
<;ases  of  complicated  bone  fracture,  pulmonary  gangrene,  perfora- 
tive  peritonitis  and  traumatic  pericarditis,  as  well  as  in  cases  of 
placental  retention. 

A  clinically-pure  type  of  sapremia  is  perhaps  seldom  observed, 
in  practice.  As  a  rule,  sapremia  is  associated  with  previously- 


SAPREMIA  553 

^existing  diseases  (inflammations  of  the  lungs,  stomach  and  intes- 
tines, pericardium  and  peritoneum),  or,  secondarily,  local  and 
general  phenomena  of  an  infectious  nature  become  associated  with 
the  sapremic  processes,  as  in  cases  of  retentio  secundinarum.  This 
fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  rendering  judgment  on  the  meat  of 
sapremic  animals. 

Through  the  experimental  investigations  of  Panum,  Bergmann, 
Schmiedeberg,  Selmi,  Nencki,  and  especially  of  Brieger,  with  experi- 
mental animals,  we  have  been  made  acquainted  with  the  symptoms 
which  appear  after  artificial  inoculation  with  the  soluble  products 
of  putrefactive  bacteria.  The  result  is  an  acute  intoxication, 
ushered  in  with  symptoms  of  paralysis  and  spasms.  The  intoxica- 
tion may  rapidly  prove  fatal  with  symptoms  of  respiratory  paraly- 
sis, and  is  distinguished  from  infection  by  the  fact  that  it  possesses 
110  period  of  incubation  and  also  by  the  fact  that  it  occurs  the 
more  quickly  and  violently  the  larger  the  quantity  of  inoculated 
material,  and,  finally,  by  the  fact  that  the  disease  can  not  be  trans- 
mitted further  by  inoculation  with  parts  of  the  bodies  of  animals 
which  have  died  in  consequence  of  the  intoxication. 

With  regard  to  the  essential  nature  of  the  poisonous  metabolic 
products  of  putrefactive  bacteria,  the  prevailing  view  until  recent 
years  was  that  they  were  crystalline  bodies.  Brieger's  clever  and 
indefatigable  work  made  it  possible  for  him  to  isolate,  according  to 
his  own  method,  a  large  number  of  well  marked  crystalline  putre- 
factive products,  which,  in  accord  with  Selmi,  he  characterized  as 
ptomains.  To  this  group  belong  muscarin,  cholin,  cadavarin, 
putrescin,  neurin,  neuridin,  saprin,  etc.  Some  of  the  ptomaius  dis- 
covered by  Brieger  are  poisonous ;  others,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
non-poisonous.  At  present  the  doctrine  of  ptomains  is  declared 
to  be  "an  interesting  error."  Brieger  and  his  assistant,  Bock- 
lisch,  had  already  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  process 
of  obtaining  crystalline  bodies  from  decomposing  substances,  the 
toxicity  of  the  crystalline  substances  thus  obtained  was  consider- 
ably less  than  that  of  the  original  extract,  and  in  the  report  of  his 
^experiments  in  preparing  ptomains  from  decomposing  fish,  Bock- 
lisch  states  "  the  most  poisonous  properties  are  possessed  by  the 
extraction  fluid  freshly  obtained  from  putrefactive  broth.  During 
the  process  of  obtaining  the  bases,  the  toxicity  of  the  extract  is  more 
and  more  diminished  until  it  sometimes  disappears  entirely."  It  is 
now  considered  as  demonstrated  that  not  only  with  putrefactive 
organisms,  but  also  with  pathogenic  bacteria,  it  is  not  so  much  the 
crystalline  as  the  amorphous  metabolic  products  which  represent 


554  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

the  active  poisonous  bodies.  According  to  Brieger,  the  poisonous 
metabolic  products  of  bacteria,  in  contrast  with  the  ptomains,  are 
characterized  as  toxins. 

Findings  in  slaughtered  animals  affected  with  sapremia:  the 
presence  of  a  decomposing  area,  which  may  be  detected  by  its 
bad  odor ;  other  alterations,  particularly  of  the  parenchyma,  may 
be  entirely  absent. 

JUDGMENT. — No  investigations  have  been  made  concerning  the 
poisonous  or  non-poisonous  character  of  the  meat  of  sapremic  ani- 
mals. However,  from  the  investigations  of  Panum,  Bergmann, 
et  al,  we  know  that  fatal  intoxication  may  be  produced  in  experi- 
mental animals  by  subcutaneous,  intraperitoneal,  or  intravenous 
inoculation  of  the  soluble  metabolic  products  of  putrefactive  bac- 
teria. Furthermore,  we  know  from  the  history  of  cases  of  sausage 
poisoning  that  decomposing  substances  may  also  be  highly 
poisonous  when  taken  per  os.  It  should  also  be  noted,  as  already 
demonstrated  by  Panum,  and  as  is  frequently  shown  anew  by  spon- 
taneous poisoning  from  decomposing  substances,  that  the  poison- 
ous bodies  are  not  destroyed  by  boiling.  Decomposing  materials 
must,  therefore,  be  characterized  as  injurious  to  health. 

This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  true  of  the  meat  of  animals 
which  are  affected  with  putrid  intoxication  ;  for  the  living  cell  has 
the  power  of  destroying  the  substances  which  accumulate  in  decom- 
posing dead  meat.  We  may  best  study  this  point  in  cattle,  in  the 
frequent  cases  of  sapremia  without  fever  as  a  consequence  of 
retentio  secundinarum.  Animals  which  are  seriously  affected  recover 
rapidly  if  the  decomposing  material  is  removed  from  the  uterus  by 
repeated  irrigation  with  water.  Such  a  matter  could  not  be  thought 
of  in  cases  of  infectious  metritis  or  localization  of  pathogenic 
organisms  in  the  uterine  tissues.  In  sapremia,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  may  explain  this  result  without  reserve,  according  to  analogous, 
processes,  especially  the  behavior  of  the  organism  in  poisoning  by 
alkaloids  (see  Chapter  X),  by  the  fact  that  the  toxins  circulating  in 
the  blood  are  broken  up  by  the  vital  power  of  the  living  cell  into 
harmless  bodies,  so  that  the  organism  may  recover,  while  further 
Tesorption  of  these  substances  is  prevented. 

Brieger  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  normal  body  the 
larger  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal  is  a  focus  of  putrefaction  in 
which  the  poisonous  products  of  bacterial  life  are  formed.  A  por- 
tion of  these  products  (indol,  phenol,  cresol,  scatol,  derivatives  of 
the  aromatic  series)  unite  to  form  harmless  double  associations  by 


SAPBEMIA  555 

combination  with  sulphuric  acid,  or,  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  with 
glycuronic  acid  (a  derivative  of  sugar  in  the  circulating  blood). 

The  meat  of  animals  which  were  affected  merely  with  putrid 
intoxication  and  not  at  the  same  time  with  septicemia,  according  to 
this  theoretical  consideration,  can  not  be  considered  injurious  to 
health,  as  is  the  case  with  meat  which  undergoes  decomposition 
post  mortem.  This  assumption  receives  substantial  support  from 
the  experimentally  demonstrated  fact  that  the  blood  of  animals 
dead  of  putrid  intoxication  does  not  show  a  toxic  action  in  inocula- 
tion experiments,  and  also  by  the  fact,  well  known  to  all  practicing, 
veterinarians,  that,  annually,  large  quantities  of  meat  of  animals 
which  are  affected  with  stinking  processes  are  eaten  without  harm. 
Thus,  the  meat  of  nearly  all  cattle  affected  with  traumatic  peri- 
carditis is  eaten  without  a  single  case  of  disease  having  been 
observed  as  a  result.  Moreover,  in  the  literature  of  meat  poisoning, 
no  case  of  pericarditis  is  mentioned  as  a  cause  of  disease. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  meat  from  the  frequent  cases  of  per- 
forative  peritonitis  in  cattle.    The  author  has  observed  a  large  num- 
ber of  cases  of  traumatic  peritonitis  with  a  malodorous  exudatic  n,,. 
in  which  the  meat  was  eaten  without  any  ill  consequences. 

In  the  literature  of  the  subject  one  case  of  meat  poisoning  is 
mentioned  which  was  apparently  due  to  perforative  peritonitis. 
This  is  the  case  of  meat  poisoning  in  Garmisch  (Bollinger).  In 
Oarmisch,  however,  it  was  merely  the  consumption  of  the  diseased 
organs  which  caused  the  acute  symptoms  of  intoxication,  while  the 
meat  proper  or  musculature  was  only  slightly  or  not  at  all 
poisonous. 

Only  inflammations  of  the  uterus  with  stinking  exudation  must 
be  considered  as  very  dangerous  with  regard  to  the  consumption  of 
the  meat  (see  "Septicemia  "). 

In  traumatic  pericarditis  of  cattle,  it  is  a  striking  fact  that  fever 
is  almost  uniformly  absent  during  life  and  that  after  emergency 
slaughter  the  parenchyma  of  the  liver,  heart  and  kidneys,  as  well  as 
the  skeletal  musculature,  shows  a  perfectly  normal  structure,  rather 
than  cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  metamorphosis,  as  observed  in  septic 
diseases.  In  cases  of  traumatic  pericarditis,  the  animals  die,  in  the 
vast  majority  of  cases,  not  with  symptoms  of  intoxication,  but  from 
mechanical  obstruction  of  the  cardiac  action  by  means  of  foreign 
bodies  which  have  penetrated  the  heart,  or  by  the  exudate  caused 
by  these  bodies. 

Traumatic  pericarditis,  in  so  far  as  the  judgment  of  the  meat  is 
concerned,  must  be  assigned  a  special  position  among  the  inflam— 


556  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

inatory  diseases  which  are  ushered  in  with  decomposition  of  the 
oxudate.  I  take  side  with  the  long  customary  practice,  from  the 
standpoint  of  practical  veterinarians,  of  assigning  the  meat  of  such 
animals  to  the  freibank  as  an  inferior  food  material.  It  may,  how- 
ever, occur  that  tht>  edematous  infiltration  of  the  musculature,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  obstruction  to  the  circulation,  or  ichorous  infarcts 
in  the  lungs,  spleen  and  kidneys,  in  consequence  of  the  perforation, 
of  the  muscle  of  the  heart  by  foreign  bodies,  may  make  necessary 
the  absolute  exclusion  of  the  meat  from  market. 

In  all  other  processes,  however,  in  which  there  is  not  such 
-a  typical  course  of  the  disease  or  such  an  abundance  of  experi- 
mental material  as  in  the  case  of  traumatic  pericarditis,  the  meat 
must  be  regarded  as  calculated  to  injure  human  health.  This 
judgment  is  indicated  especially  in  putrefactive  processes  in  the 
uterus  on  account  of  its  frequent  complication  with  septic  metritis. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  persons  who  have  eaten  the  meat  of 
animals  affected  with  perforative  peritonitis  or  retentio  secundinarum 
uniformly  assert  that  the  meat  and  meat  broth  possesses  a  pro- 
jnounced  odor  of  decomposition.  For  this  reason  alone  the  meat  in 
the  diseases  in  question  (perforative  peritonitis  and  retentio  secundi- 
narum) should  be  absolutely  excluded  from  market  as  highly  unfit 
for  food. 


(b)  Pyemia  (Generalization  of  Purulent  Processes). 

NATURE. — This  disease  has  been  defined  as  a  blood  poisoning 
-with  the  appearance  of  metastases.  In  order  rightly  to  understand 
the  nature  of  pyemia,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  briefly  the  condi- 
tions of  local  suppuration. 

Suppurations  belong  to  the  more  frequent  pathological  pro- 
cesses. They  appear  upon  the  mucous  membranes  as  purulent 
catarrh  ;  upon  the  serous  membranes  as  purulent  discharges  ;  and 
in  the  tissues  of  various  organs  as  purulent  infiltrations  or 
-abscesses.  These  processes  may — and  this  is  usually  the  case — run 
•a  local  course,  or,  exceptionally,  they  may  become  general.  In  the 
latter  case,  we  speak  of  pyemia. 

Pyemia  occurs  in  various  forms.  The  essential  point,  however, 
is  that  purulent  processes  may  be  set  up  far  from  the  orginal  focus 
of  suppuration,  through  the  agency  of  the  circulation,  either  in  the 
form  of  metastatic  abscesses  or  of  an  inflammation  of  the  bone 
-marrow,  osteomyelitis.  Abscesses  which  simply  arise  in  the  coursa 


PYEMIA  557. 

of  the  lymphatic    vessels,  as,  for   example,   the   formation   of  ai* 
abscess  in  the  corresponding  lymph  gland  in  contagious  coryza,  dov 
not  fall  under  the  head  of  pyemia. 

ETIOLOGY. — Long  before  an  accurate  bacteriological  investiga- 
tion of  suppurative  processes  had  been  made,  Hiiter  stated  the 
maxim,  "  no  suppuration  without  living  micro-organisms."  While- 
this,  perhaps,  can  not  be  accepted  without  reserve,  and  while  it  must 
be  admitted  that  there  are  pure  chemical  suppurations  or  those' 
produced  by  chemical  irritants,  it  is,  nevertheless,  certain  that  the> 
great  majority  of  suppurative  processes,  at  least  of  those  which, 
possess  interest  for  us  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  their  gener- 
alization, are  of  bacterial  origin. 

FIG.  190.  FIG.  191. 

%"         *  N 

*.  *         * 

/  / 

f  v/     ' 


*    " 


» 


/ 


Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  Streptococcus  pyogenes  in  microscopic 

from  a  pure  culture  on  agar-agar.  pure  culture  in  pus  from  a  horse. 

X  500  diameters.  X  500  diameters. 

In  the  etiology  of  suppurations,  two  bacterial  organisms  are 
chiefly  concerned,  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  and  Streptococcus 
pyogenes.  There  are  bacilli,  however,  which  possess  the  power  of* 
producing  suppuration. 

Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  first  described  and  named  by 
Ogston,  possesses  the  power  of  transforming  protein  into  pep- 
tones and  thus  of  liquefying  solid  tissues.  Furthermore,  S.  pyogenes 
aureus,  like  pathogenic  staphylococci  in  general,  forms  two  sorts  of 
blood  poisons  which  are  to  be  considered  as  toxins  in  the  narrower 
sense  and,  together  with  the  poisons  of  the  bodies  of  the  cocci,, 
exercises  an  influence  upon  the  symptoms  of  staphylomycosisr 
(Neisser  and  Wechsberg).  According  to  investigations  on  manr. 
S.  pyogenes  aureus  is  found  chiefly  in  local  suppurations,  hot 
abscesses,  phlegmons,  suppurations  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  trau- 
matic suppuration  of  the  articular  and  synovial  membranes,  sup- 
puratiot  of  the  parotid  gland,  idiopathic  cerebrospinal  meningitis, 


-558  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

and  other  diseases.  Moreover,  it  is  usually  demonstrable  in  acute 
osteomyelitis  as  well  as  in  bacterial  endocarditis  of  man.  Finally, 
S.  pyogenes  aureus  occurs  in  typical  secondary  metastatic  abscesses. 
In  pyemic  metastases  it  is,  according  to  Baumgarten,  less  frequent 
than  Streptococcus  pyogenes. 

In  the  blood,  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  is  found  only  excep- 
tionally during  traumatic  fever  and  even  then  quite  sparingly. 
An  extensive  multiplication  of  this  organism  within  the  circulating 
blood  never  occurs  (Baumgarten).  In  the  etiology  of  bacterial 
endocarditis,  several  conditions  (pre-existing  lesions  of  the  intro- 
duction of  Staphylococcus  in  large  masses  of  pus)  appear  to  play 

FIG.  192. 


Streptococcus  pyogenes  in  pus,  stained  by  the  Gram  method. 

-an  important  part.  Incidentally  it  may  be  mentioned  that 
terial  endocarditis,  especially  the  ulcerating  form,  in  consequence 
of  the  dissemination  of  infectious  valvular  deposits,  may  easily 
give  rise  to  typical  pyemia. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  Bosenbach  and  others, 
Streptococcus  pyogenes,  in  contrast  with  Staphylococcus  pyogenes 
aureus,  is  found  in  suppurations  "which  are  distinguished  by  a 
tendency  to  superficial  growth,  and  a  slow,  persistent,  progressive 
and  relatively  slight  tendency  to  the  destruction  of  the  affected 
tissue."  This  peculiarity  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  Strepto-  ' 
coccus  pyogenes  possesses  a  weaker  peptonizing  power  than  the 
Staphylococcus.  This  fact  explains,  as  Baumgarten  states,  the 
clinically  highly  important  difference  between  the  two  species  oi 


PYEMIA  559 

bacteria;  viz.,  that  suppurations  caused  by  streptococcus  lead 
to  a  general  infection  and  to  the  formation  of  purulent  metas- 
tases  much  more  frequently  than  do  the  diseases  caused  by  staphy- 
lococcus. 

The  demonstration  of  suppurative  staphylococcus  is  simple. 
They  may  be  beautifully  demonstrated  by  the  ordinary  staining 
methods  and  by  Gram's  method  (Fig.  192).  Besides  Staphylococcus 
yyogenes  aureus  and  Streptococcus  pyogenes,  Staphylococcus  albus  and 
S.  citreus,  which,  on  account  of  their  great  similarity  to  S.  pyogenes 
aureust  are  characterized  as  varieties  of  the  latter,  are  found  in 
purulent  foci.  These  two  cocci  are  usually  found  associated  with 
&  pyogenes  aureus.  They  are,  moreover,  of  rare  occurrence  and  it 
is  also  doubtful  whether  they  possess  pyogenic  properties. 

The  streptococcus  of  erysipelas  (Fehleisen)  is  identical  with. 
Streptococcus  pyogenes. 

Bacillus  pyogenes  fcetidus,  which  has  been  isolated  from  abscesses 
with  odoriferous  contents,  produces  a  stinking  suppuration. 

The  above  described  micro-organisms  are  found  most  fre- 
quently in  suppurative  foci  in  man.  In  pus  in  domesticated  ani- 
mals, however,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  staphylococcus  and  strepto- 
coccus, as  well  as  pyogeuic  bacilli,  may  be  demonstrated.  An 
accurate  determination  of  the  relative  frequency  of  these  bacterial 
organisms  in  the  abscesses  of  domesticated  animals  would  be  a 
profitable  field  of  simple  bacteriological  investigation.  Lucet  made 
a  careful  investigation  of  52  cases  in  cattle,  32  of  which  were  acute 
abscesses  in  different  parts  of  the  body,  9  cases  of  traumatic  sup- 
puration, 7  cases  of  puerperal  pyemia  and  4  other  cases  of  pyemia. 
In  these  investigations  Lucet  found  streptococci  alone  9  times, 
staphylococcus  alone  twice,  Bacillus  pyogenes  bovis  alone  6  times, 
B.  liquefaciens  pyogenes  bovis  alone  4  times  and  B.  crassus  pyogenes 
bovis  alone  once. 

In  the  other  cases  the  different  bacterial  organisms  were 
massed  together  or  were  associated  with  other  bacteria.  Lucet  is 
of  the  opinion  that  the  pyogenic  cocci  of  cattle  are  different  from 
those  of  man  and  are  to  be  considered  as  distinct  species  (Strepto- 
coccus and  Staphylococcus  pyot/enes  bovis).  Whether  or  not  this 
assumption  is  well  founded  is  still  doubtful.  Bacillus  pyogenes 
bovis  appears  to  be  identical  with  B.  bovis  renalis  (see  page  307). 
B.  liquefaciens  pyogenes  bovis  is  non-motile,  liquefies  gelatin,  and 
intravenous  inoculations  of  rabbits  produce  abscesses  under  the 
aponeuroses.  B.  crassus  bovis  is  motile,  grows  readily,  does  not 
liquefy  gelatin  and  forms  drawn  out  threads  in  bouillon.  It  kills 


560  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

guinea-pigs,  when  given  in  intraperitoneal  injections,  in  from  36  to 
48  hours. 

De  Jong  isolated  from  metastatic  abscesses  in  cattle  a  staphy- 
lococcus  which  resembled  in  many,  but  not  all  its  properties,  the 
Stapliylococcus  bovis  of  Lucet.  The  staphylococcus  of  De  Jong  does 
not  liquefy  gelatin  and  is  thereby  distinguished  from  S.  pyogenes 
aureus  and  albus.  On  slant  gelatin  cultures,  the  staphylococcus 
forms  either  yellowish  round  colonies  or  a  yellow  surface  growth 
which  may  occasionally  assume  a  golden  color.  On  agar  and 
glycerin-agar  growth  is  very  luxuriant.  It  is  possible  to  make  the 
staphylococcus  develop  a  white  or  yellowish  color  at  will,  according 
as  the  culture  is  kept  at  37°  C.  or  at  the  ordinary  living  tempera- 
ture. The  latter  temperature  produces  a  yellow  color.  The  size 
varies  between  0.6  and  1  /*.  De  Jong's  staphylococcus  proved  to 
be  non-pathogenic  for  dogs,  rabbits  and  guinea-pigs  in  subcutane- 
ous, intravenous  and  intraperitoneal  injections.  When  injected 
into  the  anterior  eye  chamber  of  rabbits,  however,  it  produces  a 
purulent  iritis,  and,  in  dogs,  when  injected  in  the  same  manner,  it 
produces  ophthalmitis  or  purulent  iritis  and  keratitis. 

In  infectious  pleuro-peritonitis  of  hogs,  which  is  ushered  in 
with  multiple  abscess  formation  and  adhesion  of  the  parietal  and 
visceral  layers,  Grips  demonstrated  extremely  minute  bacteria.  In 
form,  they  possess  a  certain  resemblance  to  the  organisms  of  swine 
plague,  but  take  the  stain  in  toto.  They  liquefy  blood  serum  and 
when  injected  into  the  body  cavity  of  rabbits  produce  a  purulent 
peritonitis. 

Generalization  of  purulent  processes  by  the  formation  of  meta- 
stases  is  possible  in  two  ways : 

1.  By  dissemination  of  the  pyogenic  organisms  through  the 
lymphatic  glands  by  means  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  into  the  blood 
circulation. 

2.  By  infectious  emboli  which  become  separated  from  the  local 
thrombi  in  the  region  of  the  primary  focus  of  suppuration. 

Metastases  appear  first  in  the  lungs  (with  the  exception  of 
pyemia  in  consequence  of  umbilical  thrombo-phlebitis,  see  page 
564).  Individual  bacterial  organisms,  however,  or  small  emboli 
may  pass  through  and  beyond  the  lungs,  since  the  pulmonary 
capillaries  are  large  as  compared  with  the  capillaries  of  the- 
systemic  circulation.  Moreover,  the  origin  of  extensive  metastatic 
foci,  in  organs  of  the  systemic  blood  circulation,  is  connected 
with  the  formation  of  infectious  thrombi  in  the  pulmonary  venous* 
•  system. 


PYEMIA  561 

SLAUGHTER  FINDINGS. — The  anatomical  characteristics  of  pyemia 
are,  as  already  mentioned,  of  two  kinds  : 

1.  Local  suppuration  and  the  presence  of  osteomyelitis  (chiefly 
pyemia  due  to  staphylococci). 

2.  Local  suppuration  and  the  presence  of  multiple    puriform 
and  purulent  foci  in  other    organs    (chiefly  pyemia  due  to  strep- 
tococci). 

In  food  animals,  the  first  form  may  occur  after  suppurations 
with  obstructed  discharge  of  pus  (for  example,  in  the  horny  part  of 
the  hoof  and  claws,  joints,  etc.).  The  second  form  appears  most 
frequently  in  connection  with  suppurative  processes  in  the  umbilical 
Tern  (purulent  umbilical  thrombo-phlebitis),  in  the  lungs,  and  after 
suppurative  inflammations  of  the  uterus.  Furthermore,  in  cases  of 
extensive  phlegmonous  processes,  metastatic  abscesses  may  be 
formed  under  the  general  integument  and  under  the  cutis  of  the 
hoof  as  well  as  in  purulent  inflammation  of  the  joints  and  sheaths  of 
the  tendons. 

JUDGMENT  OF  PYEMIA  FROM  A  SANITARY  POLICE  STANDPOINT. — 
While,  according  to  the  above  discussion,  locally  restricted  abscesses 
ushered  in  with  granulations  and  opening  to  the  outside  world,  as 
well  as  purulent  catarrh  of  the  mucous  membranes,  viz.,  fluor  albus, 
must  be  considered  as  of  no  importance  as  far  as  the  meat  is  con- 
cerned, and  while,  therefore,  at  most  the  meat  may  become  a  spoiled 
food  material  in  consequence  of  emaciation  due  to  suppuration,  the 
conditions  are  quite  otherwise  in  case  of  generalization  of  the  pro- 
cess. The  meat  of  pyemic  animals  must,  as  a  rule,  be  considered 
as  capable  of  injuring  human  health.  As  evidence  of  this,  we  have 
the  experiments  which  were  carried  out  by  Karlinski  and  also  cases 
of  disease  in  man  after  eating  the  meat  of  pyemic  animals,  or  the 
milk  of  cows  which  were  suffering  from  streptococcal  mastitis. 

Karlinski  fed  milk  which  contained  Staphylococcus  pyogenes 
aureus  to  young  pigs,  rabbits  and  cats,  and  in  forty-eight  hours 
observed  a  general  infection  in  six  cases  (staphylococci  in  the  blood), 
purulent  parotitis  in  five  cases,  acute  intestinal  catarrh  with  fatal 
results  in  seventeen  cases,  and  general  infection  with  the  formation 
of  miliary  pus  foci  in  the  liver  and  kidneys  in  eight  cases. 

Hoist  observed  four  epidemics  of  moderate  extent  in  man  after 
drinking  milk  which  came  from  cows  affected  with  mastitis  and 
which  contained  staphylococci  which  were  not  distinguishable  from 
S.  pyogenes.  The  persons  in  question  were  affected  with  an  acute 
catarrh  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  diarrhea. 


562  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

In  addition  to  the  cases  of  meat  poisoning  in  Rohrsdorf  and 
Priedberg  (q.  v.),  which  were,  perhaps,  clue  to  eating  the  meat  of 
pyemic  animals,  we  have  another  unexceptionable  observation  con- 
cerning the  injuriousness  of  the  meat  from  cases  of  pyemia.  In 
Corres,  near  Maulbronn  (Wiirtemburg),  a  large  number  of  persons, 
according  to  Dambacher,  became  ill  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  cow 
which  was  affected  with  osteomyelitis  as  a  sequela  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  All  of  the  persons  who  bought  the  meat  asserted 
that  the  marrow  in  the  bones  had  become  so  purulent  and  fluid  that 
it  ran  out  of  the  bones  upon  cutting  up  the  meat.  The  persons  who 
ate  the  meat  suffered  from  a  general  uncomfortable  feeling,  pains  in  ; 
the  body  and  diarrhea,  associated  in  one  case  with  dizziness  and 
faintness. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  Stapliylococcus  pyogenes  aureus, 
despite  the  fact  that  it  possesses  no  spores,  is  characterized  by  its 
great  resisting  powers.  Thus,  heating  to  a  temperature  of  99°  C. 
does  not  kill  it  with  certainty.  At  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  it  is 
necessary  that  the  heat  be  maintained  for  one  hour  in  order  to 
destroy  the  organism  completely.  Live  steam,  however,  quickly 
renders  the  staphylococcus  inactive. 

EXCEPTIONS  TO  THE  GENERAL  JUDGMENT  CONCERNING  PYEMIA. — 
The  meat  of  pyemic  animals  must,  as  a  rule,  be  considered  as 
injurious  to  health.  There  are,  however,  cases  of  pyemia  which 
form  an  exception  to  this  rule,  namely,  chronic  metastatic  abscess  of 
the  second  form.  The  form  of  pyemia  which  is  ushered  in  with  the 
formation  of  metastases  in  the  internal  organs  may  heal.  The 
pyemia  of  osteomyelitis,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  heal.  This 
always  causes  death  if  the  latter  is  not  forestalled  by  emergency 
slaughter. 

The  healing  of  metastatic  pus  foci  takes  place  in  consequence 
of  connective  tissue  encapsulation.  The  tense,  anemic,  cicatricial 
tissue  which  forms  around  the  focus  renders  the  latter  perfectly 
harmless  for  the  organism  (elimination  from  the  blood  and 
lymphatic  circulation),  and  the  animal  must  be  regarded  as  recovered 
when  the  primary  focus  has  healed  with  or  without  artificial  aid. 
Such  cases  of  healed  pyemia  are  not  rare  in  food  animals.  Their 
differentiation  from  acute  cases  offers  no  difficulties. 

With  the  presence  of  fresh  infectious  infarcts  or  puriform  and 
purulent  metastases  are  connected  parenchymatous  cloudiness  of  a 
mild  form,  splenic  tumor  and  petechial  spots  in  the  kidneys  similar  < 
to  those  in  cases  of  osteomyelitis.      If,   on  the  other    hand,   the  ' 


PYEMIA  563 

purulent  foci  in  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  other  organs  are 
encapsulated,  the  parenchymatous  tissues  appear  to  be  absolutely 
unchanged.  Moreover,  the  nutritive  condition  in  cases  where  the 
metastatic  foci  are  encapsulated  is  not  in  the  least  disturbed,  while 
in  ncuta  pyemia  it  is  always  affected  in  a  pronounced  manner. 
It  ifl  not  a  rare  occurrence  that  in  well-fattened  older  calves, 
us  well  as  in  fat  steers,  the  liver  is  permeated  with  numerous 
-abscesses  which  owe  their  origin  to  a  suppurative  inflammation 
of  the  umbilical  veins  or  to  an  old  case  of  inflammation  of  the 
intestines. 

In  cases  where  the  metastases  of  the  second  form  of  pyemia  are 
healed,  the  meat  is  therefore  to  be  considered  as  harmless  in  con- 
trast with  osteomyelitis,  in  which  a  similar  process  of  healing  is  not 
observed. 

Special  Forms  of  Pyemia  and  Their  Anatomical  Characters. 

1.  Bacterial  endocarditis  appears  either  in  the  form  of  ulcers  or 
granulations  and  tubercles  on  the    valves.     Only    the    first  form 
possesses  sanitary  police  significance,  on  account  of  the  possibility 
of  the  formation  of  metastases.     Bacterial  endocarditis  is  regarded 
;as  an  independent  form  of  pyemia,  for  the  reason  that  the  point  of 
•entrance  of  the  suppurative  bacteria  as  a  rule  can  not  be  demon- 
strated (cryptogenetic  pyemia). 

Ulcerous  endocarditis  with  the  formation  of  metastases  is  not 
-very  frequent  in  food  animals.  As  an  evidence  of  the  existence  of 
Ihis  disease,  we  have  the  presence  in  food  animals  of  abscesses 
Tvhich  occur  most  frequently  in  the  lungs  and  spleen. 

2.  Osteomyelitis  may  also  be  cryptogenetic.     As  a  rule,  how- 
-ever,  it  is  connected  with  easily-demonstrable  suppurations  in  the 
iioof,  claws,  joints,  etc.,  when,  in  consequence  of  obstruction  to  the 
escape  of  the  pus,  chronic  abscesses  are  formed,  or,  when  other 
favorable  conditions  are  present,  for  the  resorption  of  the  suppura- 
tive bacteria. 

Diagnosis. — The  bone  marrow  is  at  first  reddened  and  some- 
times permeated  with  hemorrhages  (hemorrhagic  osteomyelitis). 
In  cases  of  long  standing,  the  reddened  color,  which  in  the  acute 
*»tage  may  show  through  the  thinner  bones  (as  in  the  lower  jaw),  is 
•diminished,  while  the  marrow  assumes  a  purulent  fluid  character, 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  flows  out  of  the  artificially  opened  marrow- 
cavities.  Furthermore,  the  periosteum,  especially  in  the  regions  , 


564 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


of  the  articulations,  and  the  articular  surfaces  and  the  capsules?- 
show  ulcerative  alterations. 

3.  The  Pyemic  Form  of  So-called  Lameness  of  New-born  Ani- 
mals.— As  a  result  of  purulent  infection  of  the  umbilical  vein,  winch- 
is  a  frequent  occurrence  in  calves,  suppurative  bacteria,  or  particles 

FIG.  193. 


Beef  heart  with  valvular  ulcerous  endocarditis,  a,  cut  surface  of  the  thrombus  on 
the  ulcerous  cardiac  valve;  6,  base  of  the  thrombus  after  artificial  separation* 
from  the  substratum ;  c,  ulcerous  part  of  the  cardiac  valve. 

of  abscess  material,  contaminated  with  the  purulent  bacteria,  may 
be  carried  to  the  liver  and,  after  passing  through  the  capillary  sys- 
tem of  the  liver,  may  reach  the  lungs  and  from  this  point  may 
reach  all  other  organs  by  means  of  the  systemic  circulation. 
Apparently  the  further  development  of  the  process  depends  upon, 
whether  the  suppurative  bacteria  are  isolated  or  obtain  entrance 


PYEMIA  56£ 

into  tlie  circulation  in  connection  with  particles  of  pus.  Especially 
in  general  infections  which  occur  immediately  after  birth  and 
without  macroscopicallj  conspicuous  alterations  of  the  stump  ol 
the  umbilical  cord,  one  observes  purulent  processes  in  the  joints 
and  in  the  surrounding  tissue  (pyemic  polyarthritis),  not  extending 
into  the  liver  and  lungs.  The  disease  becomes  noticeable  by  the 
appearance  of  fluctuating  tumors  on  the  joints.  Most  frequently 
the  carpal  and  tarsal  joint,  less  often  the  elbow  and  knee  joints, 
and,  finally,  the  hip  joint,  may  become  affected. 

These  are  the  usual  clinical  symptoms  of  so-called  lameness  of 
calves.  In  abattoirs,  however,  one  frequently  meets  with  other 
alterations  which  in  their  ensemble  must  be  likewise  characterized 
as  a  pyemic  form  of  calf  lameness.  Reference  is  here  had  to 
single  or  numerous  abscesses  in  the  liver,  occasionally  also  in  the 
lungs,  together  with  a  primary  purulent  focus  in  the  navel. 
These  metastases,  as  already  stated,  usually  do  not  become  apparent 
clinically,  but  are  quite  unexpectedly  found  in  well-nourished  calves 
and  older  cattle  after  slaughter. 

The  last-named  metastasis  possesses  a  decided  tendency  to 
connective  tissue  encapsulation,  while  this  process  takes  place 
less  frequently  and  at  a  later  stage  in  purulent  processes  in  the 
joints  and  surrounding  tissue.  If  the  arthritic  and  periarthritic 
abscesses  are  actually  isolated  in  the  above-mentioned  manner,  we 
find  at  the  same  time  that  the  intestines  are  perfectly  intact  (never 
cloudiness  or  petechiae)  and  the  nutritive  condition  good.  In  such 
cases  it  is  sufficient  to  remove  the  diseased  joints  and  surround- 
ing tissue,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  cases  of  encapsuled  metastases 
in  the  liver  and  lungs.  The  removal  of  these  organs  suffices  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  the  harmful  parts  of  the  meat.  If,  in 
spite- of  the  encapsulation,  a  disturbance  of  the  nutritive  condition 
-  exists,  the  meat  is  to  be  regarded  as  spoiled. 

In  acute,  non-encapsuled  abscesses,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
meat  is  to  be  put  in  the  same  class  with  organs  affected  with  puru- 
lent processes. 

With  regard  to  the  etiology  of  lameness  in  new-born  animals, 
•Omelin,  in  the  case  of  an  affected  calf,  found  bacteria  which, 
according  to  their  morphological  and  biological  characters,  were  to 
be  classified  with  the  group  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia.  The  bac- 
teria isolated  by  Gmelin  had  the  power  of  producing  symptoms  of 
lameness  in  experimental  calves.  Zschokke,  from  the  diseased 
joints  of  calves  suffering  with  lameness,  made  cultures  of  Bac- 
terium colit  which,  after  intravenous  injection,  produced  a  mild  case 


566  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

of  polyarthritis  in  a  calf.  Casper  and  the  author  found  pyogeuic 
streptococci  in  colts,  and  Sohnle,  pyogenie  staphylococci  as  the 
cause  of  lameness. 

4.  Pyemia  After  Swine  Plague. — In  swine  plague,  it  sometimes? 
occurs  that,  in  cases  which  do  not  run  a  fatal  course,  some  or  all 
of  the  diseased  parts  of  the  lungs,  instead  of  healing,  fuse  together 
in  consequence  of  the  secondary  localization  of  purulent  bacteria. 
Pyemia  may  arise  from  these  foci.  If  such  is  the  case,  one  may 
observe  abscesses  in  the  liver,  spleen,  and,  most  numerously,  in  the 
skeletal  musculature,  which  condition  is  rare  in  other  forms  of 
pyemia. 

These  pyemic  hogs  are,  almost  without  exception,  poorly* 
nourished  and,  in  part,  exhibit  the  symptoms  of  hydremic  cachexia^ 
Since  there  can  be  no  possibility  of  removing  muscle  abscesses,, 
even  in  case  of  complete  encapsulation,  the  meat  of  the  animals  in 
question  must  always  be  considered  as  injurious  to  health  and  unfit 
for  food. 

Cases  of  pyemia,  as  a  result  of  swine  plague,  are  not  frequenL. 
As  a  rule,  the  purulent  lung  areas  are  encapsuled  in  a  sac-like  form^ 

Similarly  as  in  swine  plague,  pyemia  may  develop  in  infectious- 
pneumonia  of  calves,  sheep  and  goats. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  cattle  a  process  of 
liealing  by  multiple  encapsulation  occurs  with  comparative  fre- 
quency, even  in  cases  of  extensive  suppurations  in  the  abdominal 
cavity.  Thus,  in  cattle  one  frequently  meets  with  hypophrenic- 
abscesses  which  occupy  a  position  between  the  diaphragm  and  the 
kidneys.  In  spite  of  their  enormous  volume  these  abscesses 
in  the  encapsulated  condition  do  not  badly  affect  the  general  health, 
and  nutritive  condition  of  the  animals.  In  removing  these 
abscesses,  the  greatest  precaution  should  be  taken  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  pus  from  flowing  over  the  meat  in  consequence  of  cutting^ 
the  wall  of  the  abscess.  If  such  an  accident  happens,  it  is  not 
sufficient  that  the  meat  be  washed.  The  parts  which  are  con- 
taminated with  pus  must  be  carefully  cut  away  with  a  knife  and,  ia. 
so  far  as  the  peritoneum  and  pleura  are  contaminated,  these  struc- 
tures must  be  removed. 

(c)  Septicemia. 

NATURE. — Septicemia  is  defined  as  a  malignant  general  disease 
usually  associated  with  external  lesions  and  without  localization  ira 


SEPTICEMIA  567 

the  internal  organs.  This  definition  agrees  with  the  clinical  and 
anatomical  findings.  More  detailed  etiological  investigations,  how- 
ever, are  required,  especially  in  the  domesticated  animals,  before 
we  will  know  exactly  what  factors  are  of  importance  in  the  origin 
of  septicemia. 

ETIOLOGY. — It  has  been  demonstrated  empirically  that  after 
accidental  wounds  or  operative  interference  on  such  parts  of  the 
body  as  offer  especially  favorable  conditions  for  resorption  (the 
large  body  cavities,  joints,  sheaths  of  the  tendons)  serious  disturb- 
ances of  the  general  condition  may  develop,  often  with  a  rapidly 
fatal  attack.  Under  certain  conditions,  the  dreaded  symptoms 
appear  after  insignificant  injuries  of  the  skin  or  mucous  mem- 
branes. The  freshly-torn  navel  cord  of  new-born  animals  and  the 
uterus  post  partum  are  predisposed  in  a  high  degree  to  the  develop- 
ment of  sepsis. 

In  ante-bacteriological  times,  it  was  considered  sufficient  to  use 
the  term  "  blood  poisoning "  as  an  explanation  of  the  nature  of 
sepsis.  In  fact,  the  rapid  course  and  the  pathologico-anatomical 
findings  in  septicemia  present  a  striking  similarity  with  simple 
intoxications,  as,  for  example,  with  arsenic  and  phosphorous 
poisoning. 

The  first  positive  knowledge  concerning  septicemia,  applicable, 
however,  at  first  only  to  experimental  animals,  was  obtained  by 
means  of  the  classical  investigations  of  Robert  Koch  concerning  the 
infectious  diseases  of  wounds.  In  his  experiments,  Koch  attacked 
the  problem  of  the  extent  to  which  decomposition  processes  stand 
in  relation  to  septieemia.  He  injected  decomposing  substances 
under  the  skin  of  experimental  animals  and  thus  determined  that 
the  latter  are  quickly  killed  by  the  use  of  large  doses  without  the 
multiplication  of  bacteria  in  the  blood  or  internal  organs  (sapremia), 
while  when  smaller  doses  were  administered,  typical  bacterial 
diseases  appeared  (septicemia).  The  latter  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups  : 

1.  Diseases  with  a  purely  local  multiplication  of  specific  bac- 
teria at  the  point  of  inoculation. 

2.  Diseases  in  which  there  is  a  simultaneous  entrance  of  the 
bacteria  into  the  blood  circulation. 

In  the  case   of  the  first  group,  we  may  explain  the  origin  of 

intoxication  only  by  assuming  the  resorption  of  poisonous  metabolic 

products  of  the  locally-multiplying  bacteria.     In  the  second  group, 

,011  the  other  hand,  as  stated  by  Baumgarten,  we  are  compelled  "  to 


568  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

postulate  the  cooperation  of  soluble  toxic  substances  in  producing 
the  symptoms  of  disease."  The  enormous  mass  of  micro-organisms 
multiplying  in  the  blood  is  held  to  be  sufficient  to  produce  the 
symptoms  of  disease  and  death.  Typical  representatives  of  the 
second  septicemia  group  are  found  in  rabbit  and  mouse  septicemia. 
Moreover,  according  to  the  similarity  of  the  appearance  of  the 
pathogenic  bacteria  in  the  blood,  anthrax,  cattle  plague,  swine 
erysipelas  and  fowl  cholera  may  be  assigned  to  this -group. 

The  latter  forms  of  septicemia,  however,  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  septic  wound  infection.  From  the  standpoint  of  meat 
inspection,  moreover,  it  is  desirable  to  distinguish  carefully  between 
the  above-named  infectious  diseases  and  wound  septicemia.  For, 
with  the  exception  of  anthrax,  they  represent  for  the  most  part 
diseases  to  which  only  one  species  of  animal  is  susceptible.  Fur- 
thermore, the  narrow  limit's  of  the  infective  power  of  the  organisms 
of  septicemia,  which  were  studied  by  Koch,  are  apparent  from  the 
fact  that  the  organisms  of  the  septicemia  of  house  mice  are  perfectly 
harmless  for  field  mice. 

The  investigations  of  the  forms  of  septicemia  of  experimental 
animals  can  not,  therefore,  remove  the  uncertainty  which  exists 
concerning  the  origin  of  traumatic  sepsis  in  man  and  domesticated 
animals.  In  the  case  of  man  it  is  assumed  that  in  addition  to 
pathogenic  bacteria,  the  resorption  of  the  toxic  products  of  putre- 
factive bacteria  which  have  become  located  upon  the  necrotic  foci  of 
the  primary  infection  determine  the  clinical  and  anatomical  symp- 
toms of  wound  sepsis  (Baumgarten).  It  has  been  demonstrated  by 
numerous  experiments  on  man  and  domesticated  animals  thafc 
pathogenic  bacteria,  especially  the  pyogenic  streptococci,  are  present 
in  septic  wounds.  The  presence  of  these  bacteria  in  the  blood  is 
also  considered  as  demonstrated.  They  are  found  in  the  blood, 
however,  always  in  small  numbers. 

Hauser  describes  a  case  of  formal  symbiosis  between  strepto- 
cocci and  the  chief  species  of  putrefactive  bacteria,  Proteus  vulgaris 
in  an  ichorous  abscess  formation.  It  was  believed  that  the  process 
was  to  be  explained  by  assuming  that  the  streptococcus  infection 
followed  a  necrosis  of  the  tissue,  which  made  it  possible  for  Proteus 
vulgaris  to  multiply.  In  this  connection,  Hauser  cites  the  well" 
known  experiments  of  Monti,  from  which  it  is  apparent  that  strepto- 
cocci which  have  already  lost  their  virulence  toward  normal  animals 
may  again  attain  it  if  the  animals  are  inoculated  at  any  point 
whatever  with  the  metabolic  products  of  cultures  of  proteus.  If 
these  observations  may  be  generally  applied,  we  would  have  to  do 


SEPTICEMIA  569 

a  formal  symbiosis  between  streptococci  and  protens.  "  The 
streptococci  multiply  in  the  living  tissue  and  make  possible  the 
Tegetation  of  proteus  by  their  necrosing  action.  Proteus,  however, 
in  consequence  of  the  poison  produced  by  it,  weakens  the  resisting 
power  of  the  tissue  and  thereby  renders  more  easy  the  entrance  of 
streptococci,  which  simultaneously  undergo  an  intensification  of 
their  virulence." 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  resorption  of  putrefactive  toxins 
plays  a  uniform  part  in  the  origin  of  sepsis  ia  domesticated  animals. 
For,  in  the  case  of  a  very  frequent  wound  sepsis,  viz.,  the  septic 
form  of  calf  and  colt  lameness,  stinking  gangrene  is  not  present,  as 
a  rule,  at  the  point  of  entrance.  This  process  may  also  be  entirely 
absent  in  septic  metritis  of  cows  and  in  septic  infection  of  the  cas- 
tration wounds  in  horses.  I  emphasize  this  for  the  reason  that  it 
would  be  a  fatal  error  of  the  expert  meat  inspector  to  assume  that 
sepsis  was  present  only  when  necrosis*  and  putrefaction  of  the 
necrotic  parts  in  the  primary  focus  were  observed. 

We  do  not  yet  know  with  certainty  what  bacteria  may  cause 
common  wound  sepsis  in  our  food  animals.  From  the  similarity  of 
the  course  of  certain  wound  infections  in  domesticated  animals  and 
in  man  and  from  the  results  of  bacteriological  investigations  on  this 
subject,  we  may  conclude  that  in  the  forms  of  septicemia  in  the 
domesticated  animals,  pyogenic  streptococci  play  the  most  important 
part.  Further  investigations  are  required  to  determine  in  how  far 
other  specific  organisms  of  traumatic  septicemia  occur  in  the 
different  domesticated  animals.  By  means  of  bacteriological 
investigations  in  connection  with  certain  cases  of  meat  poisoning,  it 
lias  been  determined  that  bacteria  which  belong  to  the  coli  group 
possess  the  power  of  producing  septicemia  in  food  animals  (see 
under  "  Bacteriology  of  Meat  Poisoning  "). 

DIAGNOSIS. — Until  the  mooted  questions  are  finally  settled,  we 
are  compelled  to  make  the  diagnosis  of  sepsis  on  the  basis  of  the 
course  of  the  disease  and  the  pathologico-anatomical  alterations. 
Under  certain  circumstances,  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  a  diagnosis. 
In  general,  however,  the  following  phenomena  should  render 
diagnosis  certain  : 

1.  Intra  vitam :  High  fever,*  pronounced  disturbance  of  the 
general  condition,  great  weakness  and  depression. 

*In  cattle,  in  which  septic  diseases  possess  the  greatest  sanitary  interest, 
high  fever  is  observed  only  in  typical  infectious  diseases  and  in  diseases  of  & 
septic  character. 


570  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

2.  Post  mortem:  No  gross  lesions  of  the  internal  organs j 
uniformly  cloudy  swelling  of  the  liver,  heart  and  kidneys  ;  swelling 
of  all  the  lymphatic  glands,  as  well  as  petechise  under  the  serous 
membranes,  in  the  mucous  membranes  and  in  the  lymphatic 
glands. 

The  absence  of  gross  lesions  in  the  internal  organs,  or  the 
small  amount  of  alterations,  which  apparently  are  out  of  proportion 
to  the  serious  phenomena  during  life,  must  create  a  suspicion  of 
sepsis  in  every  case.  For  rendering  the  diagnosis  certain  in  doubt- 
ful cases,  Basenau  has  proposed  a  serviceable  bacteriological 
method  (see  under  "  Meat  Poisoning  "). 

JUDGMENT  OP  MEAT  OP  ANIMALS  AFFECTED  WITH  SEPSIS. — No 
other  disease  possesses  such  importance  for  meat  inspection  as 
sepsis,  tuberculosis  of  cattle  not  excepted.  The  latter  is  easily 
recognizable.  The  diagnosis  of  sepsis,  on  the  other  hand,  requires 
extensive  medical  training.  Furthermore,  as  regards  the  meat, 
septicemia  is  to  be  considered  the  most  dangerous  of  all  diseases 
of  domesticated  animals.  For  details  on  this  subject,  see  the  sec- 
.iion  on  "  Meat  Poisoning."  In  this  connection  it  may  be  simply 
noted  that  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  sepsis  is  to  be  excluded 
from  the  market  as  dangerous  material,  unfit  for  food. 

Special  Forms  of  Septicemia  in  Food  Animals. 

1.  Septic  Form  of  Calf  Lameness  (Polyarthritis  septica). — This 
disease  appears  even  in  the  first  days  of  life  and  is  characterized 
"by  great  weakness  and  depression  as  well  as  by  the  development  of 
diffuse  hot  swellings  around  and  in  the  joints  (chiefly  in  the  carpal 
and  tarsal  joints,  also  in  the  hip  and  knee  joints).  The  navel  is 
discolored  and  exhibits  a  flabby  condition.  A  dirty,  red  secre- 
tion oozes  out  on  pressure.  There  are  no  granulations.  The 
parenchyma  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  as  well  as  of  the  myocardium 
is  colored  grayish-red  and  of  soft  consistency.  The  tissue  around 
the  joints  is  affected  with  serous  infiltration.  The  articular  cap- 
sules are  distended  with  a  yellowish  fluid  in  which  a  fibrinous 
coagulum  is  found. 

Diagnosis. — While  the  septic  diseases  of  all  other  food  animals 
render  emergency  slaughter  necessary  outside  of  the  abattoir,  septic 
calf  lameness  may  be  observed  in  abattoirs,  especially  in  regions  in 
which  the  sale  of  so-called  fasting  calves  (see  page  238)  is  not  pro- 
hibited. This  is  possible  on  account  of  the  fact  that  most  calves 


SEPTICEMIA  57L 

are  transported  to  abattoirs  in  wagons,  and  thus  diseased  animals- 
imiy  be  introduced  without  attracting  attention.  In  another  placev 
I  have  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  carpal  and  tarsal  joints, 
which  are  opened  in  the  butcher's  ordinary  method  of  slaughtering, 
should  be  carefully  examined  in  each  calf. 

Judgment. — Among  the  diseases  which  have  caused  cases 
of  meat  poisoning,  the  so-called  calf  lameness  plays  an  important 
part,  and  the  usual  form  is  septic  polyarthritis.  For,  almost  with- 
out exception,  " yellow  water  in  the  joints"  is  reported  as  being* 
found  after  slaughtering  the  calves  in  question.  The  meat  of  such, 
animals  must,  therefore,  be  considered  as,  in  a  high  degree,  calcu- 
lated to  injure  human  health. 

2.  Hemorrhagic  Enteritis  of  Calves,  a  septic  disease  of  uncertain; 
origin,  which  may  rapidly  run  a  fatal  course.     I  had  an  opportunity- 
to  study  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  in  calves  which  were  used  for 
obtaining  lymph.     The  animals  suddenly  refuse  their  food,  exhibit 
an  elevation  of  body  temperature  up  to  42°  C.,  show  depression 
and  often  die  within  12  hours.     Post  mortem,  a  reddening  of  the 
whole   small  intestine   is  observed   together  with  bloody-colored 
intestinal  contents,  considerable  swelling  and  hemorrhages  on  the-, 
mucous  membrane.     As  a  rule,  a  cloudiness  of  the  parenchyma  is., 
not  observed  in  the  peracute  course  of  the  disease.     On  the  other- 
hand,  a  hemorrhagic  swelling  of  the  mesenteric  glands  is   always, 
present,  as  well  as  petechiae   under  the  serous  membranes.     Fre- 
quently there  is  splenic  tumor.     It  is  highly  probable  that  the  dis- 
ease of  sucking  calves,  as  described  by  Notz,  which,  on  account  of 
the  associated  splenic  tumor,  he  was  inclined  to  ascribe  to  the  effect 
of  blows  from  horns,  is  identical  with  this  hemorrhagic  enteritis. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — In  a  superficial  examination  the  altera- 
tions in  the  intestine  which  occur  in  cases  of  ordinary  diarrhea  of 
calves  may  be  confused  with  those  of  hemorrhagic  enteritis.  In  the 
former,  however,  neither  hemorrhages  in  the  mucous  membrane  nor 
in  the  mesenteric  glands  and  serous  membranes  are  observed. 

Judgment. — Injuries  to  human  health  from  eating  the  meat  of 
animals  which  are  affected  with  hemorrhagic  enteritis  are  unknown- 
Until  positive  proof  of  the  harmlessness  of  the  meat  of  such  ani- 
mals is  afforded,  we  must  suspect  it,  in  dubio,  as  being  injurious  tc^ 
health. 

3.  Septic   Metritis. — Septic    metritis    of    cows,    together   with 
so-called  calf  lameness,  furnishes  the  chief  contingent  to  those  dis- 


572  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

eases  of  domesticated  animals  in  which  the  consumption  of  the 
meat  may  cause  epidemics  in  man.  Frequently,  metritis  develops 
in  connection  with  the  retention  of  the  placenta.  In  other  cases,  on 
the  contrary,  we  have  to  do  simply  with  inflammatory  processes 
following  difficult  parturition,  during  which  injuries  to  the  sexual 
passages  have  occurred.  Such  uterine  injuries,  according  to  all  our 
information,  furnish  unusually  favorable  conditions  for  the  localiza- 
tion of  the  bacteria  of  sepsis. 

The  clinical  symptoms  are  those  which  are  typical  of  sepsis. 
At  the  same  time  we  observe  more  or  less  important  local 
phenomena  of  an  inflammatory  nature  in  the  sexual  passages. 
After  slaughtering  animals  seriously  affected,  the  well-known 
.alterations  of  the  parenchyma  are  found.  The  mucous  membrane 
•of  the  uterus  exhibits  diphtheritic  desquamations  and  ulcers  ;  the 
iliac  glands  are  much  swollen.  Moreover,  symptoms  of  fibrinous 
or  sero-fibrinous  peritoneal  inflammation  may  be  present.* 

4.  Septic  Intestinal  Diseases  in  Cattle. — The  history  of  cases  of 
meat  poisoning  has  acquainted  us  with  intestinal  diseases  of  cattle 
of  an  undoubted  septic  nature,  the  symptomatology  of  which,  how- 
iever,  is  still  incompletely  known.     Five  such  cases  of  septic  intesti- 
nal  disease    have   acquired   notoriety  through  the  cases  of  meat 
poisoning   at   St.  Georgen,   Schonenberg,    Lauterbach   in   Hessen, 
Frankenhausen,  and  through  the  extensive  epidemic  in  Kalk  (q.  v.). 

5.  Septic  Mammary  Diseases  in  Coivs. — The  ordinary  mammary 
inflammations,  which  are  so  frequently  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  practical  veterinarian,  are  of  a  quite  harmless  nature  during 
the  life  of  the  animals  and  so  far  as  the  meat  is  concerned.     As 
shown  on  page  314,  this  holds  true  for  phlegmonous  mastitis  and 
for  the  typical  parenchymatous  inflammations  of  the  udder,  pro- 
duced by  the  mastitis  bacteria  of  Kitt.     These  inflammations,  as 
such,  never  give  occasion  to  emergency  slaughter,  since  they  disturb 

*  Albrecht  in  Munich,  in  connection  with  the  report  of  two  cases  of  poison- 
ing after  eating  the  meat  of  cows  which  were  affected  with  septic  metritis, 
-observes  that  in  timely  slaughter  and  thorough  bleeding,  he  has  never  observed 
injurious  consequences  from  eating  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  with  this  dis- 
ease. In  such  cases  the  gangrenous  parts  are  removed  and  the  rest  of  the  meat 
is  thereupon  freely  admitted  to  the  market.  Albrecht,  however,  recommends 
the  greatest  precaution  in  judging  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  septic 
metritis  if  they  are  not  slaughtered  until  the  agony  of  the  disease  has  appeared, 
«ince  the  bleeding  in  such  cases  is  imperfect  and  extensive  gangrenous  disturb- 
ances are  present. 


SEPTICEMIA  573  - 

the  general  health  of  the  animals  only  slightly.  The  conditions  are 
quite  different  in  the  case  of  septic  inflammation  of  the  udder,  the 
knowledge  of  which  we  owe  to  the  history  of  cases  of  meat 
poisoning. 

Diagnosis. — Septic  mammary  inflammations  run  a  quite 
different  course  from  that  of  ordinary  inflammations  of  the  udder. 
They  are  ushered  in  with  such  a  serious  general  disturbance  and 
with  such  a  depression  that  the  owners  of  the  animals  slaughter 
them  in  order  to  forestall  natural  death. 

Nothing  is  known  concerning  the  condition  of  the  internal 
organs  in  the  above-mentioned  cases.  A  case  of  septic  mastitis  in 
cattle,  which  was  observed  by  the  author,  showed,  after  emergency 
slaughter,  all  of  the  anatomical  characters  of  sepsis — excessive 
cloudiness  of  the  liver,  which  was  yellow  and  soft,  and  of  the  heart 
and  kidneys:  Extremely  numerous  petechise  were  found  under  the 
serous  coat  of  the  intestine,  under  the  pulmonary  pleura,  and  under 
the  epicardium.  Before  slaughter  the  following  conditions  were 
conspicuous  in  the  affected  udder  :  All  four  quarters  were  swollen 
to  about  three  times  their  natural  size  and  were  firm  and  hot.  No 
milk  was  evacuated  from  the  teats,  merely  a  small  quantity  of  a 
watery  secretion.  The  animal  had  not  eaten  for  three  days,  but  had 
exceedingly  great  thirst.  The  internal  body  temperature  was  41.5° 
to  41.9°  C.  On  the  third  day  the  vital  powers  became  so  reduced 
that  a  fatal  issue  was  feared. 

6.  Petechial  Fever,  blood  spot  disease  (morbus  maculosus),  is; 
the  name  of  a  disease  of  horses,  the  etiology  of  which  is  unexplained. 
The  name,  blood  spot  disease,  is  given  to  this  affection  on  account 
of  its  most  conspicuous  symptom,  hemorrhages,  which  may  appear 
in  all  the  organs.  These  hemorrhages,  in  connection  with  the 
regular  parenchymatous  alterations,  characterize  blood  spot  disease 
as  a  pronounced  septicemia.  From  an  etiological  standpoint,  it  is 
important  to  note  that  petechial  fever  is  frequently  associated  with 
previous  attacks  of  an  infectious  disease,  especially  contagious 
coryza  and  pneumonia. 

Clinical  Symptoms.-^Petechise  of  the  visible  mucous  mem- 
branes, swellings  of  the  skin  which  may  reach  an  acute  stage  and 
show  a  tendency  to  necrosis  ;  internal  body  temperature  39.5° 
to  40°  C. 

Anatomical  Findings. — Petechise  in  the  skin  and  subcutis,  as 
well  as  in  all  the  mucous  membranes,  lungs,  spleen,  myocardium 
and  voluntary  musculature ;  also  bloody,  gelatinous  discharges  in  > 


574  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

the  subcutis  under  the  mucous  membrane  and  in  the  skeletal  mus- 
culature. Pronounced  cloudiness  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  heart 
;and  skeletal  musculature. 

With  regard  to  the  sanitary  judgment  of  petechial  fever,  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  in  Zittau  (see  "  Meat  Poison- 
ing"), a  large  number  of  families  of  workmen  became  sick  after 
mating  the  meat  of  a  horse,  which,  according  to  all  appearances,  had 
l>een  affected  with  this  disease. 

According  to  the  more  recent  observations,  a  "  blood  spot 
^disease"  appears  to  occur  also  in  cattle.  The  relation  between  it 
;and  the  petechial  fever  of  horses  is  not  plain  from  the  published 
reports.  According  to  the  anatomical  findings,  however,  we  must 
classify  the  disease  in  cattle  with  septicemia. 

The  author  has  observed  a  number  of  cases  in  hogs  which 
foegan  with  alterations  similar  to  those  which  are  observed  in 
petechial  fever  of  the  horse. 

In  the  blood  spot  disease  of  man  (purpura  hemorrhagica),  the 
identity  of  which  with  the  blood  spot  disease  of  horses  is,  however, 
not  demonstrated,  Koib  found  non-motile  plump  bacilli,  three  to 
four  hours  after  death.  "  Bacillus  hemorrhagicus  "  of  Kolb  is  patho- 
genic for  dogs,  rabbits  and  mice,  but  not  for  guinea  pigs  and 
pigeons. 

(d)  Malignant  Edema. 

OCCURRENCE. — We  owe  the  first  information  concerning  malig- 
nant edema  to  the  inoculation  experiments  of  Robert  Koch,  with 
garden  soil.  The  disease  occurs  after  accidental  injuries  and  in 
-connection  with  operations  on  horses.  Kitt  has  also  shown  that  it 
may  be  transmitted  artificially  to  horses,  calves,  sheep,  goats,  hogs 
and  dogs,  as  well  as  to  chickens  and  pigeons.  According  to  Arloing 
and  Chauveau,  cattle  are  immune  to  malignant  edema.  According 
to  Kitt,  however,  a  bacillus  of  edema  may  cause  extensive  local 
swellings  in  cattle. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS. — Malignant  edema  is  characterized  by  the 
appearance  of  rapidly  extending  crackling  edemata  in  the  subcutis, 
whereby  the  overlying  parts  of  the  skin  show  a  tendency  to 
gangrene. 

BACTERIOLOGY. — This  disease  is  caused  by  the  edema  bacillus. 
This  organism  is  somewhat  more  slender  than  the  anthrax  bacillus, 


MALIGNANT  EDEMA  575 

possesses  rounded  ends  and  sometimes,  but  not  always,  exhibits 
motility.  The  bacilli  are  arranged  in  apparent  threads.  Spores  are 
formed  in  the  individual  bacilli  with  a  spindle-shaped  or  tadpole- 
shaped  swelling  of  the  latter.  The  edema  bacilli  are  found  as  pro- 
nounced anaerobic  organisms  only  locally  in  the  edematous  areas 
and  not  in  the  blood  vessels.  It  is  only  in  mice  that  the  multipli- 
cation of  the  bacilli  has  been  observed  in  the  blood,  and  this  for  an, 
unexplained  reason.  The  edema  bacilli  form  spores  in  carcasses, 
when  they  cool  slowly  or  are  artificially  exposed  to  a  high  temper- 
ature. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  edema  bacilli  are  regularly  found 
in  the  humus  layer  of  the  soil.     Furthermore,  they  are  found  in  the 
alimentary  tract  of  healthy  animals.     This  is  of  value  in  making  a 
differential  diagnosis,  for  the  bacilli, 
in  carcasses  of  animals  which  have  ^IG.  194. 

been  left  unopened  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours,  may  wander  into 
the  neighboring  organs,  including 
the  spleen.  Gaffky  has  demon- 
strated this  condition  in  guinea  pigs 
which  were  violently  strangled  and 
kept  in  an  incubator,  and  Lustig  in 
horses  which  had  died  of  colic. 

._,         _        .-  _ .  Edema  bacilli  from  the  subcutis  of  & 

For  details  on  differential  diag-          rabbit  dead  of  malignant  edema. 

nosis,  see  under  "Anthrax"  and  S°0rL  ^x^O^diailter^  ^ 
"  Blackleg." 

SLAUGHTER  FINDINGS. — The  abnormal  anatomical  finding  is 
restricted  for  the  most  part  to  the  edema  of  the  subcutis.  The 
internal  organs  are  intact ;  splenic  tumor  is  absent. 

JUDGMENT. — Thus  far  nothing  is  known  of  any  injury  to  human 
health  from  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  animals  which  have 
been  affected  with  malignant  edema.  "We  may,  perhaps,  in  general, 
exclude  the  possibility  of  an  injurious  character  of  the  meat  when. 
•we  consider  that  the  bacilli  of  malignant  edema  are  found  in  the 
intestinal  contents  of  perfectly  healthy  animals  as  harmless  sapro- 
phytes. However,  the  meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency 
slaughter  on  account  of  malignant  edema  is  to  be  treated  as  spoiled 
or  highly  unfit  for  food,  according  to  the  objective  alterations. 


576  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


(e)  Tetanus. 

The  unmistakable  clinical  symptoms  of  tetanus  obviates  the 
necessity  of  a  special  description. 

BACTERIOLOGY. — Tetanus  is  caused  by  the  tetanus  bacilli  (Nico- 
laier-Rosenbach).  They  are  delicate,  slender  rods,  which,  in  a 
sporeless  condition,  possess  a  bristle-like  appearance,  while  in  the 
spore-bearing  form  they  have  a  pin  shape.  The  tetanus  bacilli  are 
strictly  anerobic,  and  thrive,  therefore,  only  in  the  subcutaneous, 
submucous  or  in  the  deeper-lying  tissues  and  1*0  not  pass  into  the 
blood.  They  produce  toxines  of  an  unusually  violent  action,  the 

resorption     of    which     causes    the 
FlQ- 195«  symptom- complex  of  tetanus. 

Tetanus   bacilli,  outside  of  the 

/  x  i\          animal  body,  are  widely  distributed 

•^  in  the  surface  soil. 

Nfc 

/       I  .  ~  S  OCCURRENCE.  —  This    infectious 

^  /  disease  is  most  frequent  in   horses 

I  /  after    accidental   or   intentional    in- 

—  **  \ 

^       juries ;  also  in  goats  after  castration 

^  and  in  cows  after  the  retention  of 

the    placenta.      The   occurrence    of 

Tetanus  bacilli,  partly  spore  bearing,      infection    presupposes    a    lesion    of 
from  a  pure  culture.    xSOOdiam.        the  skin    or   mucous    membrane,  or 

at  least   a   catarrh    of   the   mucous 

membrane  (Thalheim).  In  new-born  lambs,  tetanus  is  observed 
enzootically  in  consequence  of  the  infection  of  the  open  navel 
wound. 


/u, 


JUDGMENT. — Before  it  was  demonstrated  that  tetanus  is  an 
infectious  disease,  it  was  considered  as  a  simple  affection  of  th& 
nervous  system,  or  a  neurosis.  Formerly,  no  hesitation  was  felt  con- 
cerning the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  tetanized  animals ;  no- 
injuries  to  health  have  'been  observed  in  consequence  of  this.  Fur- 
thermore, Gerlach  states  that  he  has  fed  the  meat  of  tetanized 
horses  in  large  quantities  to  hogs  without  causing  any  results  in 
the  experimental  animals.  With  a  knowledge  of  the  true  nature  of 
the  disease,  we  must,  nevertheless,  investigate  the  question  whether 
from  a  scientific  standpoint  the  meat  can  be  considered  as  injurious 


ANTHRAX  577 

to  health.  According  to  the  investigations  of  Sormani,  this  ques- 
tion is  to  be  answered  in  the  negative.  Sormani  demonstrated 
that  animals  could  be  fed  for  a  long  time  with  pure  cultures  of 
tetanus  bacilli  without  injury  to  their  health.  The  digestive  tract 
endures  a  dose  10,000  times  larger  than  the  fatal  dose  in  sub- 
cutaneous inoculation.  Accordingly,  Sormani  considers  the  meat 
of  tetanized  animals  as  perfectly  harmless.  According  to  Fermi 
and  Celli,  the  tetanus  toxin  is  rendered  inactive  by  the  hydro- 
chloric acid  of  the  gastric  juice. 

It  was  a  priori  probable  that  tetanus  bacilli  were  incapable 
of  producing  an  infection  from  the  alimentary  tract,  since  other- 
wise tetanus  must  be  one  of  the  most  frequent  diseases  of  man  and 
the  domesticated  animals,  for  the  tetanus  bacilli  are  frequently 
eaten  along  with  various  vegetable  food  materials. 

While  the  meat  of  tetanized  animals  can  not  be  considered  as 
injurious  to  health,  it  nevertheless  possesses  the  property  of  3, 
spoiled  or  inferior  food  material ;  for  we  find,  as  a  rule,  in  tetanized 
animals  defective  bleeding ;  parenchymatous  degeneration,  not  only 
of  the  heart,  but  also  of  the  skeletal  musculature ;  an  abnormal 
softness  ;  and,  occasionally,  a  peculiar,  faintly-sweet  odor. 

RESISTANCE  OF  THE  TETANUS  TOXIN  TO  HIGH  TEMPERATURES. — 
Kitasato  demonstrated  that  the  toxic  metabolic  products  of  the 
tetanus  bacilli  are  totally  destroyed  by  a  temperature  of  65°  C.,  or 
more,  for  a  few  minutes  (five  minutes  or  even  less).  By  cooking 
the  meat  of  tetanized  animals,  therefore,  we  may  free  it  of  all 
injurious  properties,  since  meat  contains  only  the  toxic  material 
and  not  the  organisms  of  tetanus. 

2. — Infectious  Diseases  Which  May  Occur  in  Man  as  Well  as 
in  Domesticated  Animals. 

(a)  Anthrax. 

GENERAL. — Anthrax  is  the  best  understood  and  most  thoroughly 
studied  infectious  disease.  That  the  entrance  of  anthrax  bacilli 
produces  anthrax  is  a  discovery  which  preceded  all  other  bacterial 
investigations  and  occurred,  as  is  well  known,  during  the  middle  of 
the  previous  century. 

MORPHOLOGY  AND  BIOLOGY  OF  ANTHRAX  ORGANISMS. — Anthrax 
organisms  are  observed  in  a  vegetative  form  (rods  and  threads)  and 


578 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


in  the  form  of  spores.  Anthrax  rods  or  bacilli,  as  was  first  shown 
by  Liipke,  consist  of  cells  from  1.5  to  2  ^  long.  In  a  slowly- 
developing  case  of  anthrax  the  cells  may  reach  a  length  of 
3  p  (Johne).  On  artificial  nutrient  media,  the  rods  develop  into 
extremely  long,  straight  or  coiled  threads  in  which  spores  are 
formed  (Fig.  197).  Spore  formation  occurs  only  in  the  presence 
of  abundant  oxygen  under  suitable  conditions  of  temperature. 
The  limits  of  temperature  lie  between  18°  and  34°  C.,  the  optimum 
being  30°  C.  The  spores  are  formed,  however,  neither  in  the  living 
animal  body  nor  in  the  intact  animal  carcass. 

Furthermore,  in  the  diagnosis  of  anthrax,  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  the  rods  are  non-motile  and  are  surrounded  by  a 


FIG.  19b. 


FIG.  197. 


Anthrax  bacilli  from  spleen  of  an 
infected  mouse,  showing  cap- 
sules and  division  walls  between 
individual  cells.  Some  of  the 
longer  cells  are  constricted  in 
the  middle.  X  800  diameters. 


Anthrax  threads  in  process  of  sporulation,  and 
free  spores.     X  2000  diameters. 


characteristic  capsule  or  gelatinous  membane,  by  means  of  which 
the  individual  cells  are  held  together. 

The  capsule  or  gelatinous  membrane  is  of  greater  or  less  thick- 
ness and  surrounds  the  individual  anthrax  cells  on  both  sides 
and  on  the  ends  in  a  uniform  layer.  Such  a  conspicuous  capsule 
is  wanting  in  all  bacteria  which  might  give  occasion  to  confusion 
with  Bacillus  anthracis,  especially  the  so-called  cadaver  bacillus 
{  Johne).  The  capsules  of  anthrax  bacilli,  according  to  Johne,  may 
be  demonstrated  by  the  following  process : 

1.  A  lege  artis  cover  glass  preparation,  air-dried,  is  grasped 
with  the  pincers  in  the  ordinary  manner  and  passed  three  times 
through  the  flame. 


ANTHRAX  579 

2.  Then,  in  a  horizontal  position,  the  smeared  side  up,  a  2  per 
<cent.  aqueous  solution  of  an  anilin  stain  (preferably  gentian  violet) 
is    dropped   on   the    preparation   until   its   surface   is   completely 
covered ;  thereupon 

3.  "While   in   the   same    position,   the   preparation    is    passed 
through  the  flame  or  held  somewhat  above  it  until  a  slight  steam 
arises  from  the  staining  solution. 

4.  Wash  with  water ;  then  8  to  10  seconds  in  a  2  per  cent,  solu- 
tion of  acetic  acid ;  then  a  second  careful  washing  in  water. 

5.  The  cover  glass  is  laid  upon  the  slide,  the  water  is  removed 
from  the  upper  side  of  the  cover  glass  by  means  of  filter  paper, 
nud  the  preparation  is  examined  (directly  in  water)  by  a  magnifica- 
tion of  at  least  400  diameters,  or  by  oil  immersion. 

Klett  recommends  a  subsequent  warming  of  the  stained 
preparation  in  order  to  demonstrate  the  capsules  of  the  anthrax 
bacilli.  Klett  described  his  process  as  follows  : 

The  cover  glass  preparation,  well  dried  in  the  air,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, allowed  to  lie  for  a  few  hours,  is  passed  three  times  through 
the  flame,  lege  artis,  then  dipped  in  an  aqueous  rapid  stain  (violet  or 
fnchsin)  and  washed.  Finally,  the  wet  cover  glass  is  laid  upon  the 
slide  and  examined  in  the  ordinary  manner. 

Liipke,  while  approving  Klett's  method,  recommended  a  still 
simpler  procedure  ;  viz.,  dropping  a  .2  per  cent,  solution  of  gentian 
violet  on  the  preparation,  then  heating  slightly  and  washing 
thoroughly  with  water.  As  the  author  has  frequently  convinced 
himself,  this  method  really  makes  possible  a  very  beautiful 
differentiation  of  the  anthrax  bacilli  into  capsules  and  individual 
cells. 

A  second  method  of  staining  capsules,  which  was  proposed  by 
Klett,  renders  possible  a  fine  double  stain  characteristic  of  anthrax 
bacilli.  A  cover  glass  preparation,  well  dried  in  the  air,  and 
preferably  left  lying  for  a  few  hours,  is  to  be  made  up  properly  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  Then  an  alcoholic  aqueous  solution  of 
rnethylene  blue  is  dropped  on  the  cover  glass ;  afterward  the 
preparation  is  warmed  over  a  flame  until  it  boils  and  is  sub- 
sequently washed  thoroughly  with  distilled  water.  It  is  then 
treated  with  an  alcoholic  aqueous  solution  of  fuchsin  for  not  more 
than  five  seconds  and  washed  again.  By  this  method  of  staining, 
the  bacterial  bodies  appear  dark-blue,  the  membranes  a  light 
rose-red  and  their  contours  dark-red  (Fig.  1,  lithographed  plate). 

Finally,  W.  Baebiger  has  proposed  a  very  simple  process  for 
demonstrating  the  capsules  on  anthrax  bacilli.  Baebiger  dissolves 


580  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

15  to  20  gm.  of  gentian  violet  in  100  to  150  gm.  of  formalin,  allows 
the  preparation  to  stand  over  night,  and  filters ;  the  filtered 
preparation  is  dropped  on  the  air-dried  preparation  without 
previous  heating  and,  after  20  seconds,  is  washed  off.  Capsules 
are  then  demonstrated  only  on  anthrax  bacilli.  Spurious  capsules, 
as  Eaebiger  asserts,  never  appear  after  this  procedure. 

Klett  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  capsules  are 
very  weak  when  the  preparations  are  taken  from  cadavers  which 
have  lain  for  a  long  time.  According  to  his  method,  however,  lie 
was  able  to  demonstrate  capsules  very  plainly  on  anthrax  bacilli 
four  days  post  mortem.  In  anthrax  in  horses  Schmidt  was  able  to 
make  the  capsules  appear  only  to  a  slight  extent. 

In  the  ordinary  method  of  staining,  in  which  the  capsules  are 
not  differentiated,  we  may  observe  that  the  ends  of  the  individual 

FIG.  198. 

FIG.  199. 


I. a 

i  rarav     ~v 

\\ 


Anthrax  bacilli  from  the  cardiac  blood  Cadaver  bacilli  (edema  bacilli  from  the 

of    a    mouse,    with    "clavate    polar  subcutis   of  an    artificially    infected 

swellings."     X  500  diameters.    '  rabbit).     X  500  diameters. 

bacterial  cells  are  broader  than  the  remainder  of  the  cell  body 
(Fig.  198).  This  phenomenon,  previously  characterized  as  clavate 
end-swelling,  arises  in  consequence  of  the  contraction  of  the  middle 
of  the  bacterial  body  before  division  (Johne). 

Anthrax  bacilli  are  found  especially  in  the  capillaries  of  the 
internal  organs,  particularly  the  spleen,  intestines,  mesenteries 
and  lungs.  On  account  of  the  retention  of  the  anthrax  bacilli  in 
the  capillaries,  their  demonstration  in  the  large  vascular  trunks 
during  life  may  be  a  difficult  matter. 

DIFFERENTIATION  OF  ANTHRAX  BACILLI  AND  SO-CALLED  CADAVER 
BACILLI. — Attention  has  already  been  called  (page  575)  to  the  fact 


ANTHRAX  581 

that  iii  the  alimentary  canal  of  healthy  animals,  edema  bacilli  are 

found  and  that  these  organisms  penetrate  from  the  intestines  into 

the  neighboring  organs,  especially  into  the  spleen  and  liver,  if  the 

cadaver   has   lain   nnopeuel   for   from  12  to  24  hours.     For  this 

reason  the  edema  bacilli  which  occur  in  cadavers,  or,  as  they  may 

be  briefly  termed,  cadaver  bacilli,  are  of  great  practical  significance 

in  the  bacteriological  diagnosis  of  anthrax. 

Cadaver  bacilli  also  form  spurious  threads,  Fro.  2°0. 

like  anthrax  bacilli.     The  individual  bacilli, 

however,  are  more  slender  and  longer  than 

the  anthrax  bacilli  and  are  not  squarely  cut       .- 

at  the  ends  like  the  latter,  but  are  rounded, 

or  end  obliquely.     Furthermore,  the  cadaver 

bacilli  form  spores  in  the  carcass  (Fig.  199) 

and  possess  no  capsule  like  anthrax  bacilli. 

It  sometimes  occurs,  to  be  sure,  that  a  cap- 

,,.,„.,,.,  ,,          Cadaver  bacilli  with  pseu- 

sule-like,  faint,  lateral  seani  appears  on  the         do-capsules,    from    the 

cadaver  bacilli.     This  spurious  capsule,  how-        sPleen  of  an  asphyxiated 

,       ..,  guinea  pig,   kept  in  an 

ever,  is   usually  unilateral  and  without  an         incubator,    x  500  diam. 

external  contour  (Fig.  200),  since  it  arises 

by  the  retraction  of  the  serum  albumen  contained  in  the  prepara- 
tions. Finally,  the  cadaver  bacilli  are  discolored  by  the  Gram 
method,  while  the  anthrax  bacilli  remain  well  stained  after  the 
completion  of  this  method. 

OCCURRENCE. — Anthrax  occurs  in  all  domesticated  animals  and 
in  man.  The  sheep  is  most  susceptible,  followed  by  cattle  and 
horses.  Wild  members  of  the  deer  family  and  also  hare  are 
affected  by  anthrax.  Finally,  the  disease  may  be  transmitted  to 
fowls  (chickens,  ducks  and  geese).  The  hog  is  usually  resistent 
toward  anthrax  infection  and  shows  in  this  relation  a  great 
similarity  to  man. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS. — The  clinical  symptoms  of  antlirax  vary 
according  to  the  mode  of  infection  and  the  susceptibility  of  the 
species  of  animal.  Anthrax  bacilli  enter  either  by  way  of  the 
alimentary  tract  or  through  the  injured  skin.  Artificial  anthrax 
infection  may  be  produced  by  rubbing  the  bacilli  into  the  uninjured 
skin.  Alimentary  or  intestinal  anthrax  is  always  due  to  a  spore 
infection,  for  the  spore-free  bacilli  are  rendered  innocuous  by  the 
gastric  juice  (Koch,  Falk).  Natural  skin-infection,  which  may  also 
>be  produced  by  the  bacilli,  is  connected  with  the  presence  of  wounds. 


582 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


FIG.  201. 


PATHOLOGICO- ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — The  spleen  exhibits  the 
most  important  alterations.  It  is  considerably  swollen,  blackish- 
red  and  of  a  fluid  consistency,  if  the  capsule  is  incised.  Moreover, 
we  observe  a  tar-like  condition  of  the  blood,  hemorrhages  in  all 
organs,  especially  under  the  epicardium,  and  parenchymatous 
degeneration  of  the  liver,  heart  and  kidneys.  Finally,  yellow 
gelatinous  or  hemorrhagic  infiltration  may  be  present  in  the  sub- 
cutaneous, submucous  and  subsevous  tissues. 

In  hogs,  anthrax  is  characterized  by  decided  cervical  edema. 
Swelling  of  the  spleen  in  anthrax  of  hogs  may  be  absent. 

DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  following  diseases 
may  be  mistaken  for  anthrax  : 

(1)  Malignant  edema ;  (2)  petechial  fever ;  (3)  hemorrhagic 
septicemia  of  cattle  ;  (4)  blackleg  ;  (5)  sepsis  ;  (6)  intoxications  ;  (7) 
splenic  tumors  in  consequence  of  einbolic  ini'arcts  or  torsion  of 
the  spleen. 

Anthrax,  except  in  the  hog,  in  which  animal  the  bacterial  find- 
ings in  the  blood  and  in  the  pathologically-altered  foci  is  decisive, 

is  distinguished  from  all  these  dis- 
eases by  the  characteristic  splenic 
tumor,  as  well  as  by  the  finding 
of  numerous  non- motile  and  mor- 
phologically well  -  characterized 
rods  in  the  spleen.  In  acute 
anthrax  in  cattle  and  horses  and 
in  anthrax  of  hogs,  the  bacilli  in 
the  spleen  may  not  be  numerous. 
In  such  cases  the  mesenteric 
glands  ought  to  be  examined  in 
cattle  and  horses  (Fiorentini),  and 
the  edematous  infiltrated  areas  of 
the  subcutis  in  hogs,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  detecting  the  presence  of 
the  anthrax  bacilli.  In  doubtful 

cases,  animal  experiments  and  bacteriological  cultures  must  decide. 
The  anthrax  bacillus  kills  mice,  as  a  rule,  within  thirty-six  hours  ; 
guinea  pigs  and  rabbits  within  forty-eight  hours.  In  plate  cultures, 
one  observes,  after  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  by  a  slight 
magnification,  quite  characteristic  colonies  which  are  formed  of 
bundles  of  anthrax  threads  "like  locks  of  hair"  (Fig.  201).  It 
should  be  noted  that  for  the  differentiation  of  the  anthrax  bacilli 


.Anthrax  colony  from  an  agar  plate 

culture  24  hours  old. 

X  35  diameters. 


ANTHRAX  583 

from  edema  bacilli  inoculation  of  mice  is  not  sufficient,  since, 
strangely  enough,  in  mice,  edema  bacilli  occur  also  in  the  blood. 
Furthermore,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  virulence 
of  anthrax  bacilli  is  weakened  by  putrefaction,  and,  in  fact,  may  be 
entirely  destroyed.  A  negative  result  from  inoculation  with  putre- 
fying blood  from  suspected  carcasses  can  not,  therefore,  be  consid- 
ered as  proof  of  the  absence  of  anthrax. 

With  reference  to  ernbolic  iufarcts  in  the  spleen  in  conse- 
quence of  torsion  of  this  organ,  attention  has  already  been  called 
(page  347)  to  the  fact  that  this  may  lead  to  a  quite  considerable 
increase  in  the  volume  of  the  spleen.  This  increase  in  volume, 
however,  is  distinguished  from  anthrax  tumor  by  the  pronounced 
firm  character.  A  fluid  condition  of  the  spleen,  such  as  exists  in 
anthrax,  never  occurs.  The  ernbolic  infarcts,  moreover,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  conical  contours.  Furthermore,  we  may  demon- 
strate the  emboli  directly,  in  the  branches  of  the  splenic  arteries. 

PROCEDURE  WITH  THE  MEAT  OF  ANTHRACIC  ANIMALS. — Sec. 
31  of  the  Imperial  law  of  June  23, 1880,  and  May  1, 1894,  concerning 
the  prevention  and  suppression  of  animal  plagues,  prescribes  that 
"  animals  which  are  affected  with  anthrax  or  suspected  of  being 
affected  with  this  plague,  shall  not  be  slaughtered";  and  Sec.  33  of 
this  law  declares  that  "  the  carcasses  of  dead  or  slaughtered 
anthracic  animals  or  of  animals  suspected  of  being  affected  with 
this  plague  must  be  immediately  rendered  innocuous.  The  skin- 
ning of  these  animals  is  forbidden." 

This  measure  is  primarily  dictated  by  veterinary  police  consid- 
erations. How  shall  we  judge  the  meat  from  a  sanitary  police 
standpoint?  Is  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  anthrax  injurious 
to  health  ? 

FORENSIC  JUDGMENT  OF  THE  MEAT  OF  ANTHRACIC  ANIMALS. — 
Bellinger  has  already  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  anthrax  is  not 
so  easily  transmitted  to  man  by  the  consumption  of  meat  as  has 
been  generally  assumed.  Accordingly,  he  combated  the  former 
general  assumption  (Heusinger)  that,  as  a  rule,  cases  of  meat 
poisoning  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  consumption  of  meat  of  anthracic 
animals.  Bellinger's  view  has  received  extensive  confirmation  by 
recent  observations.  It  has  been  repeatedly  shown  that  in  cases  of 
emergency  slaughter  of  anthracic  animals,  the  consumers,  sometimes 
numbering  hundreds,  remain  well,  while  the  butchers  who  injure 
themselves  during  the  slaughtering  become  affected  with  anthrax. 


58-1  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Thus,  Behring  described  a  case  in  which  the  meat  of  a  bull, 
subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  anthrax,  was  eaten 
without  any  harm,  while  the  butcher  and  his  mother,  who  assisted 
at  the  slaughter,  contracted  malignant  pustule.  Similar  cases  may 
be  cited  in  large  numbers.  Mayer  reported  concerning  an  enzootic 
of  anthrax  in  Alsace  in  which  five  diseased  cows  were  utilized 
as  human  food.  Thereupon,  in  one  village  nine  persons  who  had 
come  in  contact  with  the  raw  meat,  took  sick.  Of  this  number, 
two  died  with  pustules  on  the  thumb  or  arm  and  the  remaining 
patients  had  pustules  on  the  hands.  "  Of  the  numerous  persons 
who  had  eaten  the  meat,  only  three  became  affected,  and  they 
recovered." 

Accordingly,  the  meat  of  anthracic  animals  ordinarily  produces 
no  injurious  consequences  after  being  eaten,  and  this  experimental 
fact  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  biological  peculiarities  of  the 
anthrax  bacilli.  As  already  explained,  no  spores  develop  in  the 
meat  or  by  ordinary  methods  of  preservation  in  cool  places,  even 
upon  its  surface.  Spore-free  anthrax  bacilli,  however,  are  destroyed 
by  the  secretions  of  the  stomach. 

RESISTANCE  OF  ANTHRAX  TO  HIGHER  TEMPERATURES. — Anthrax 
bacilli  are  destroyed  by  heating  to  a  temperature  of  55°  to  60°  C. 
for  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  For  the  destruction  of  the  spores,  on  the 
other  hand,  a  boiling  temperature  for  several  minutes  is  required. 

Although  experience  teaches,  and  science  has  given  us  a  per- 
fectly satisfactory  explanation  of  the  fact,  that  the  meat  of  anthracic 
animals,  as  a  rule,  does  not  produce  harmful  results  after  being 
eaten,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  treated  as  a  dangerous  food  material, 
quite  aside  from  the  stringent  provisions  of  the  Imperial  Animal 
Plague  Law.  For, 

1.  The  possibility  of  infection  from  meat  which  contains  only 
the  bacilli  is  not  excluded,  if  there  are  lesions  in  the  mouth,  pharynx 
and  esophagus  of  the  consumers. 

2.  Under  especially  favorable  external  conditions,  as  shown  by 
Schmidt-Miilheina,  spores  may  form  on  the  surface  of  the  skinned 
carcasses  (high  external  temperature  during  the  preservation  of  the 
meat  in  badly  ventilated  rooms),  whereby  exceptionally  an  intestinal 
infection  may  be  produced. 

3.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  anthracic  meat  which  con- 
tains only  bacilli  may  produce  an  infection  by  mere  handling  ;  for 
example,  during   the    process  of  cutting  up,  if    the   persons  thus 
engaged   have   lesions    on   their    fingers.     Thus,  for    example,    in 


ANTHRAX  585 

Germany,  between  1886  and  1890,  363  human  beings  were  affected 
with  the  skin  form  of  anthrax.  They  were  mostly  butchers, 
knackers  and  other  persons  occupied  with  the  slaughtering, 
skinning  and  burning  of  animals.  Among  the  363  human  cases  of 
anthrax,  not  less  than  187  were  butchers  and  knackers.  In  1894 
there  were  109  cases  of  the  transmission  of  anthrax  to  man  in 
Germany,  with  14  fatal  terminations  ;  in  1896,  82  cases,  with  15 fatal 
terminations  ;  and  in  1900,  62  cases,  10  of  which  died.* 

Concerning  primary  intestinal  anthrax  in  man,  Baumgarten 
states,  "  the  second  form  under  which  human  anthrax  appears  is  the 
primary  intestinal  anthrax  which  was  formerly  known  as  mycosis 
intestinalis.  Bollinger,  and  especially  E.  Wagner,  deserve  credit  for 
having  referred  to  the  forms  of  anthrax  this  previously  much 
observed  but  not  thoroughly  understood  disease.  Later  observa- 
tions completely  confirm  the  views  of  these  authors.  The  majority 
of  cases  have  been  observed  in  persons  who  work  on  animal  skins, 
especially  in  the  preparation  of  animal  hair.  In  a  case  of  this  sort, 
E.  Wagner  succeeded  in  microscopically  demonstrating,  on  the  hair, 
spore-bearing  rods  which  were  identical  with  anthrax  bacilli.  The 
origin  of  the  infection  was  thus  discovered.  The  anthrax  spores 
passed  from  the  fingers  to  the  food,  thence  into  the  stomach  and 
from  thence  into  the  intestines  of  the  patient." 

APPENDIX. — Perroncito  reported  as  follows  concerning  a  disease 
resembling  anthrax  :  In  Sardinia  a  peculiar  epizootic  disease  pre- 
vails among  horses,  asses,  cattle  and  hogs,  and  is  transmissible  to 
man.  Of  the  various  experimental  animals,  rabbits,  guinea  pigs  and 
fowls  are  susceptible.  The  disease  in  question  closely  resembles 
anthrax  in  its  course  and  clinical  symptoms,  but  sometimes  appears 
also  under  the  form  of  hematuria  or  hemoglobinuria.  Perroncito 
believed  that  he  had  found  Proteus  virulentissiimcs  as  the  micro- 
organism which  caused  this  disease.  Probably  the  disease 
investigated  by  Perroncito  was  the  hematuria  of  Sardinian  cattle,  in 
which  Sanfelice  and  Loi  demonstrated  piroplasma  to  be  the  cause 
of  the  disease  (page  537). 

*  A  case  which  is  very  instructive  in  regard  to  traffic  in  anthracic  meat 
occurred  in  the  Swiss  village  of  Gex.  Of  the  300  to  4CO  persons  who  ate  of  the 
meat  of  an  anthracic  beef  animal  in  that  town,  only  one,  a  woman  who  received 
an  injury  on  the  forearm  in  cutting  up  the  head  of  the  animal,  became  affected 
with  the  disease.  A  dog  which  had  gnawed  a  raw  bone  became  infected.  The 
anthrax  infection  in  the  dog  took  place  on  the  nose,  and,  without  doubt,  from  a 
wound  which  the  dog  received  while  fighting  with  a  cat  over  the  bone. 


586  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


(b)  Aphthcus  Fever. 

Aphthous  fever  possesses  great  interest  for  experts  in  the 
practice  of  meat  inspection,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  from  a, 
sanitary  police  standpoint  it  plays  only  an  insignificant  role. 
Aphthous  fever  is  extensively  disseminated  by  food  animals,  and 
this  brings  it  about  that  many  larger  cattle  yards  and  abattoirs 
become  permanently  affected.  Since  abattoirs  are  to  such  a  great 
extent  exposed  to  the  danger  of  infection  by  aphthous  fever,  expert 
inspectors  should  give  careful  attention,  for  veterinary  reasons,  to 
this  disease,  both  before  and  after  slaughter. 

OCCURRENCE. — Aphthous  fever  is  a  disease  peculiar  to  hoofed 
animals.  Occasionally  it  is  said  to  be  transmitted  to  cats  and  fowls. 
Cattle  and  hogs  are  most  frequently  affected  with  the  disease,  w.hile 
sheep  are  more  rarely  affected.  Home  reported  also  concerning  the 
appearance  of  aphthous  fever  among  reindeer  in  northern  Sweden. 

ETIOLOGY. — Despite  numerous  investigations,  it  has  not  yet 
been  possible  to  demonstrate  the  organism  of  aphthous  fever.  Klein 
in  London  several  years  ago  believed  he  had  found  a  specific  diplo- 
coccus  in  cases  of  this  disease.  This  finding,  however,  has  not  been 
substantiated.  Siegel  considered  very  delicate  rods 0.7  /*  in  length, 
which  he  succeeded  in  isolating  from  the  cadavers  of  human  beings 
dead  of  "  mouth  disease,"  as  identical  with  the  organism  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease,  but  he  was  unable  to  identify  these  rods  in  case  of 
the  Litter  disease.  Siegel  later  saw  his  error  and  acknowledged  it 
Finally,  Schottelius  reported  that  in  punctate  hemorrhages  of  the 
epicardium  in  a  cow  which  suddenly  died  of  aphthous  fever  he 
found  a  peculiar  organism  in  the  contents  of  aphthae  when  certain 
precautions  were  observed.  This  organism  was  said  to  grow  slowly 
in  colonies  of  a  remarkable  character.  The  colonies  contained  short 
and  long  series  of  very  different  sized,  roundish  bodies  which,  as  a 
•whole,  were  spherical,  of  which,  however,  many,  especially  those 
which  were  located  on  the  ends,  showed  evaginations  which  in  form 
resembled  motile  pseudopodia  of  the  white  blood  corpuscles. 
Schottelius  called  these  structures  streptocytes  in  order  to  distin- 
guish them  from  streptococci.  "When  injected  with  1  cc.  of  a 
bouillon  culture  of  eight  days'  growth,  calves  and  young  cattle 
showed  a  slight  lever  after  twelve  hours,  a  diminution  of  appetite 
and  a  cough,  phenomena  which  persisted  for  two  or  three  days.. 


APHTHOUS   FEVER  58T 

Aphtha,  however,  did  not  appear  and  hogs  utterly  failed  to  react  to 
inoculations  of  streptocytes.  Kurth  corroborated  the  finding  of 
Schottelius.  Kurth  was  unable,  however,  to  produce  aphthous  fever 
artificially  by  inoculation  with  "  Streptococcus  involutus" 

The  most  comprehensive  investigations  concerning  the  organism 
of  foot-and-mouth  disease  during  the  last  ten  years  were  made  by 
Loftier,  Frosch  and  Uhlenhut  in  the  Berlin  Institute  for  Infectious. 
Diseases  and  later  in  the  Hygienic  Institute  at  Greifswald,  as  well  as- 
in  connection  with  a  Commission  in  the  Imperial  Health  Office  in 
Berlin.  The  skill  and  industry  of  these  investigators,  however,  did 
not  suffice  to  clear  up  the  mystery  which  prevails  with  regard  to- 
the  etiology  of  foot-and-mouth  disease.  The  investigations  in  ques- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  produced  important  results  with  regard  to 
the  nature  of  the  infectious  material.  Attempts  to  infect  the 
smaller  experimental  animals  with  foot-and-mouth  disease  resulted 
negatively.  Mice,  guinea  pigs,  rats,  rabbits,  chickens,  pigeons  and 
ducks  were  refractory.  Goats  also  exhibited  no  pronounced 
symptoms  of  disease,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  were  inoculated 
with  large  quantities  of  very  virulent  lymph.  Two  goats  developed 
slight  granulations  at  the  point  of  inoculation.  The  hoofs,  however,, 
remained  wholly  unaffected.  Attempts  to  produce  artificial  infec- 
tion in  sheep  in  a  typical  manner  were  unsuccessful.  Cattle  and 
hogs  reacted  3qually  well  to  the  infection. 

In  the  Institute  for  Infectious  Diseases  it  was  found  possible  to* 
transmit  the  disease  to  calves  by  means  of  the  blood  of  animals- 
which  had  been  inoculated  twelve  to  twenty-eight  hours  previously 
and  had  exhibited  a  rising  fever.  It  was  not  found  possible  to  pro- 
duce infection  by  means  of  feeding  muscle  meat,  pieces  of  the  spleen,, 
liver,  kidneys  or  contents  of  the  intestines,  but  positive  results  were 
obtained  by  feeding  the  affected  parts  of  organs. 

The  contents  of  aphthae  which  were  heated  for  fifteen  minute* 
to  a  temperature  of  50°,  ten  minutes  to  70°  and  momentarily  to  100° 
C.  lost  their  virulence.  In  the  Institute  for  Infectious  Diseases  the 
contents  of  aphthae  were  found  to  be  still  infectious  after  heating 
for  half  an  hour  to  50°  C. 

The  virus  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  is  not  influenced  by  cold. 
Lymph  placed  in  a  mixture  of  chloride  of  lime  and  ice  and  kept  in 
a  frozen  condition  ( — 48°  C.)  for  about  three  hours,  promptly 
infected  the  inoculated  animals. 

The  contents  of  aphthae,  on  the  other  hand,  appear  to  possess, 
only  a  slight  resisting  power  against  desiccation,  since  lymph  which 
was  dried  on  a  sterilized  plate  in  a  desiccator  over  sulphuric  acid 


588 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


in  vacuo  at  a  temperature  of  about  22°  C.  for  eighteen  hours  did  not 
produce  disease  in  the  inoculated  animals.  Lymph  which  was 
dried  on  wood,  stones  and  flannel  at  the  living  temperature  and 
under  diffuse  sunlight  likewise  became  inactive  after  twenty-four 
hours. 

Lymph  also  proved  to  have  but  little  resisting  power  against 
disinfectants.  It  was  found  possible  to  destroy  its  virulence  by  an 
exposure  for  one  hour  to  the  following  solutions  in  the  strengths 

FIG.  202. 


Aphtha.     Tip  of -beef  tongue. 
a,  Aphtha;  &,  epithelial  erosion  after  bursting  of  the  aphtha. 

Indicated :  Carbolic  acid,  1  per  cent.;  formaldehyde,  2  per  cent.; 
soda,  3  per  cent.;  hydrochloric  acid,  1  per  cent.;  phosphoric  acid,  1 
per  cent.;  milk  of  lime,  1  per  cent.  An  interesting  observation  was 
made  in  filtering  diluted  lymphs  through  a  Chamberland  filter.  It 
was  found  that  the  filtrate  remained  infectious. 

Finally,  in  artificial  transmission  experiments,  it  was  found  by 
the  Commission  that  the  incubative  period  up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
fever  was  from  one-half  a  day  to  six  days,  and  up  to  the  eruption  of 
aphthae,  it  was  from  two  to  ten  days. 


APHTHOUS  FEVER  583 

DIAGNOSIS. — Vesicles  filled  with  a  clear  fluid  (aphthae,  see  Fig. 
202,  a)  constitute  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  aphthous  fever. 
They  appear  in  cattle  most  frequently  on  the  nasal  septum  and  on 
the  toothless  border  of  the  upper  jaw  as  well  as  on  the  tip  and 
lateral  surfaces  of  the  tongue  and  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
cheeks  and  hard  gums  (mouth  disease).  When  aphthae  are  present 
on  the  border  and  in  the  cleft  of  the  hoofs,  one  speaks  of  foot  dis- 
ease. Aphthae  are  also  observed  on  the  udder  and  rarely  in  the 
pharynx,  at  the  base  of  the  horns  and  on  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  external  genital  organs. 

In  hogs,  aphthae  are  far  more  numerous  on  all  four  toes  than 
on  the  head.  Aphthae  are  also  comparatively  frequent  on  the  tip 
of  the  snout. 

Aphthae  persist  for  only  a  short  time.  They  soon  burst  and 
leave  behind  a  watery  erosion.  These  erosions,  as  a  rule,  heal  very 
quickly  by  proliferation  of  the  epithelium  or  epidermis  from  the 
side.  Previous  to  their  healing,  they  are  recognizable  by  the 
sharply-marked  limits  between  the  sound  tissue  and  the  eroded 
areas,  which  result  from  the  bursting  of  the  aphthae  (Fig.  202,  b). 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  erosions  on  the  hoofs,  especially  of 
hogs,  are  characterized  by  a  tendency  to  hemorrhages.  Moreover, 
the  sloughing-off  of  the  hoofs  is  not  a  rare  occurrence  in  hogs,  in 
consequence  of  hoof  disease. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  sequelae  of  aphthae  in  the  mouth 
cavity  may  be  confused  with  erosions  following  chemical  or  thermic 
agents,  but  especially  with  actinomycotic  erosions ;  and,  on  the 
toes,  they  may  be  confused  with,  for  example,  simple  traumata. 
Such  confusion  is  not  possible  when  intact  aphthae  are  present. 
Actinomycotic  erosions,  which  are  not  infrequent  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  cheeks  and  tongue  of  cattle,  may  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  aphthous  erosions.  For  the  former,  in  contrast  with 
the  latter,  are  sharply  delimited  and  possess  a  tough,  leathery 
basis  with  punctate,  depressed,  yellow  areas.  In  case  of  actinomyco- 
tic erosions,  the  fungiform  papillae  are  destroyed;  these  remain 
unaffected  in  aphthous  fever  (Leutsch). 

Simple  traumata  on  the  hoofs,  which,  especially  in  hogs,  have 
led  to  confusion  with  foot-and-mouth  disease,  commonly  affect 
only  one  toe,  and,  furthermore,  are  not  restricted  to  a  shedding 
of  the  epidermis,  as  is  the  case  in  bursted  aphthae;  but  they 
attack  deeper-lying  parts  in  cases  where  they  become  noticeable 
at  all. 


590  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

In  sheep  so-called  foot  rot  is  frequently  mistaken  for  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  In  case  of  foot  rot  there  is  an  inflammation  of 
the  epidermis  of  the  cleft  of  the  hoof,  in  which,  however,  aphthae 
are  absent. 

JUDGMENT.— Parts  of  diseased  animals  affected  with  aphthae 
and  fresh  erosions  must  be  regarded  as  dangerous  food  material 
in  a  raw  condition,  for  aphthous  fever  is  transmissible  to  man. 
The  meat,  on  the  other  hand,  as  well  as  all  other  parts  of  aphthous 
animals,  possesses,  according  to  experts,  no  injurious  properties. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  common  practice  to  remove  from  these  animals 
only  those  parts  which  form  the  seat  of  specific  alterations.  All 
other  parts,  however,  are  admitted  to  the  market  as  suitable  food 
material. 

With  regard  to  parts  of  the  body  affected  with  aphthae  and 
erosions,  the  usual  procedure  is  not  strictly  correct.  Some  expert 
inspectors  consider  it  sufficient  to  cut  out  the  diseased  parts  and 
admit  the  rest  of  the  organs  to  the  market.  Other  inspectors 
order  the  total  destruction  of  these  organs.  The  one  procedure 
is  as  unworthy  of  approval  as  the  other.  The  diseased  parts  are 
conditionally  utilizable.  They  may  be  admitted  to  the  market 
after  they  have  been  scalded  in  boiling  water,  for  the  boiling 
temperature  destroys  the  virus  of  aphthous  fever,  and  by  scald- 
ing, such  valuable  parts  as  the  tongue  may  be  saved  for  use  as 
food. 

SEQUELS  AND  SUDDEN  FATAL  CASES  OF  APHTHOUS  FEVER.— 
Judgment  in  the  case  of  sequelae  should  be  essentially  different 
from  that  in  cases  of  aphthous  fever.  Chiefly  in  cattle,  less  fre- 
quently in  hogs,  chronic  suppurative  processes,  as  a  result  of 
aphthous  fever,  develop  in  the  hoofs,  hoof  joints  and  udder,  and 
may  lead  to  pyemia.  In  such  cases,  not  only  the  diseased  parts, 
but  also  the  whole  musculature  may  acquire  dangerous  properties 
if  the  symptoms  of  pyemia  are  present  (see  page  561). 

In  general,  aphthous  fever  runs  a  benign  course,  if  we  dis- 
regard the  sequelae.  Sudden  fatal  cases  may  occur,  however,  in 
consequence  of  the  disease,  the  origin  of  which  is  not  fully  under- 
stood (malignant  foot-and-mouth  disease).  Lydtin  observed  fatal 
cases  in  consequence  of  aspiration  of  sloughed-off  shreds  of  epi- 
thelium from  the  mouth  and  pharyngeal  cavities.  Other  authors 
observed  these  results  after  aspiration  of  masses  of  food  during 
rumination.  In  both  cases  death  occurred  from  asphyxiation. 


pox  591 

The  meat  of  such  animals  is,  therefore,  to  be  treated  like  that  of 
asphyxiated  animals. 

For  the  present  we  have  no  certain  criteria  for  deciding  how 
to  judge  the  meat  of  animals  in  which  multiple  embolic  myocarditis 
(numerous  grayish-red  and  grayish-yellow  spots,  especially  in 
the  myocardium  of  the  left  ventricle)  is  found  to  be  the  cause  of 
death  (Johne).  I  have  been  unable  either  by  personal  inquiry 
or  by  examination  of  the  literature  to  find  any  injury  to  health 
from  eating  such  meat.  From  the  reports  of  the  Bavarian  District 
Veterinarians  it  would  appear  that  the  meat  of  animals  subjected 
to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  unfavorable  symptoms  is 
regularly  eaten  without  injury.  These  veterinarians  emphasize 
the  fact  that  the  meat  in  question,  as  a  rule,  showed  no  alteration. 
Loffler  was  able  to  kill  hogs  by  injecting  large  quantities  of  the 
contents  of  aphthae,  whereby  an  embolic  myocarditis,  resembling 
that  which  is  found  in  cattle  dead  of  malignant  foot-and-mouth  dis- 
ease, was  found  to  be  a  most  striking  phenomenon. 

In  reference  to  the  skins  of  aphthous  animals,  the  instruc- 
tions for  carrying  out  Sees.  19  to  28  of  the  Imperial  Plague  Law 
prescribe  as  follows  :  "  Skins  of  dead  or  slaughtered  diseased  ani- 
mals may  be  removed  from  the  quarantine  limits  only  in  a.  com- 
pletely dried  condition,  except  in  cases  where  they  are  delivered 
directly  to  the  tannery." 

Since  in  the  case  of  cattle  it  is  customary  in  slaughtering 
to  leave  portions  of  the  skin  connected  with  the  feet,  the  latter  are 
subject  to  the  same  trade  restrictions  as  the  skins  of  aphthous 
animals. 

(c)  Pox. 

In  domesticated  animals,  two  independent  pox  diseases  occur : 
cow  pox  and  sheep  pox.  Cow  pox  as  well  as  sheep  pox  may  be 
transmitted  to  man  by  subcutaneous  inoculation. 

Cow  Pox. 

Spontaneous  cases  of  cow  pox  possess  no  sanitary  police 
interest,  since  they  represent  benign  local  affections  which  never 
lead  to  the  slaughter  of  the  affected  animals.  The  conditions  are 
different,  however,  in  the  case  of  calves  and  bulls,  in  which  pox  is 
produced  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  vaccine.  These  animals  are 
slaughtered  after  removing  the  vaccine  material  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  condition  of  their  health. 


5(.)2  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

JUDGMENT. — The  meat  of  vaccine  calves  and  bulls  in  most 
abattoirs  is  admitted  to  the  market  after  the  removal  of  the  edema- 
tous  infiltrated  subcutis  under  the  point  of  inoculation.  No  harm 
from  eating  such  meat  has  ever  been  observed. 

In  contrast  with  this  practice,  Goltz  urges  that  vaccine  calves 
shall  not  be  slaughtered  until  after  the  inoculation  disease  has  run 
its  course.  Otherwise,  he  argues,  the  meat  should  be  sold  on  the 
freibank.  Goltz  bases  his  view  on  the  following  facts:  (1)  Vac- 
cine calves,  at  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the  vaccine,  exhibit  a, 
feverish  condition;  (2)  the  disease  is  transmissible  to  man;  (3) 
swellings  are  observed  in  the  skin  and  subcutis  as  well  as  in  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands  of  the  point  of  inoculation.  Even  if 
pox  is  not  transmissible  by  the  consumption  of  the  meat,  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  meat  may  be  contaminated  with  pox  virus, 
in  the  process  of  cutting  up. 

According  to  the  author's  view,  the  sale  of  the  meat  on  the 
freibank  is  justified  only  in  the  case  of  such  vaccine  calves  as  show 
a  temperature  of  over  40.5°  C.  at  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the 
vaccine,  or  have  lost  weight  in  consequence  of  accidental  intestinal 
catarrh.  With  rational  feeding,  vaccine  calves  increase  in  weight 
during  vaccination.  Contamination  of  the  meat  with  the  pox  virus- 
during  slaughter  may  be  prevented  by  previous  disinfection  of  the 
points  of  inoculation,  preferably  by  the  vaccine  physicians  after  the 
vaccine  has  been  taken. 

Sheep  Pox. 

Sheep  pox  is  without  significance  in  Germany  for  the  reason 
that  this  disease  has  been  exterminated  by  the  operation  of  the 
Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law  of  Germany  (prohibition  of  sheep  pox 
vaccination).  Merely  the  malignant  form  of  sheep  pox,  in  whicli 
the  so-called  cadaveric  and  gangrenous  pox  arises,  would  be  of 
interest  in  meat  inspection,  since  animals  affected  with  the  benign 
form  are  not  usually  brought  to  slaughter. 

JUDGMENT. — The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  beirign  pox  is  to- 
be  treated  in  different  ways,  according  to  the  stage  of  tne  disease  r 
In  the  eruption  and  maturation  stage  of  the  disease  as  a  spoiled  or 
inferior  food  material ;  in  the  healing  stage,  however,  with  the  ani- 
mal in  a  good  nutritive  condition,  as  a  marketable  food  material. 

In  cases  of  cadaveric  and  gangrenous  pox,  however,  which^, 
especially  in  very  young  and  very  old  animals,  often  leads  to  the- 


RABIES  593 

development  of  fatal  cases  of  sepsis,  the  meat,  like  that  of  all  food 
animals  suffering  with  septic  disease,  is  to  be  considered  as  a 
dangerous  food  material.  The  following  regulations  of  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law  refer  to  the  skins  of 
variolous  sheep  : 

Section  9710.  "  Skins  of  dead  or  slaughtered  variolous  sheep 
may  be  removed  from  the  quarantine  limits  only  in  a  completely 
dried  condition,  except  in  cases  where  they  are  to  be  delivered 
directly  to  the  tannery." 

(d)  Rabies. 

GENERAL. — Babies  possesses  quite  subordinate  importance  for 
meat  inspection.  The  official  reports  concerning  the  distribution  of 
animal  plagues  make  mention  each  year  of  rabies  in  cattle,  sheep 
and  hogs.  The  number  of  these  cases,  however,  is  always  very 
small. 

The  ETIOLOGY  of  rabies  is  thus  far  unknown. 

DIAGNOSIS* — For  the  diagnosis  of  rabies  in  food  animals,  the 
history,  especially  the  determination  of  a  previous  dog  bite,  is 
of  importance.  For  the  rest,  the  negative  pathologico-anatomical 
findings  and  the  presence  of  indigestible  material  in  the  stomach 
is  characteristic  of  rabies.  A  certain  diagnosis  is  made  possible 
only  by  subdural,  intraocular  or  intracerebral  inoculation  of  cerebral 
substance  (pous  varolii)  into  rabbits.  With  intracerebral  inocula- 
tion, the  incubative  period,  as  shown  by  Leclainche  and  Morel,  is 
shorter  than  with  subdural  or  intraocular  inoculation.  The  histo- 
logical  diagnosis  of  rabies,  recommended  by  Babes,  Van  Gehuchten 
and  Helis  (pericellular  accumulations  of  leucocytes  in  the  medulla 
and  especially  in  the  plexiform  ganglion  of  the  vagus),  is  not  reliable, 
since  it  may  fail  in  the  case  of  animals  killed  during  the  progress  of 
the  disease. 

JUDGMENT. — The  transmission  of  rabies  by  eating  the  meat  of 
rabid  domesticated  animals  has  never  been  observed.  Nevertheless, 
the  meat  of  rabid  animals  is  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the 
market,  since  infection  may  arise  in  cutting  it  up.  In  Copenhagen, 
in  1857,  a  veterinary  student  with  a  wound  on  his  finger  did  a  post 
mortem  examination  on  a  dog  dead  of  rabies,  and  died  ;  a  few  years 
ago  a  similar  case  occurred  with  a  student  in  Dresden  in  conse- 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

quence  of  an  injury  received  during  a  post  mortem  examination  oi 
a  rabid  dog.  It  should  be  remembered  in  this  connection  that  the 
virulence  of  the  most  important  carriers  of  rabies  virus,  the  central 
nervous  system  and  salivary  glands,  does  not  disappear,  as  previ- 
ously assumed,  within  twenty-four  hours,  but,  according  to  von 
Ratz,  only  after  fourteen  to  twenty-four  days.  The  Russian 
veterinarian,  Wyrsykowski,  instituted  careful  experiments  concern- 
ing the  action  of  the  gastric  juice  on  the  virus  of  rabies.  Proceeding 
from  the  fact  that  after  eating  the  meat  and  even  the  brain  of 
animals  dead  of  rabies  no  illness  occurred,  Wyrsykowski  tested  the 
action  of  artificial  gastric  juice  upon  the  medulla  oblongata  of  an 
affected  rabbit,  in  a  thermostat.  Of  twenty-one  rabbits  which  were 
inoculated  with  artificially-digested  rabies  virus,  none  contracted 
rabies,  while  seventeen  control  animals,  inoculated  with  undigested 
virus,  died  of  the  disease. 

The  Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law  prohibits  the  slaughter  of 
rabid  animals  and  animals  suspected  of  rabies,  as  well  as  all  traffic 
in  the  meat. 

Sec.  36  :  "  The  slaughter  of  rabid  a  «imals  or  animals  suspected  of  being  rabid 
and  the  sale  or  utilization  of  individual  parts,  milk,  or  other  products  of  such 
animals,  is  forbidden." 

Sec.  39  :  "  The  carcasses  of  slaughtered  rabid  animals  or  animals  suspected 
of  being  rabid  must  be  immediately  rendered  innocuous.  The  skinning  of  such 
animals  is  forbidden." 


(e)  Glanders. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Glanders  is  an  infectious  disease  of 
solipeds  (horses,  asses  and  their  crosses,  mules  and  ninnies).  The 
typical  symptom  of  this  disease  is  the  appearance  of  tubercles 
which  are  caused  by  the  entrance  of  specific  bacilli  (the  glanders 
bacilli).  In  consequence  of  the  disintegration  of  the  tubercles, 
ulcers  arise  on  the  mucous  membrane.  In  the  parenchymatous 
tubercles  the  disintegration  is  characterized  by  a  cloudiness  which 
progresses  from  the  center  outwards.  During  this  disintegration, 
hyperemia  and  cellular  infiltration  occur  in  the  surrounding 
tissue.  Calcification  of  the  glanderous  tubercles  has  not  been 
observed  (Csokor,  Hahn,  Kitt,  Schiitz).  A  specific  affection  of  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands  is  associated  with  the  tubercles  and 
ulcers^  Glanders  is  communicable  to  cats,  dogs,  and  goats  as  well 
as  to  man.  Sheep  are  less  susceptible.  Hogs  are  nearly  refractory 
and  cattle  are  entirely  immune.  Among  the  experimental  animals* 


GLANDERS  595 

iield  mice  and  guinea  pigs  react  very  promptly  to  inoculations.  In 
zoological  gardens,  glanders  has  frequently  been  observed  in 
carnivorous  animals  after  feeding  on  glanderous  horse  meat. 

BACTERIOLOGY. — Glanders  is  produced  by  the  glanders  bacilli 
which  were  discovered  by  Loffler  and  Schiitz.  They  are  non-motile, 
short  and  thicker  than  the  tubercle  bacilli  (Fig.  203).  They  may, 
however,  grow  into  threads  and  form  lateral  branches.  For  this 
reason  the  organism  of  glanders  has  been  classed  with  the  fungi 
(streptothrices),  or  with  the  group  of  actinomyces  bacteria.  The 
formation  of  spores  has  not  been  demonstrated.  Glanders  bacilli 
best  stained  in  an  alkaline  or  carbolized  solution  of  methylene 

FIG.  204. 
FIG,  203. 


* 


Crlanders    bacilli    from    a 

young  potato  culture. 

X  500  diameters. 

Smear  of  glanderous  pus  from  the  inguinal  gland  of  a 
guinea  pig,  with  unusually  numerous  bacilli.  The 
nuclei  of  pus  cells  have  split  up  into  numerous  small 
spherules.  X  500  diameters. 

blue.  A  specific  staining  method  for  the  glanders  bacilli  has  not 
been  perfected,  in  spite  of  numerous  efforts  in  that  direction.  We 
are,  therefore,  not  in  a  position  to  demonstrate  glanders  as  we  may 
tuberculosis,  simply  by  staining  the  bacilli,  since  the  glanders  bacilli 
are  without  morphological  peculiarities.  Pure  cultures  and  inocu- 
lation, however,  give  more  reliable  criteria  for  identification. 
•Cultures  of  glanders  bacilli  on  potato  exhibit  a  honey-like  layer 
after  two  days,  which  in  six  to  eight  days  becomes  opaque  and  at 
the  same  time  assumes-  "  a  color  resembling  the  red  of  cuprous 
•oxide."  (According  to  Loffler,  the  somewhat  similar  yellowish- 
brown  potato  cultures  of  green  pus  are  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  small  quantities  smeared  on  filter  paper  and  exposed  to  tha 


596 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


fumes  of  ammonia  immediately  turn  bluish-green,  while  cultures  of 
glanders  bacilli  remain  unchanged.) 

The  glanders  bacillus  offers  but  slight  resistance  to  disinfec- 
tants. Water  at  a  temperature  of  55°  C.  kills  it  after  an  exposure 
of  ten  minutes. 

The  glanders  bacilli  are  found  chiefly  in  the  pathologically 
altered  parts.  They  are  not  always  found  in  the  blood,  and,  as  a 
rule,  only  in  small  quantities.  Even  in  the  specifically-altered  foci,, 
the  number  of  glanders  bacilli  demonstrable  by  staining  is  usually^ 
small. 

A  highly  important  and  remarkable  fact  in  the  diagnosis  of 
glanders  was  demonstrated  by  Unna  and  confirmed  by  Schiitz,, 
namely,  that  the  cell  nuclei  in  the  glanderous  foci  become  dissolved. 

FIG.  205. 


Nasal  septum  of  horse  with  glanderous  ulcers  and  a  cicatrix. 


in  a  remarkable  manner  (dissolution  of  the  nuclei,  chromatotexis, 
according  to  Unna).  Schiitz  also  demonstrated  that  the  chromatin 
of  the  nuclei  of  the  round  cells  in  the  glanderous  foci  is  not 
destroyed,  as  in  other  mortifying  processes,  but  is  preserved  eveu 
when  the  nuclei  are  completely  disintegated.  The  nucleus  first 
breaks  up  into  particles  which  lie  close  together  and  form  a  small 
mass  of  nearly  the  form  of  the  nucleus  (Fig.  204).  Later  the  indi- 
vidual granules  become  separated  from  the  nuclear  mass  and  are 
distributed  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell,  or  the  nuclear  mass  is 
disintegrated  and  distributed  uniformly  in  the  cell  substance.  The 
nuclear  debris  retains  all  the  properties  of  the  nuclear  substance, 
especially  its  affinity  for  stains. 

DURING  LIFE. — The  most  important  alterations  in  chronic 
glanders,  and  those  to  which  meat  inspectors  should  give  chief 
attention  in  the  examination  before  slaughter,  are  the  following : 


GLANDERS  597 

"The  glanderous  tubercles  in  and  under  the  skin,  the  characteristic 
iarcj  ulcers  of  the  skin,  indolent  phlegmons  on  the  extremities  and 
head,  ushered  in  with  the  formation  of  ulcers,  typical  swelling  of  the 
lymphatic  vessels  and  glands,  and,  finally,  glanderous  tubercles, 
ulcers  and  scars  which  are  observed  upon  an  inspection  of  the  nasal 
cavities. 

ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS.  — "We  may  first  emphasize  in  this  connec- 
tion the  fact  already  mentioned  on  page  157,  that  in  cases  of 
glanders  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  dissect  the  head  and  make  a 
careful  examination  of  all  parts  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  every 
slaughtered  horse.  The  laryngeal  lymph  glands  of  all  slaughtered 
horses  should  also  be  subjected  to  a  detailed  examination.  In 
addition  to  the  alterations  which  are  demonstrable  during  life  on 
and  under  the  skin  and  in  the  inferior  third  of  the  nasal  cavities, 
the  specific  alterations  in  the  accessory  cavities  of  the  nose,  in  the 
guttural  pouch,  and  in  the  larynx  and  trachea  are  present  in  cases 
of  chronic  glanders.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  glanders,  the 
lungs  are  also  affected.  In  52  cases  examined  by  Bellinger,  the 
lungs  were  found  unaffected  in  only  4  cases,  and  in  only  10  of  the  216 
post  mortem  examinations  made  in  the  Berlin  High  School.  The 
lungs  are  permeated  either  with  embolic  glanderous  tubercles,  or 
with  infiltrations  varying  in  size  from  a  walnut  to  a  child's  head, 
the  so-called  glanderous  growths.  Furthermore,  embolic  glander- 
ous foci,  as  a  result  of  glanders  of  the  skin  or  respiratory  apparatus, 
may  appear  in  other  organs,  especially  in  the  spleen,  liver,  kidneys, 
testicles,  brain,  heart  muscles  and  bones. 

DIAGNOSIS.  —  The  diagnostic  characters  of  the  glanderous 
tubercles  are  the  grayish,  transparent,  glassy  appearance,  the  red 
area  as  well  as  the  sympathetic  affection  of  the  corresponding 
lymph  glands  (swelling  and  glanderou&tubercles  on  the  cut  surface). 
The  glanderous  growths  in  the  lungs  are  distinguished  from  all 
other  similar  alterations  by  their  diffuse  grayish- white,  soft  or  firm 
character,  and  the  uniformly  constant  affection  of  the  bronchial 
glands. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  number  of  diseases  which  may 
be  and  have  already  been  confused  with  glanders  is  quite  large. 
^Especial  mention  should  be  made  of  contagious  coryza,  leukemia, 
-croupous  rhinitis,  chronic  catarrh  of  the  nose,  non-glanderous  pul- 
monary tubercles  and  botryomycosis  of  the  lungs.  The  positive 


598 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


differentiation  of  these  processes  from  glanders  should  not  b» 
difficult  for  the  expert  inspector,  ij:  attention  is  given  to  the  charac- 
teristic symptoms  of  glanders  in  slaughtered  animals. 

In  doubtful  cases,  the  question  must  be  decided  by  a  bacterio- 
logical test.  In  intact  farcy  buds  and  in  diseased  lymphatic  glands, 
we  may  make  a  reliable  bacteriological  diagnosis,  since  in  these 
parts  the  glanders  bacilli  are  present  in  pure  cultures.  Moreover, 
ia  tiiGae  cases,  all  doubt  may  be  removed  by  making  a  culture  on 
potatoes.  The  diagnosis  is  not  so  easy  when  the  material  is  con- 

FIG.  206. 


Old  glanderous  pulmonary  tubercle,  a,  central  necrotic  portion;  l>,  giant  cells ,- 
c,  boundary  between  necrotic  portion  and  capsule  with  chromatic  remains  of 
disintegrated  giant  cells;  d,  connective  tissue  capsule.  X  30  diameters. 


taminated  (secretion  from  ulcerous  broncho-pneumonic  foci,  etc.). 
In  such  cases  experiments  on  animals  are  indispensable,  and  such 
experiments  should  be  made  preferably  on  guinea  pigs,  since  field 
mice  frequently  die  of  intercurrent  septicemia.  Formerly  male 
guinea  pigs  were  used  almost  exclusively  for  inoculation,  since  the 
affection  of  the  testicles,  which  may  appear  in  the  second  week,  was- 
considered  a  good  means  of  recognizing  glanders.  At  present 
intraperitoneal  inoculation  of  female  guinea  pigs  is  recommended 


GLANDERS  599 

(Bestrie).  It  is  stated  that  in  these  animals  a  purulent  discharge 
takes  place  from  the  vagina  after  two  days.  According  to  Strauss, 
purulent  orchitis  appears  in  male  guinea  pigs  after  two  days  when 
the  animals  are  inoculated  iutraperitoneally  and  not  subcutane- 
ously. 

HISTOLOGY  OF  PULMONARY  GLANDEROUS  TUBERCLES  AND  THEIR 
DIFFERENTIATION  FROM  ENTOZOIG  PULMONARY  TUBERCLES. — Accord- 
ing to  Schiitz,  recent  etnbolic  glanderous  tubercles  in  the  lungs  of 
horses  represent  pneumonic  foci  about  the  size  of  grains  of  sand 
which  are  reddened  and  not  sharply  delimited,  but  which  shade  off 
gradually  into  the  healthy  neighboring  tissue.  The  center  of  the 
glanderous  tubercle,  in  consequence  of  mortification  of  the  cellular 
exudation  in  the  alveoli  and  the  lung  tissue  in  them,  soon  becomes 
cloudy  and  is  not  round,  but  is  furnished  with  projecting  processes, 
or  is  sometimes  wedge-shaped  (Fig.  206,  a).  The  central  part  of 
the  tubercles  is  always  sharply  delimited  from  the  more  deeply 
reddened  periphery.  A  section  through  quite  recently  developed 
glanderous  tubercles  shows  in  the  center  as  well  as  on  the  periphery 
a  granulated  character  (miliary  fibrinous  pneumonia).  In  older 
glanderous  tubercles,  the  granulation  disappears  in  consequence  of 
the  necrosis  of  the  pneumonically-altered  parts.  The  center 
becomes  smooth,  dry  and  grayish-yellow  and  around  the  center  a 
transparent  gray  capsule  is  formed  (Fig.  206,  d).  The  center  of 
glanderous  tubercles  consists  of  a  peculiar  detritus,  which  can  not 
be  compared  either  with  pus  or  with  cheese  and  takes  an  unusually 
deep  stain  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  chromatin.  Calcification 
is  wanting.  On  the  border  between  the  central  necrosed  portion  of 
the  glanderous  tubercle  and  the  capsule,  giant  cells  and  plasma 
cells  are  found  (Unna),  both  of  which  are  characterized  by  their 
unusual  size.  In  fresh  glanderous  tubercles,  the  giant  cells  and 
also  the  plasma  cells  are  wanting.  Later,  the  giant  cells  dis- 
integrate, while  the  dissolved  chromatin  persists  (Fig.  206,  c). 

According  to  Schiitz,  entozoic  pulmonary  tubercles  (compare 
page  328)  are  caused  by  parasites  which  penetrate  into  the  capil- 
laries or  remain  lying  in  the  larger  vessels  of  the  lungs.  In  the 
first  case  a  chronic  miliary  pulmonary  inflammation  arises  and  in 
the  second  a  chronic  inflammation  of  the  vascular  walls  with 
obturating  thrombosis. 

Tubercles  of  the  first  form  consist  of  infiltrated  alveoli  and  a 
delicate  capsule.  The  center  of  the  tubercles  is  formed  almost 
exclusively  of  cellular  tissue  and  in  it  a  parasite  is  to  be  demon- 


600  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

strated  (Fig.  207).  After  the  death  of  the  parasite,  it  first  becomes 
calcified  and,  later,  also  the  whole  tubercle,  with  a  thickening  of 
the  connective  tissue  membrane.  The  tubercles  possess  a  diameter 
of  1.5  to  3.5  mm.,  and  the  parasites  in  them  possess  a  diameter  of 
42  to  81  /i. 

Entozoic  tubercles  of  the  second  sort  are  composed  of  a  cap- 
sule and  the  plug.  The  capsule  is  formed  by  the  thickened  vas- 
cular wall  and  is  usually  strengthened  by  the  chronically-inflamed 
neighboring  pulmonary  tissue.  The  central  plug  is  a  thrombus 
which  incloses  the  parasite  and  may  either  calcify  or  soften.  In 
softened  tubercles  the  parasite  is  less  frequently  demonstrated 

FIG.  207. 


Entozoic  pulmonary  tubercles  of  a  pneumonic  form  in  the  horse  (after  Olt).  a,  inflamed 
alveoli;  b,  part  of  a  nematode  larva;  c,  connective  tissue  capsule  of  the  parasitic 
focus.  X  30  diameters.  The  parts  of  the  worm  are  magnified  80  diameters. 

than  in   calcified   ones,  since   in   the   former   case  it  rapidly  dis- 
integrates in  consequence  of  fatty  metamorphosis. 

In  the  differentiation  of  glanderous  tubercles  from  entozoic 
tubercles,  it  is  important  to  note  that  in  glanders,  recent  tubercles 
in  various  stages  of  development  regularly  occur  in  addition  to  the 
old  glanderous  tubercles. 

PSEUDO-GLANDERS. — Nocard  isolated  from  horses  suspected  of 
being  affected  with  the  skin  form  of  glanders  a  pseudo-glanders 
bacillus.  By  means  of  intraperitoneal  inoculation  it  was  distin- 
guished from  the  true  glanders  bacillus  by  the  fact  that  it  could  be 
stained  by  the  Gram  method,  killed  mice  in  from  24  to  48  hours. 


TUBERCULOSIS  601 

the  formation  of  an  abscess  at  the  point  of  inoculation,  and 
produced  in  horses  only  local  abscesses  and  not  glanders. 

JUDGMENT. — Sec.  43  of  the  Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law  con- 
tains the  following  regulation  relative  to  glanders  :  "  The  carcasses 
of  dead  or  slaughtered  glanderous  animals  must  be  immediately 
rendered  innocuous.  The  skinning  of  such  animals  is  forbidden." 

This  provision  renders  superfluous  for  the  practice  of  meat 
inspection  all  further  discussion  concerning  the  harmful  or  harm- 
less character  of  the  meat  of  glanderous  animals.  It  is  of  scien- 
tific and  forensic  interest,  however,  to  discuss  the  question  whether 
glanders  may  or  may  not  be  communicated  to  man  by  means  of  the 
meat  of  glanderous  animals.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that 
carnivorous  animals  in  zoological  gardens  have  frequently  con- 
tracted glanders  in  consequence  of  being  fed  upon  the  meat  of 
glanderous  horses.  A  similar  infection  in  man  has  not  yet  been 
observed  with  certainty.  In  fact,  it  has  been  shown  in  many  cases 
that  the  meat  of  glanderous  horses  has  been  eaten  by  man  without 
tarm  ;  as,  for  example,  during  the  siege  of  Paris  (Decroix). 

Bauingarten  ascribes  the  different  reaction  of  man  and  carnivor- 
ous animals  to  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  glanderous  horses 
to  the  fact  that  the  latter  in  masticating  the  bone  connected  with 
the  meat  receive  wounds  in  the  mouth  cavity  and  thus  become 
infected ;  for  primary  intestinal  infection  appears  not  to  occur  in 
any  animal,  since  specific  glanderous  affection  of  the  intestinal  wall 
has  thus  far  never  been  observed.  This  assumption  can,  however, 
no  longer  be  maintained  since  the  recent  investigations  of  Nocard, 
which  have  been  confirmed  by  Schiitz.  For,  in  these  investigations 
it  was  shown  that  primary  intestinal  glanders  could  be  produced 
by  feeding  glanders  bacilli.  Moreover,  the  danger  of  infection 
from  glanders  exists  both  in  masticating  bones  and  in  merely 
handling  glanderous  meat,  whether  wounds  are  already  present  or 
are  received  from  projecting  bone  splinters.  For  this  reason  the 
meat  of  glanderous  animals  must  be  considered  as  a  dangerous  food 
material. 

(f)   Tuberculosis. 

1. — NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. 

Tuberculosis  is  a  chronic  infectious  disease,  which  is  caused 
and  disseminated  by  the  tubercle  bacillus.  It  is  the  most  frequent 


602  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

disease  of  food  animals  and,  next  to  septicemia,  is  their  most 
important  disease  from  a  sanitary  standpoint.  Tuberculosis  occurs 
in  all  our  domesticated  animals.  With  regard  to  the  frequency  of 
the  disease  in  different  species  of  domesticated  animals,  however,  a 
striking  difference  prevails.  While  the  cases  of  tuberculosis  among 
horses  and.sheep  must  be  considered  as  exceedingly  rare,  tubercu- 
losis is  a  frequent  disease  in  hogs  and  a  regular  plague  in  cattle. 
With  regard  to  the  goat,  it  was  formerly  assumed  that  this  animal 
was  free  from  tuberculosis.  Inoculation  experiments,  however, 
and  more  careful  investigations  at  abattoirs  have  shown  this  view 
to  be  untenable. 

The  frequency  of  the  occurrence  of  tuberculosis  in  the  two 
domesticated  animals  which  are  most  affected  varies  within  wide 
limits,  according  to  the  origin  of  the  animals.  Thus,  in  southern 
Germany,  tuberculosis  of  hogs  was  formerly  very  rare,  while  even 
in  the  70's  Schiitz  said  of  northern  Germany,  "  tuberculosis  in  hogs 
possesses  a  scarcely-suspected  distribution,  as  I  have  learned, 
partly  from  the  reports  of  district  veterinarians  and  partly  from 
personal  experience."  At  present  tuberculosis  of  hogs  is  observed 
more  frequently  also  in  southern  Germany,  but  by  no  means  so  fre- 
quently as  in  northern  Germany.  In  the  latter  region  the  number 
of  tuberculous  swine,  according  to  the  abattoir  reports,  ranges  from 
1  to  7  per  cent. 

In  the  case  of  cattle,  such  variations  in  the  occurrence  of 
tuberculosis  do  not  exist  within  the  limits  of  Germany.  Cattle 
which  are  maintained  exclusively  on  pastures,  like  the  American 
range  cattle,  Bukowina  cattle  and  the  cattle  of  the  Russian  Steppes, 
are  nearly  free  from  tuberculosis.*  In  stall-fed  cattle,  according  to 
leiiable  parties,  at  least  every  fourth  animal  is  tuberculous,  calves 
excluded.  This  proportion  is  closely  in  accord  with  my  own 
experience.  The  Imperial  Health  Office,  at  the  request  of  the 
Imperial  Chancellor,  collected  statistics  concerning  the  occurrence 
of  tuberculosis  in  the  German  Empire.  According  to  these  sta- 
tistics the  number  of  cases  of  tuberculosis  observed  in  the  year 
1888-89  in  cattle  amounted  to  0.33  per  cent,  of  a  total  number  of 
15,750,000.  In  the  report,  however,  it  was  expressly  stated  that  the 
determined  percentage  did  not  at  all  correspond  with  the  actual 
conditions,  since  the  statistics  were  not  made  upon  a  uniform  basis 

*  Concerning  Australian  cattle,  it  is  also  asserted  they  are  free  from,  tuber- 
culosis. This  assertion,  however,  is  shown  to  be  untrue  by  an  examination  of 
meat  imported  from  Australia.  In  Leipsic,  for  example,  out  of  621  beef  quarters 
iiupr/rced  i'rom  Australia  five  were  found  to  be  tuberculous. 


TUBERCULOSIS  60S 

(presence  or  absence  of  public  abattoirs,  meat  inspection,  etc.). 
The  percentages  obtained  in  different  parts  of  the  Empire  varied 
exceedingly.  While,  for  example,  it  was  stated  that  in  the  "  Magde- 
burg and  Brandenburg  sugar  cattle  "  almost  every  fifth  animal  was 
tuberculous,  in  the  district  of  Augermiinde  no  cases  were  found  in 
13,000  slaughtered  animals ;  and  in  the  district  of  Teltov,  only  15 
cases  of  tuberculosis  were  demonstrated  in  40,000  slaughtered  ani- 
mals. The  percentages  obtained,  as  is  emphasized  in  the  report 
itself,  can  not  lay  claim  even  to  approximate  accuracy. 

A  better  idea  of  the  distribution  of  tuberculosis  among  food 
animals  is  obtained  from  the  reports  of  the  different  abattoirs. 

Frequency  of  Tuberculosis  in  Different  Species  of  Food  Animals,  accord- 
ing to  the  Showing  of  the  Abattoir  Reports.* 

(a)  Cattle. — The    percentage    of     tuberculosis     among    cattle 
slaughtered  in  public  abattoirs  in  different  cities  for  different  years 
ranged  between  6.34  and  45.8  per  cent. 

(b)  Calves. — Formerly  the  number  of  tuberculous  calves  was»- 
found  to  be  extremely  small ;  for  example,  in  the  Saxony  abattoirs  it 
amounted  to  only  0.006  per  cent,  in  1889,  .03  per  cent,  in  1890,  and 
in  Berlin   .079   per   cent,  in  1890.     At  present  the   percentage  of 
tuberculous  calves  has  increased  considerably  and  ranges,  accord- 
ing to  reports  from  slaughterhouses  in  Germany  for  different  years 
between  .05  and  1.07  per  cent. 

(c)  Sheep  and  Goats. — In  both   these  animal  genera  cases  of 
tuberculosis  are  rare.     Nevertheless,  both  sheep  and  goats  are  sus- 
ceptible, as  is  sufficiently  shown  by  its  spontaneous  occurrence  and 
by  inoculation  experiments.     In  Saxony  in  1890,  .02  per  cent,  of  the 
sheep  were  tuberculous,  and  in  Berlin,  during  the  same  year,  .0048 
per  cent.     These  favorable  conditions,  however,  were  found  only  in 
sheep  and  goats  living  chiefly  in  the  open  air.     As  a  result  of  keep- 
ing goats  in  stalls,  they  become  tuberculous  to  the  same  extent  as 
cattle.     Eichhorn,  for  example,  reported  concerning  a  herd  of  goats 
in  Dresden,  in  which  19,  or  68  per  cent.,  were  shewn  to  be  tuber- 
culous by  the  tuberculin  test.     In  different  parts  of  Germany  for 
various  years  the  percentages  of  tuberculous  sheep  were  found  to 
range  between  .0029  and  1.26. 

*  The  statistical  data  have  been  condensed  into  a  much  shorter  form  than  in; 
the  German  original. — TRANSLATOR. 


604  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Iii  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in 
sheep  sank  from  .15  per  cent,  in  1894  to  .07  per  cent,  in  1896  and 
,.06  in  1899.  This  condition  is  connected  with  the  fact  that  the 
pseudo-tuberculous  alterations  which  occur  in  sheep  were  formerly 
sometimes  confused  in  part  with  true  tuberculosis. 

The  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in  goats  in  different  parts  of 
Oermany  for  different  years  ranged  between  .41  and  7.7  per  cent. 

(d)  The  Hog,  next  to  cattle,  is  most  frequently  affected  with 
tuberculosis.     Swine  tuberculosis  is,  without  doubt,  as  a  rule,  to  be 
ascribed  to  feeding  the  milk  of  cows  suffering  from  tuberculosis  of 
the  udder,  or  dairy  by-products,  especially  the  centrifugal  slime  of 
such  milk. 

Bellinger  in  the  80's  experimentally  demonstrated  that  hogs 
could  be  infected  by  the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows  and  this  has  been 
-subsequently  corroborated  by  numerous  unexceptionable  observa- 
tions. In  Hanover,  Strose  also  observed  cases  of  primary  pul- 
monary tuberculosis  in  hogs.  In  various  parts  of  Germany  for 
different  years  the  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in  hogs  ranged 
between  .21  and  7.7  per  cent. 

(e)  Horses. — In  different  parts  of  Germany  for  different  years 
the  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in  the  horse  ranged  between  .08  and 
1.6  per  cent. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  horse  may  arise  in  consequence  of  feeding 
raw,  skimmed  milk  to  colts,  or  of  confining  horses  of  any  age  in 
cow  stalls.  Walther  observed  a  case  of  tuberculosis  in  a  horse 
which  had  been  confined  for  1J  years  in  a  cow  stall  and  which,  on 
account  of  a  poor  appetite,  had  not  been  taken  out  of  the  stall  for 
six  months. 

Spontaneous  tuberculosis  also  occurs  in  the  ass  (Nocard  and 
:Blanc). 

(f)  Dogs. — Among  dogs  slaughtered  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
in  1895,  .25  per  cent,  were  found  tuberculous ;  in  1896,  2.22  per 
•cent.;  and  in  1899,  .21  per  cent. 

Percentage  of  Tuberculosis  as  Affected  by  the  Method  of  Reporting 
Hoses.  —The  following  figures  may  serve  to  indicate  the  extent  to 
which  the  statistics  on  tuberculosis  are  affected  by  the  accuracy  of 
inspection  and  notification.  In  Berlin  the  percentage  increased 
from  3.5  to  4.0  in  former  years  to  11.5  in  1890,  when  the  slight 


TUBERCULOSIS  605> 


cases,  restricted  to  one  organ  or  one  lymph  gland,  were  taken 
consideration.  In  Leipsic,  the  percentage  increased  from  15  per 
cent,  in  1889  to  22.3  in  1890.  Schwaimair  found  15.62  per  cent,  of 
tuberculosis  in  Aschaffenburg  when  he  included  cases  of  simple 
tuberculosis  of  the  lymph  glands,  and  only  10.37  per  cent,  when 
such  cases  were  not  included. 

Increase  in  the  Frequency  of  Tuberculosis.  —  From  the  reports  of 
abattoirs  the  fact  becomes  evident  that  tuberculosis  in  cattle,  calves,, 
and  hogs  is  constantly  increasing.  For  example,  in  Leipsic  the> 
following  percentages  of  slaughtered  cattle  were  found  tuberculous^ 
In  1888,  11.1  ;  1889,  149  ;  1890,  22.3  ;  1891,  26.7  ;  1893,  28.14;  1896r 
32.93;  1897,  36.4;  1898,  355;  1899,  32.93;  1900,  35.29.  Similar- 
observations  were  made  in  other  slaughterhouses  ;  for  example,  m 
Berlin,  Bromberg,  Kiel,  Liibeck,  Schwerin,  Zwickau,  etc. 

In  Schwerin,  the  percentage  of  tuberculosis  increased  from  10.7 
in  1886,  to  26.6  in  1893  ;  in  Bromberg,  from  20.7  in  1892-93,  to  29.S 
in  1899-1900  ;  in  Berlin,  from  11.5  in  1890-91,  to  23.14  in  1899;  ia 
Rostock,  from  17  in  1895-96,  to  24  in  1896  -97;  in  Zwickau,  from. 
26.6  in  1894,  to  45.8  in  1899.  In  calves,  the  percentage  increased  ii* 
Berlin  from  0.16  in  1890-91,  to  .61  in  1897-98  ;  in  Zwickau,  from  .17 
in  1894,  to  .47  in  1897  ;  and  in  hogs,  the  percentage  increased  irt 
Berlin  from  1.16  in  1895-96,  to  4.1  in  1899  ;  in  Bromberg,  from  l.£ 
in  1892-93,  to  3.4  in  1895-96  ;  in  Kiel  from  3.72  in  1893-94,  to  6.51 
in  1896-97  ;  in  Leipsic,  from  1.89  in  1893,  to  3.12  in  1900  ;  in  Ros- 
tock, from  3  in  1895-96,  to  4.7  in  1896-97  ;  and  in  Zwickau,  from 
1.22  in  1894,  to  7.5  in  1897. 

The  alarming  increase  in  tuberculosis  among  hogs  in  different 
parts  of  north  Germany  is  connected  with  the  increase  of  cream- 
eries and  is  caused  by  feeding  the  raw  by-products  of  the  creamery, 
especially  the  centrifugal  slime  (the  Author).  Separator  milk 
and  buttermilk  may  also  disseminate  tuberculosis  among  calves  fed 
upon  these  materials.  Falk  in  Madgeburg  found  all  of  the  hog* 
fattened  by  creamery  owners  and  milk  dealers  to  be  tuberculous* 
and  in  Danzig  it  was  found,  soon  after  opening  the  abattoir  in  that. 
place,  that  hogs  coming  from  different  creameries  were  affected  with 
tuberculosis  to  the  extent  of  from  60  to  70  per  cent.  Furthermore, 
Borgeaud  found  among  young  pigs  which  were  fed  on  centrifugal 
milk  a  regular  enzootic  of  tuberculosis  during  which  2,  3  or  mom 
pigs  per  day  died  of  tuberculosis.  After  the  centrifugal  milk  wa» 
boiled  before  feeding,  no  further  cases  appeared. 

Recently,  the  frequency  of  tuberculosis  among  hogs  and  calves 


€06  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

is  beginning  to  diminish  in  certain  localities.  One  would  not  err  in. 
ascribing  this  encouraging  fact  to  the  officially-prescribed  burning 
of  the  centrifugal  slime  and  the  gradual  increase  in  the  practice  of 
lieating  the  milk  before  feeding. 

In  Kiel,  during  recent  years,  a  constant  diminution  in  tubercu- 
losis among  hogs  is  observed,  as  shown  by  the  following  figures ; 
In  1896-97,  6.51  per  cent.;  1898-99,  5.2;  1899-1900,  4.2;  and  in 
Zwickau,  in  1896,  6.06  ;  in  1897, 7.5 ;  in  1898,  6.52  ;  and  in  1899,  3.89 
per  cent. 

In  Kiel  a  diminution  in  the  frequency  of  tuberculosis  in  calves 
has  been  observed  as  follows  :  In  1896-97,  1.31  per  cent.;  1898-99, 
1.3 ;  1899-1900,  0.85  per  cent.  Similar  observations  have  been 
made  at  the  abattoirs  in  Bromberg  and  Danzig. 

According  to  observations  which  the  author  ma'de  fifteen  years 
ago,  as  abattoir  veterinarian  in  Berlin,  on  cattle  which  came  from 
various  parts  of  Germany  (East  and  West  Prussia,  Posen,  Branden- 
burg, Silesia,  Province  of  Saxony,  Mecklenburg,  Schlesv/ig-Holstein), 
at  least  25  per  cent,  of  the  older  cattle  were  to  be  regarded  as 
tuberculous,  when  incipient  cases  and  those  which  were  restricted 
to  one  lymph  gland  were  included.  This  result  agrees  perfectly 
with  the  observations  which  the  author  had  occasion  to  make  ten 
years  ago  in  Stuttgart,  as  ambulatory  clinician. 

According  to  the  results  of  tuberculin  tests,  it  must  be  assumed 
that  the  figures  obtained  in  abattoirs  were  far  below  the  actual  con- 
ditions ;  for  Siedamgrotsky  tested  259  cattle  and  obtained  a  typical 
reaction  in  197,  or  76  per  cent.  In  the  same  manner,  Bang  and 
JNocard  in  Denmark  and  France  found  that  in  many  herds  the 
number  of  reacting  cattle  amounted  to  from  two-thirds  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  total  number.  Similar  conditions  prevail  in  England, 
Holland,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  also  in  all  other  countries  in 
which  cattle  are  not  maintained  exclusively  on  pasture.  Moreover, 
in  America  it  has  been  demonstrated  by  tuberculin  tests  that  among 
stall-fed  cattle  the  large  majority  is  affected  with  tuberculosis.  In 
Germany,  the  government  district  of  Posen  proves  to  be  most 
excessively  infe-cted.  In  the  Posen  district  of  Schroda,  it  is  said  to 
be  a  rare  occurrence  that  a  post  mortem  itt  made  on  a  two  to  three 
year  old  beef  animal  without  finding  ifaaffected  with  the  disease  and 
to  a  striking  degree.  In  the  region  of  Samter,  the  disease  prevails 
on  nearly  all  estates. 

Influence  of  Age  Upon  the  Frequency  of  Tuberculosis. — The  differ- 
ent classes  of  beef  animals  are  not  affected  with  tuberculosis  to  the 


TUBERCULOSIS  607 

same  extent.  Very  great  differences  exist  with  regard  to  age. 
i  oung  animals  up  to  one  year  are  very  rarely  affected  with  tubercu- 
losis. "With  each  additional  year  of  age,  however,  the  frequency  of 
the  disease  increases,  so  that  in  old  milch  cows,  the  veterans  among 
food  animals,  the  greatest  and  most  alarming  dissemination  of 
tuberculosis  is  observed.  In  the  animals  of  Berlin  butchers,  who 
slaughtered  only  superannuated  milch  cows  from  ten  to  fifteen 
years  or  more  of  age,  I  found,  on  an  average,  75  per  cent,  of  the 
lunga  of  these  animals  tuberculous.  Quite  in  harmony  with  this 
finding,  Fischoeder  in  Brornberg  found  56  per  cent,  of  tuberculosis 
among  cows  in  general,  without  regard  to  age.  This  increase  in 
the  frequency  of  tuberculosis  with  increasing  age  clearly  indicates 
that  in  cattle  the  chief  source  of  infection  is  to  be  found  in  cohabi- 
tation with  diseased  animals.  In  agreement  with  this  condition,  we 
have  the  prevailing  form  of  the  primary  infection  in  cattle  (primary 
pulmonary  tuberculosis),  as  well  as  the  fact  that  in  all  regions  in 
which  a  frequent  change  in  a  herd  of  cattle  occurs,  tuberculosis  is 
of  much  more  frequent  occurrence. 

2.— BACTERIOLOGY  AND  PATHOGENESIS. 

The  tubercle  bacillus,  the  discovery  of  which  by  Eobert  Koch 
in  1882  must  be  reckoned  with  the  greatest  achievements  of  scientific 
investigation  and  with  the-  most  important  conquests  of  medical 
knowledge,  is  a  small,  delicate,  non-motile  rod,  five  to  six  times  as 
long  as  broad.  It  is  from  3  to  4  /*  in  length.  The  tubercle  bacillus 
may  be  cultivated  on  artificial  nutrient  media,  blood  serum  and 
glycerine  agar,  but  only  at  a  tetnperature  between  30°  and  41°  CL 
The  optimum  temperature  is  37.5°  C. 

In  the  living  tissue,  the  tubercle  bacilli  exercise  a  slow  but 
progressively  destructive  action  through  their  constant  prolifera- 
tion. With  regav  d  to  the  details  of  the  pathogenic  action  of  the 
tubercle  bacilli,  the  excellent  investigations  of  Baumgarten  give  u's 
a  deeper  insight,  after  the  nature  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  has  long 
been  known  pathologico^anatomically,  as  a  result  of  numerous 
thorough  and  clever  investigations.  Inoculated  tubercle  bacilli  at 
fir>t  multiply  at  the  point  of  inoculation  and  penetrate  the  leucocyte 
wall  set  up  in  consequence  of  the  operation.  From  the  sixth  day 
on,  in  case  of  inoculation  into  the  eye,  one  observes  the  first 
epithelioid  cells,  the  first  typical  elements  of  the  tubercle,  which 
arise  from  fixed  tissue  cells  as  a  result  of  the  specific  irritation  of 
the  tubercle  bacilli.  With  increasing  multiplication  of  the  bacilli, 


008 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


the  further  formation  of  epithelioid  cells  ceases.  Those  already 
formed,  however,  swell,  become  multinuclear,  and,  as  a  rule,  giant 
cells  are  formed  within  the  tubercle  (Fig.  209).  The  formation  of 
giant  cells  fails  to  occur  only  in  case  of  extensive  penetration  of  the 
tubercle  bacilli  or  of  the  penetration  of  very  virulent  bacilli.  In 
tuberculosis  of  cattle,  however,  one  always  finds  giant  cells  in  large 
numbers.  Simultaneously,  a  sharp  connective  tissue  delimitation 
of  the  small  tubercle  becomes  apparent.  This,  in  contrast  to  the 
condition  in  man,  attains  in  domesticated  animals  a  considerable 
thickness  in  certain  organs. 


FIG.  209. 


FIG.  208. 


Tubercle  bacilli  in  smear  from  a 
bovine  casefied  bronchial  gland. 
X  500  diameters. 


Giant  cell  from  tuberculous  tissue,  with  peripheral 
nuclei  and  isolated  bacilli.     X  500  diaru. 

The  tubercle  thus  formed  is  non-vascular.  Its  existence  is, 
therefore,  limited.  It  regularly  becomes  affected  with  regressive 
metamorphoses,  caseation  and  calcification.*  In  cases  of  exclusive 
infection  with  tubercle  bacilli,  suppuration  never  occurs.  This  is 
always  produced  by  a  simultaneous,  so-called,  mixed  infection  witli 
putrefactive  bacteria. 

Caseation  in  the  larger  tubercles  becomes  macroscopically 
visible  as  a  result  of  a  cloudineste  in  the  center.  Calcification  is. 
distinguished  by  a  grating  sound  on  making  a  section  with  a  knife, 
and  effervescence  after  the  addition  of  acids.  Tuberculous  primary 

*  Among  empirical  meat  inspectors,  we  unfortunately  observe  the  lamentable 
error  that  processes  are  not  considered  as  tuberculous  until  a  pronounced  casea- 
tion has  taken  place.  It  can  not  be  too  strongly  urged  upon  empirical  meat 
inspectors  that  fresh  foci  are  much  more  dangerous  than  old,  caseated  and 
calcined  ones. 


TUKKKCULOSIS  '609 

infections  may  be  rendered  harmless  for  the  organism  and  may  heal 
in  consequence  of  calcification.  In  other  cases,  however,  new 
tubercles  constantly  appear  in  connection  with  the  degenerated  ones, 
so  that  finally  extensive  pathological  products  arise  from  these 
invisible  processes. 

The  tinctorial  behavior  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  possesses  special 
interest.  They  are  stained  with  difficulty  and  take  basic  anilin 
stains  only  after  long  exposure,  or  under  the  influence  of  warm 
staining  solutions,  or  with  the  addition  of  mordants  (anilin  oil,  carbol) 
to  the  staining  solutions.  After  the  tubercle  bacilli  have  taken  the 
stain,  however,  they  retain  it  even  when  treated  with  mineral  acids. 
Tubercle  bacilli  are,  therefore,  characterized  as  acid-fast.  This 
property  is  possessed  by  the  tubercle  bacilli  as  well  as  the  lepra, 
smegma,  hay,  butter  and  manure  bacilli  (the  group  of  acid-fast 
bacilli).  This  property  of  these  bacteria  is  apparently  due  to  the 
possession  of  a  waxy  or  chitinous  substance.  Although  this  prop- 
erty can  not  be  considered  as  a  specific  characteristic  of  the  tubercle 
bacilli,  it  nevertheless  makes  possible  the  certain  demonstration  of 
tubercle  bacilli  in  suspicious  organic  foci,  since  in  such  locations, 
with  the  exception  of  the  mammary  cisterns,  and  perhaps  also  cav- 
erns in  the  lungs,  other  acid-fast  bacteria  do  not  occur.  The  best 
known  methods  for  the  demonstration  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  are 
those  of  Koch,  Erlich  and  Ziehl.  ZiehPs  method,  as  modified  by 
Gabbet  (preliminary  staining  with  carbol  fuchsin  and  subsequent 
staining  witli  sulphuric  acid  methyl ene  blue)  can  be  best  recom- 
mended for  practice,  since  it  is  the  most  speedy.  Tubercle  bacilli 
are  frequently  demonstrable  by  staining  only  in  more  recent  foci. 
In  older  foci,  on  the  other  hand,  especially  in  the  horse  and  hog, 
the  demonstration  is  frequently  impossible.  In  such  cases  diagnosis 
can  be  made  certain  by  the  inoculation  of  guinea  pigs. 

Kesist'ince  of  Tulerde  Bacilli  to  Heat  and  Preserving  Reagents. — 
A  large  number  of  experiments  have  been  made  with  regard  to  the 
resisting  power  of  tubercle  bacilli  against  high  temperatures.  The 
gist  of  the  results  is  that  the  tubercle  bacillus  possesses  only  mod- 
erately strong  resistance  to  high  temperatures.  This  has  been 
determined  beyond  question,  especially  by  the  experiments  insti- 
tuted by  the  elder  Bang,  Schill,  Fischer,  Yolsch,  Grancher  and 
Gennes.  These  authors  experimented  in  part  with  sputum  in  which 
in  consequence  of  the  protecting  mass  of  mucus  surrounding  the 
bacilli,  the  destruction  of  the  latter  was  more  difficult  than  when 
they  were  uniformly  distributed.  Bang  determined  that  a  temper- 


610  INFECTIOUS    DISEASES 

ature  of  85°  C.  was  sufficient  to  render  the  tubercle  bacilli  harmless. 
Jersin  found  that  tubercle  bacilli,  when  uniformly  distributed,  were 
killed  by  an  exposure  for  ten  minutes  to  75°  C.,  while  a  temperature 
of  65°  C.  did  not  have  this  effect. 

Forster,  in  cooperation  with  de  Man,  demonstrated  by  careful 
experiments  that  for  the  destruction  of  the  tubercule  bacilli  the 
higher  the  temperature  the  shorter  the  required  time  of  exposure. 
In  the  experiments  of  Forster,  the  tubercle  bacilli  were  killed  at  a 
temperature  of  55°  C.  in  four  hours;  at  60°,  in  one  hour;  at  65°,  in. 
fifteen  minutes;  at  70°,  in  ten  minutes;  at  80°,  in  five  minutes;  at 
90°,  in  two  minutes;  at  95°,  in  one  minute. 

Tubercle  bacilli  appear  not  to  form  spores;  at  least  in  the 
investigations  of  Schmidt- Mulheim  it  was  found  that  tubercle  bacilli 
without  exception  lost  their  virulence  at  the  coagulation  temperature 
for  albumen,  and  he  states,  therefore,  that  one  is  scarcely  justified  in 
considering  as  spores  the  light-colored  oval  structures  which  one 
observes  in  the  body  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  (Fig.  210). 

Against   preserving    materials,    the    tuber- 
cle bacillus,  as  shown  by  the  investigations  of 
I-          Forster,  are  very  resistant.     He  sprinkled  pure 
,/          cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  with  sterilized  com- 
fl   \          mon  salt  and  found  the  bacilli  still  infectious 
^         after    two    months.       Pieces    of    tuberculous 

Tubercle  bacilli  with  organs,  finely  minced,  were  allowed  to  lie  for 
light  colored  deposits.  •  i  ,  ->  •  u  i  •  ^  *  11 

strongly  magnified.          eighteen  days  m  salt  brine  and  were  found  by 

inoculation  to  be  still  capable  of  development. 

Later,  Forster,  in  cooperation  with  de  Freitag,  investigated  the 
influence  of  smoking  upon  the  virulence  of  tuberculous  masses 
of  meat.  He  salted  meat  which  was  thickly  covered  with  pearl 
disease  masses  and  hung  it,  lege  artis,  in  the  smoke.  In  inocula- 
tion experiments  with  guinea  pigs  and  rabbits,  it  was  found  that 
even  salting  with  a  subsequent  smoking  was  not  sufficient  to 
destroy  the  infectiousness  of  the  tuberculous  masses.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  virulence  was  lost  when  the  salted  pieces  of 
meat  were  smoked  for  three  or  five  hours  at  three  different  times 
or  when,  after  one  smoking,  they  were  preserved  for  at  least  one 
and  one-half  to  two  months  in  a  dry  room. 

Influence  of  Dilution  Upon  the  Virulence  of  Tubercle  Bacilli. — Quite 
remarkable  is  the  influence  of  dilution  upon  the  virulence  of  tubercle 
bacilli,  especially  in  view  of  the  previously  entertained  notion  that 
a.  single  tubercle  bacillus  was  sufficient  to  iujura  the  health* 


TUBERCULOSIS  611 

According  to  the  experiments  instituted  by  Gebhardt  and  Bollinger, 
the  virulence  of  the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows,  as  demonstrated  by 
intraperitoneal  inoculation,  was  destroyed  by  a  dilution  of  from  40 
to  100  times.  As  compared  with  such  milk,  however,  the  sputum 
of  consumptive  patients  possesses  a  great  infective  power,  for  this 
material  endures  a  dilution  of  even  1  : 100,000  when  inoculated 
subcutaneously  or  intraperitoneally,  or  when  inhaled.  These 
methods  of  infection,  however,  are  to  be  considered  as  very  delicate 
tests  for  tuberculous  virus,  for,  when  administered  per  stomachum, 
2  cc.  of  sputum  in  a  dilution  of  1 : 8  did  not  give  positive  results. 

Behavior  of  the  Tubercle  Bacillus  When  Ingested  with  Food. — On 
the  basis  of  artificial  digestion  experiments  Falk  first  called  atten- 
tion to  the  resisting  power  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  to  the  gastric 
juice.  Strauss  and  Wiirtz  found  that  tubercle  bacilli  still  retained 
their  virulence  after  remaining  six  hours  in  the  gastric  juice  and 
that  they  were  not  destroyed  until  after  24  hours'  exposure. 
Zagavi  demonstrated  that  tubercle  bacilli  exposed  to  artificial 
gastric  juice  at  a  temperature  of  38°  C.  still  retained  undiminished 
virulence  after  three  to  four  hours,  caused  only  a  local  tubercu- 
losis without  a  tendency  to  generalization  after  7,  8  and  9  hours, 
and  did  not  lose  their  virulence  until  after  an  exposure  of  from  18  to 
24  hours.  Similarly,  Wesener  determined,  by  feeding  tuberculous 
sputum,  that  with  small  quantities  "nothing  happens."  With 
large  quantities,  on  the  other  hand,  tuberculosis  of  the  mesenteric 
glands  is  produced,  and  only  after  repeated  feeding  of  large  quan- 
tities does  tuberculosis  of  the  intestine  and  also  of  the  liver  and 
spleen  arise.  In  accord  with  these  statements  are  the  experi- 
ments of  Cadeac,  who  undertook  to  determine  in  guinea  pigs 
under  what  external  conditions  alimentary  tuberculosis  is  pro- 
duced. He  fed  tuberculous  material  to  56  guinea  pigs,  divided 
into  four  lots,  which  received  4,  3,  1  and  0.3  gm.,  respectively.  .It 
appeared  from  these  experiments  that  alimentary  tuberculosis  was 
not  produced  with  certainty,  except  when  the  guinea  pigs  received 
at  least  1  gm.  of  tuberculous  material  moderately  rich  in  bacilli. 
When  the  comparatively  large  amount  of  0.3  gm.  was  fed,  on  the 
ether  hand,  the  result  was  uncertain,  varying  and  limited. 

3. — CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS  OF  TUBERCULOSIS. 

Tuberculosis  may  produce  various  symptoms  according  to  the 
extent  of  generalization  and  the  preferred  seat  of  the  tuberculous 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


alterations.  A  knowledge  of  these  symptoms  is  of  importance  for 
expert  meat  inspectors,  since,  especially  where  insurance  funds  are- 
maintained,  it  is  their  duty  to  identify  visibly-diseased  animals- 
before  slaughter.  The  two  principal  forms  under  which  tubercu- 
losis appears  clinically  are  tuberculous  broncho-pneumonia  (the 
formerly  so-called  lung  plague)  ,nd  tuberculosis  of  the  serous 
membranes  (so-called  pearl  disease).  In  the  first  form  one 
observes  in  acute  cases  a  frequent  hollow  cough  which  is  easily- 
induced  artificially  (while  the  healthy  beef  animal  does  not  react 

FIG.  211. 


Mammary  tuberculosis.     Affection  of  both  left  quarters. 


to  pressure  upon  the  larynx),  and  also  a  dry,  rustling  sound  upon 
thoracic  auscultation.  These  are  the  most  frequent  and  reliable 
symptoms  of  tuberculous  broncho-pneumonia.  The  nutritive  con- 
dition is  an  inconstant  criterion  for  the  recognition  of  tuberculosis. 
It  is  only  in  acute  cases  of  the  disease  that  it  is  visibly  disturbed. 
The  hair  is  then  dull  and  the  skin  is  of  a  leathery  character  and 
crackles  when  raised.  In  such  advanced  cases  one  observes  at  the 
same  time  a  slight  dulness  of  the  seusorium  (dejected  expression) 
and  languid  movements. 

In  a  cursory  inspection  in  stock  yards,  serous  tuberculosis  is 
recognizable  with  certainty  intra  vitam  only  in  the   most  advanced 


TUBERCULOSIS 


613 


'Stages  and  then  simply  by  the  above  described  serious  disturbances 
of  the  nutritive  condition. 

In  special  cases,  however,  the  suspicion  of  tuberculosis  may  be 
changed  to  certainty  by  the  presence  of  hard  swellings  in  the 
lymphatic  glands  which  are  accessible  to  external  examination, 
painless  thickenings  of  the  joints  and  a  tuberculous  affection  of 
the  udder.  The  latter  represents  an  unusually  characteristic  affec- 
tion. There  are  either  isolated  firm  tubercles  in  the  udder,  or 
one  or  more  quarters,  rarely  the  whole  udder,  is  diffusely  swollen 
(Fig.  210),  painless,  at  first  moderately  hard  and  finally  as  hard  as 
stone.  At^the  same  time  the  supramammary  lymph  glands  exhibit 
a  considerable  increase  in  volume  and  particularly  a  palpable 
deposition  of  firm  granules  and  tubercles. 


4— PATHOLOGICAL  ANATOMY. 

Upon  post-mortem   examination   of   tuberculous   animals  one 
finds  the   specific   products  of  the  tubercle  bacillus  in   the   most 


FIG.  212. 


Bovine  kidney  with  tuberculosis  in  different  stages  in  the  individual  renculi. 

<*,  solitary  young  tubercle  with  incipient  caseation;    b,  numerous   tubercles  of  the 

same  sort;  c,  older  totally  casefied  tubercles;  d,  totally  tuberculous  renculus. 

varying  form  and  extent.  We  observe  perfectly  diaphanous  tuber- 
cles just  on  the  borderland  of  macroscopic  visibility,  larger  tubercles 
a  cloudy,  casefied  center  (Fig.  212,  a  and  6),  conglomerations 


614 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


of  such  tubercles  up  to  the  size  of  a  walnut  or  even  the  fist,  and 
larger.  The  tubercles  which  lie  upon  the  surface  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  after  complete  caseation,  show  a  partial  disintegration 

FIG.  213. 


FIG.  214. 


a 


Intestinal  tuberculosis  of  cattle,     a  and  J,  lenticular  ulcers;  c,  tuberculous 
infiltration;   d,  part  of  a  tuberculous  mesenteric  gland. 

which  results  in  the  formation  of  ulcers  (Fig.  213).     In  some  organs, 

as,  for  example,  in  the  lungs,  extensive  destruction — tuberculous- 
abscesses,  cavities — may  result  from  such 
ulcers  in  consequence  of  a  mixed  infec- 
tion with  purulent  bacteria  from  the  air. 
Otherwise,  as  already  mentioned,  these 
conditions  are  not  observed  in  tubercu- 
losis of  the  domesticated  animals  (rare 
cases  of  primary  intestinal  tuberculosis 
excepted,  in  which  the  formation  of 
tuberculous  abscesses  in  the  mesenteric 
glands  and  the  liver  takes  place  in  conse- 
quence of  the  simultaneous  penetration  of 
purulent  and  tubercle  bacilli).  For  the 
rest,  the  tuberculous  ulcers  on  mucous 
membranes  are  constantly  accompanied 

with    a    purulent   catarrh    which   may   be   best   observed   on    the- 

mucous  membrane  of  the  uterus. 


Serous  tuberculosis  of  cattle 
(pearl  disease). 


TUBERCULOSIS 


615 


Tubercles  which  do  not  appear  upon  the  surface  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  but  which  lie  deeper  in  the  tissues,  preserve  their 
original  form,  although  they  may  be  modified  in  completely  cloudy> 
yellow,  caseous  foci  and  at  last  may  be  totally  calcified. 

We  must  characterize  as  an  anatomically-special  form  of  tuber- 
culosis the  so-called  pearl  disease  (serous  tuberculosis)  which  is 


FIG.  215. 


FIG.  216. 


a) 


5 


Beef  head,  a,  right,  &,  left  submax- 
illary  glands;  c,  retropharyngeal 
glands. 


Calf  "sling." 

a  and  a',  bronchial  glands  ;  Z>, 
anterior  and  posterior  media- 
stinal  glands ;  c,  portal  glands. 


very  frequent  in  cattle,  in  contrast  with  hogs.  In  this  form  of 
tuberculosis  one  observes  at  first  connective  tissue  outgrowths, 
rather  richly  supplied  with  blood,  which  grow  over  the  parietal  and 
visceral  layers  of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum  in  the  form  of  a  velvet- 
like  coat.  Later  cloudy  points  appear  in  the  connective  tissue 


616' 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


outgrowths,  and  these  form  caseous  foci  which  may  lead  to  exten- 
sive thickenings  or  depositions  upon  the  serous  membranes.  Ast 
already  indicated,  the  tubercles  on  the  serous  membranes  are  distin- 
guished by  the  fact  that  they  possess  a  well-delimited  connective 
tissue.  Furthermore,  they  have  a  tendency  to  early  calcification. 
Finally,  it  is  worthy  of  consideration  that  serous  tuberculosis,  as 
well  as  tuberculosis  of  the  lymph  glands,  digestive  and  respiratory 
apparatus  may  be  apparently  primary  affections. 

This  remarkable  phenomenon  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that 
the  tubercle  bacilli,  contrary  to  the  assumption  of  Baumgarten  and 
Tangl,  do  not  regularly  produce  tuberculous  alterations  at  the  point 

FIG.  217. 


Beef  mesentery  witi  tuberculous  lymphatic  glands. 

of  entrance  after  obtaining  entrance  into  the  body,  but,  as  shown 
by  Bellinger,  are  able  to  pass  through  the  epithelium  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  and  a  specific  affection  may  be  produced  first  in  the 
neighboring  lymph  glands. 

Primary  and  Secondary  Foci. — -The  tuberculous  foci  found  in 
the  animal  body  must  be  classified  into  primary  and  secondary, 
according  to  their  origin.  For  the  sanitary  judgment  of  the  meat  of 
tuberculous  animals,  it  is  desirable  to  give  an  especially  clear 
definition  of  these  terms. 


TUBERCULOSIS  617 

It  would  seem  desirable  to  include  under  primary  affections,  or 
under  tuberculous  foci  which  arise  primarily,  all  processes  which 
arise  immediately  at  the  point  of  entrance  by  direct  infection  from 
the  outside  world  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  this  point,  without 
the  co-operation  of  the  circulation,  "but  simply  by  local  growth  or 
translocation  of  the  bacilli  by  means  of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  To 
this  class  belong,  therefore,  primary  alterations  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  tubercles  in  their  vicinity,  affections  of  tlie  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands  and  the  tuberculous  foci  on  the  serous  mem- 
branes which  arise  by  extension  of  the  original  infection, 

As  a  rule,  hogs  and  young  cattle  are  affected  by  alimentary 
tuberculosis — primary  affection  of  the  digestive  apparatus  and  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands — while,  on  the  other  hand,  older  cattle 
are  as  regularly  affected  by  inhalation  tuberculosis — primary  affec- 
tion of  the  lungs  (tuberculous  broncho-pneumonia),  or  of  the 
bronchial  glands.*  The  hematogenous  embolic  foci  which  arise 
through  the  agency  of  the  blood  circulation  must  be  characterized 
as  secondary  processes  in  contrast  with  the  primary  ones.  These 
lie  in  the  internal  organs,  at  points  at  which  the  arteries  undergo 
branching  into  the  capillaries  (in  the  interstitial  connective  tissue). 
They  do  not,  therefore,  communicate  with  the  outside  world,  and 
grow  to  become  large  tubercles  within  the  tissue.  The  embolic 
foci  are  characterized  by  the  fact  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  a 
simple  caseation  and  calcification,  and  only  exceptionally  suppura- 
tion, are  observed.  Moreover,  they  have  a  tendency  to  retain  a  round 
form  even  when  they  have  grown  to  be  large  conglomerations. 

All  organs  which  are  not  in  direct  communication  with  the  out- 
side world  contain  merely  embolic  tubercles,  while  in  other  organs 
both  the  processes,  viz.,  primary  and  embolic,  may  be  observed 
in  co-existence.  As  we  shall  see  later,  the  distinction  between 
embolic  and  primary  foci  in  the  lungs  possesses  special  importance; 
for  it  is  necessary  in  rendering  a  sanitary  judgment  in  individual 
cases  to  determine  whether  it  is  a  case  of  primary  tuberculosis, 
broncho-pneumonia,  or  embolic,  pulmonary  tuberculosis. 

The  anatomical  picture  of  the  most  important  tuberculous 
organic  diseases  has  already  been  discussed  in  the  section  on 
"  Organic  Diseases,"  to  which  reference  is  here  made. 

*  Attention  may  be  called  in  this  connection  to  the  fact  that  for  the  certain 
recognition  of  slight  primary  foci  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  incision  into  the 
retropharyngeal  lymph  glands  in  cattle  and  the  laryngeal  lymph  glands  in  hogs 
{Fig.  215),  as  well  as  the  mesenteric  (Fig.  217),  portal,  mediastinal  and  bronchial 
glands  (Fig.  216)  in  all  animals. 


618  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


5. — DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. 

The  number  of  pathological  alterations  which  may  be  confused 
with  tuberculosis  is  large,  and  in  this  connection  attention  will  be 
called  to  them  briefly,  especially  since  they  may  be  present  in  an 
animal  simultaneously  with  tuberculosis  and  may  Ipad  to  the 
erroneous  conclusion  that  the  distribution  of  the  disease  is  much 
greater  than  it  actually  is. 

The  most  important  alterations  from  the  standpoint  of  differen- 
tial diagnosis  are  actinomycotic  processes  in  the  organs  of  the 
mouth  cavity  and  in  the  lungs,  more  rarely  in  the  bones  and  in 
the  udder ;  echinococci  and  cysticerci  in  cases  where,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  coagulation  necrosis  or  of  inflammatory  alterations 
of  the  surrounding  membrane,  they  may  have  become  modified 
into  a  caseous  or  plaster-like  mass  in  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  lymph 
glands  and  under  the  serous  membranes ;  pentastomes  in  the 
lymph  glands  of  cattle  and  sheep ;  strongylid  tubercles  in  the  lungs 
of  sheep ;  simple  purulent  processes,  for  example,  purulent  catarrh 
of  the  uterus  and  abscesses  in  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys ; 
leukemic  infiltrations  in  the  liver  and  kidneys ;  neomorphs,  especi- 
ally sarcomata  in  various  organs  and  lymph  glands.  Finally,  in 
cattle,  calcifications  in  the  peritoneum  (page  286)  are  of  differ- 
ential diagnostic  value,  as  well  as  the  similar  processes  in  the 
presternal  connective  tissue  (page  354) ;  and  in  hogs  the  peculiar 
alterations  of  hog  cholera  in  the  intestines  and  in  the  rnesenteric 
glands. 

The  possibility  of  confusion  with  tuberculous  processes 
occurs  most  frequently  in  cases  of  caseated  echinococci,  calcified 
pentastomes  and  actinomycotic  foci.  These  alterations,  however, 
quite  aside  from  their  peculiarities,  may  be  easily  distinguished 
from  tuberculosis  by  a  slight  magnification  on  account  of  their 
characteristic  features  (lamellate  structure  of  the  cuticula  in  echino^ 
cocci  (Fig.  163),  claws  in  pentastomes  (Fig.  168),  and  fungous  weft 
and  mycelia  in  actinomycosis  (Figs.  222,  225). 

For  the  rest,  tuberculous  processes  possess  the  following 
special  characters :  (1)  They  are  composed  of  minute  tubercles 
which  at  first  are  perfectly  gray  and  transparent,  later  become 
cloudy  in  the  center  and  finally  cloudy  throughout ;  (2)  the  presence 
of  minute  tubercles  around  the  larger  tubercles ;  (3)  the  regular 
sympathetic  affection  of  the  corresponding  lymph  glands  in  a  typi- 
cal sequence  :  first,  swelling,  then  formation  of  tubercles  in  the 


TUBERCULOSIS  619 

-glandular  tissue,  and,  finally,  caseation  and  calcification  of  these 
tubercles.* 

Aids  in  the  Diagnosis  of  Tuberculosis. — In  doubtful  cases  one 
may  make  the  diagnosis  certain  by  demonstrating  the  tubercle 
bacilli  according  to  the  method  of  Ziehl-Gabbet  (page  609).  This 
method  is  simple  and  gives  good  results.  It  should  not  be  for- 
gotten, however,  that  a  caseous  focus  may  have  a  tuberculous  origin 
without  its  being  possible  to  demonstrate  tubercle  bacilli  in  it  by 
bacteriological  methods.  Nevertheless,  such  foci  are  very  virulent, 
as  one  may  readily  convince  himself  by  inoculating  the  anterior  eye 
chamber,  peritoneal  cavity,  or  subcutis  of  guinea  pigs.  We  do  not 
understand  the  cause  of  this  negative  result  from  the  staining 
method.  It  has  often  been  assumed  that  tubercle  bacilli  are  con- 
tained in  such  foci  in  the  form  of  spores,  but,  according  to  the 
above  mentioned  investigations  of  Schmidt-Mulheim,  the  existence 
of  spores  of  tubercle  bacilli  is  improbable.  Inoculation  is  thus  the 
surest  means  of  demonstrating  the  tuberculous  nature  of  a  sus- 
picious process,  but  even  in  the  guinea  pig,  which  is  the  most  sus- 
ceptible animal  to  tuberculosis,  there  is  the  disadvantage  that  the 
result  of  the  inoculation  can  not  be  known  until  after  several 
weeks,  and  thereby  inoculation  becomes  valueless  in  the  practice^ 
of  meat  inspection. 

Diagnosis  of  Tuberculosis  of  Hogs. — As  shown  by  Perroncito, 
tinctorially-demonsfcrable  bacilli  are  quite  frequently  absent  from 
caseated  and  calcified  products  in  hogs.  It  would,  however,  betray 
a  great  lack  of  understanding  of  the  nature  of  an  outbreak  if  one 
should  deny  the  existence  of  tuberculosis  in  hogs  in  cases  where 
the  bacilli  could  not  be  demonstrated  in  this  manner.  This  posi- 
tion would  not  be  justified  until  inoculation  experiments  with  the 
suspected  material  had  given  negative  results. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Olt  that,  in  tuberculosis  of  hogs,  the 
tubercle  bacilli  may  be  readily  demonstrated  in  section  preparations 
even  from  foci  in  which  they  were  not  demonstrable  from  smear 
preparations. 

As  stated  on  page  345,  I  found  a  simple  microscopic  examina- 
tion of  a  teased  preparation  under  a  magnification  of  40  diameters 

*  With  the  exception  of  tuberculosis,  caseation  occurs  in  the  lymph  glands 
only  in  consequence  of  hog  cholera  and  pseudo-tuberculosis  in  sheep.  Moreover* 
easefied  cysticerci  and  echinococci  may  be  present  in  the  lymph  glands  and 
pentastomes  inclosed  in  caseated  and  calcined  masses. 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


fto  be  a  very  convenient  diagnostic  aid.  One  may  thus  distinctly 
observe  round  or  oblong  giant  cells  which  are  especially  well  devel- 
oped in  the  tubercles  of  domesticated  animals.* 

This  method  is  well  adapted  to  the  examination  of  suspected 
lymph  glands  for  the  presence  of  macroscopically  invisible  erup- 
tions of  tubercles.  While  simple,  non-specific  lymphadenitis 


FIG.  218. 


Miliary  tubercle  with  numerous  giant  cells,  X  75  diameters. 

exhibits  an  uniformly  transparent  tissue  when  examined  in  the 
above  mentioned  manner,  one  observes,  when  tubercles  are  present, 
roundish,  cloudy  foci  with  giant  cells  in  the  center  and  epithelioid 
cells  around  the  periphery  (Fig.  209).  The  latter  are  never  wanting, 
Awhile  the  giant  cells  may  sometimes  be  absent. 

6. — LOCAL  AND  GENERALIZED  TUBERCULOSIS. 

We  commonly  characterize  as  local  diseases  those  which  are 
restricted  in  an  anatomical  sense  to  one  organ.  In  the  case  of 
tuberculosis,  we  extend  the  meaning  of  the  local  character,  since 


*  Giant  cells  are  found  also  around  encapsulated  foreign  bodies  and  con- 
stantly in  a  radial  arrangement  around  Echinococcus  multilocularis,  as  well  as 
in  the  neighborhood  of  colonies  of  actinomyces.  These  conditions,  however, 
may  be  readily  distinguished  from  tuberculosis  by  the  above  mentioned  method 
of  examination,  since  in  the  first  case  the  foreign  bodies,  and  in  the  other  cases; 
the  echinococci  or  actinomyces,  are  demonstrable. 


TUBERCULOSIS 

this  condition  is  set  in  contrast  with  the  dissemination  of  the  dis- 
ease throughout  the  whole  body.  The  latter  condition,  however, 
is  possible  only  through  the  aid  of  the  systemic  blood  circulation. 
Tuberculous  processes,  therefore,  are  characterized  as  local  in  the 
broader  sense  as  long  as  a  mere  extension  or  distribution  has  taken 
place  through  the  lymphatic  vessels,  and  the  general  circulation  is 
not  concerned  in  the  dissemination  of  the  tuberculous  virus. 

In  cases  where  the  systemic  blood  has  become  the  carrier  of 
the  virus,  we  characterize  this  condition  as  generalized  or  general 
tuberculosis  (Weigert).  This  distinction  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance for  meat  inspection,  since  tubercle  bacilli  gain  entrance  into> 
the  musculature,  "  the  meat  of  traffic,"  only  by  the  aid  of  the  circu- 
lating blood.  The  musculature,  therefore,  can  be  considered  as 
infected  and  injurious  to  health  only  when  the  organisms  of  tuber- 
culosis are  distributed  through  the  body  by  means  of  the  blood 
(Johne).  Tuberculosis  of  domesticated  animals  has  a  pronounced 
tendency  to  localization.  This  phenomenon  may  be  explained  most 
simply  by  the  assumption  of  a  prompt  filtering  action  of  the  lymph- 
atic glands  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  tuberculous  products  in 
domesticated  animals  are,  as  a  rule,  poor  in  bacilli.  As  asserted  by 
Johne,  however,  and  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Nocard  (see 
page  640),  individual  bacilli  which  accidentally  escape  the  protective 
filtering  action  of  the  lymph  glands,  become  inactive  in  the  circu- 
lating blood. 

The  generalization  of  tuberculosis  arises  in  consequence  of  the 
penetration  of  numerous  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation.  This 
may  occur  in  veins  affected  with  tuberculous  processes  or  in  tuber- 
culous lymphatic  glands;  in  the  latter  case,  with  the  aid  of  the 
thoracic  duct  or  the  right  tracheal  duct.  "  Flooding  "  of  the  blood 
with  tubercle  bacilli  is,  according  to  Weigert,  always  to  be  ascribed 
to  tuberculous  affection  of  the  wall  of  a  blood  vessel,  or  thoracic 
duct. 

General  tuberculosis  appears  in  two  principal  forms  :  A  slight 
infection  of  the  blood  leads  to  the  formation  of  isolated  tubercles  in 
various  organs  ;  an  extensive  infection,  to  the  eruption  of  innumer- 
able tubercles  in  the  majority  of  the  organs.  In  the  first  case  the 
small  tubercles  commonly  grow  to  become  large  tubercles  or  case- 
ous foci  by  peripheral  expansion,  since  in  such  cases  infection  of  the 
blood  scarcely  appears  clinically  and,  therefore,  in  and  of  itself^ 
gives  no  occasion  for  slaughter  (chronic  general  tuberculosis).  In 
the  latter  case,  on  the  other  hand,  tubercles  are  often  observed  in  a 
but  slightly  altered  condition,  since  this  form  of  generalization,  as  a^ 


622  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

rule,  gives  cause  for  slaughter  (acute  miliary  tuberculosis).  If  a 
slight  infection  of  the  systemic  blood  has  preceded  the  extensive 
Invasion  of  the  tubercle  bacilli,  we  have  both  processes  simulta- 
#eously.  Weigert  characterizes  this  condition  as  a  "  transition 
form." 

The  Participation  of  Individual  Organs  in  the  Eruption  of 
Tubercles  in  Cases  of  Generalized  Tuberculosis. — After  the  entrance  of 
tubercle  bacilli  into  the  circulating  blood,  tuberculous  alterations 
do  not,  by  any  means,  occur  in  all  organs  in  food  animals.  One 
observes,  on  the  contrary,  that  certain  organs  are  constantly 
affected,  others  rarely,  and  some  almost  never.  This  peculiar 
behavior  is  partly  explained  by  the  peculiar  connection  of  the  indi- 
vidual organs  with  the  blood  circulation  and  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
circulation  in  them  ;  in  part,  also  by  the  presence  of  specific  sub- 
stances ;  for  example,  secretions  which  influence  the  development  of 
the  tubercle  bacilli  in  different  ways.  For  other  organs  we  must 
assume  a  resisting  power  in  the  tissue  itself,  against  tuberculosis. 
Thus,  Ziegler  characterizes  the  musculature  as  "  almost  immune  " 
to  tuberculosis.  The  connection  with  the  blood  circulation  is  of 
considerable  importance,  since  this  determines  the  quantity  of  the 
bacilli  which  may  find  their  way  into  the  organ.  The  lungs,  for 
example,  in  cases  where  the  blood  is  infected  through  the  agency 
pf  the  thoracic  duct,  receive  blood  which  contains  many  more  bacilli 
than  all  the  other  organs  together,  for  all  of  the  infected  blood  cir- 
culates through  the  lungs  and  thereby  large  quantities  of  bacilli 
may  be  removed  from  the  blood  by  becoming  lodged  in  the 
pulmonary  capillaries.  A  similar  condition  may  exist  in  the  liver 
if  infection  is  brought  about  by  entrance  of  the  bacilli  into  a  branch 
of  the  portal  vein.  In  fact,  in  this  case  the  filtration  of  the  blood 
through  the  hepatic  circulation  may  restrict  the  pathological  pro- 
cesses to  the  liver. 

Sequence  in  tJie  Organs  Wliich  Are  Affected  by  General  Tuberculosis. 
— The  author  has  already  called  attention  (Berliner  Archiv,  Yol. 
XIV)  to  the  fact  that  in  generalized  tuberculosis  of  cattle  a  certain 
sequence  of  participation  of  various  organs  is  to  be  observed.  One 
finds  uniformly  an  infection  of  the  lungs  and  liver ;  then  follows  the 
spleen  and  kidneys,  and  then  the  prescapular  and  inguinal  glands, 
udder,  bones  and  joints. 

When  the  posterior  part  of  the  peritoneum  in  female  animals  is. 
affected,  the  uterus  is  also  attacked,  almost  without  exception. 


TUBERCULOSIS  623 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  in  generalized  tuberculosis  of  young 
cattle  (up  to  four  years  of  age),  the  spleen  is  almost  always  affected 
and  the  kidneys  are  free  from  tuberculous  foci,  while  in  older 
cattle  the  kidneys,  but  not  the  spleen,  uniformly  show  tuberculous 
alterations. 

In  hogs,  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys  are  similarly 
affected  in  generalized  tuberculosis.  Furthermore,  affections  of  the 
bones  in  hogs,  especially  the  vertebral  column,  are  much  more 
frequent  than  in  cattle.  Eieck,  in  430  cases  of  general  tuberculosis 
in  cattle  identified  at  the  abattoir  in  Leipsic,  1880  to  1891,  deter- 
mined the  following  sequence  in  the  affection  of  different  organs : 
Lungs,  100  per  cent.;  liver,  83  ;  alimentary  canal,  73;  serous  mem- 
branes, 57.4;  kidneys,  52.5;  meat,  49.3;  spleen,  18.6;  udder,  16.7; 
bones,  8.8. 

Moreover,  Eieck  found  that  80  per  cent,  of  the  cases  of  tuber- 
culosis were  restricted  to  the  lungs  or  bronchial  glands.  Several 
organs  of  one  cavity  of  the  body,  usually  the  thoracic  cavity,  were 
affected  in  but  3.9  per  cent. ;  the  processes  extended  beyond  the 
thoracic  cavity  in  1888  in  9.3  per  cent,  of  the  cases ;  in  1889,  in  13.3; 
in  1890,  in  11.9;  and  in  1891,  in  19.6  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  In  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  last-named  cases,  only  the  lungs 
and  mesenteric  glands  were  affected.  Tuberculosis  of  the  serous 
membranes  was  demonstrated  in  Leipsic  in  10.8  per  cent,  of  all 
tuberculous  cattle  (7.2  of  male  and  14.8  of  female  animals). 

7. — EXAMINATION  OP  SLAUGHTERED  TUBERCULOUS  ANIMALS. 

For  determining  the  extent  of  the  disease  in  animals  found  to 
fae  tuberculous,  it  is  desirable  to  adopt  a  certain  method  of  inspec- 
tion.* 

The  essential  features  of  this  method  of  inspection  consist  in 
first  subjecting  to  a  regular  examination  the  organs  and  groups  of 
lymph  glands  which  may  be  affected  by  general  infection,  and 
which,  according  to  present  knowledge,  are  most  important  in  the 
determination  of  generalized  tuberculosis.  For  this  purpose  the 
most  important  organs  are  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  sexual 
organs,  sternum  and  vertebral  column ;  also  the  prescapular,  axil- 
lary, popliteal,  kneefold  and  inguinal  glands. 

Affections  of  the  bones  of  the  extremities,  joints  and  skeletal 
musculature  are  always  characterized  by  alterations  of  the  last- 

*  With  reference  to  the  determination  of  primary  tuberculous  alterations  in. 
slaughtered  animals,  compare  page  617. 


624  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

named  lymphatic  glands.  Affections  of  the  meninges  of  the  brain, 
the  myocardium  and  the  tongue  possess  only  a  slight  significance, 
since  they  are  seldom  present  and  then  only  in  the  most  pronounced 
cases  of  generalization.  A  quite  subordinate  role  in  the  determina- 
tion of  generalized  tuberculosis  is  played  by  the  affections  of  the 
serous  membranes.  In  judging  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle,  one 
must  become  accustomed  to  disregarding  completely  the  affections 
of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that,  as  shown  by  Schmidt- 
Miilheim,  peritoneal  tuberculosis  may  pass  over  in  a  purely  local 
manner  to  the  pleura.  Peritoneal  tuberculosis,  moreover,  may  be 
associated  with  a  local  process  in  the  lungs,  either  with  or  with- 
out affection  of  the  pleura  and  without  generalization  in  cases 
where  bronchial  slime  is  swallowed  and  gives  rise  to  an  affection 
of  the  intestine,  or,  what  is  more  frequent,  to  the  mesenteric  glands 
(auto-infection).  Tuberculosis  of  the  serous  membranes,  particu- 
larly of  the  peritoneum,  comes  into  consideration  only  in  case  of 
affection  of  the  uterus,  since  in  this  organ  a  local  invasion  of  the 
specific  process  from  the  peritoneum  to  the  mucous  membrane  is 
possible  and  frequent.  The  greatest  extension  of  tuberculosis 
upon  the  peritoneum  and  pleura  may,  however,  occur  with  the 
complete  integrity  of  the  parenchyma  of  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen, 
etc.,*  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  typical  picture  of  acute 
miliary  tuberculosis,  or  of  chronic  general  tuberculosis  with  exten- 
sive alterations,  even  of  the  lymph  glands,  which  lie  in  the  skeletal 
musculature,  the  serous  membranes  are  often  only  slightly  or  not 
at  all  affected. 

A  significance  equally  subordinate  with  that  of  the  peritoneum 
and  pleura  and  their  lymph  glands,  with  regard  to  the  determina- 
tion of  the  question  whether  generalized  tuberculosis  exists,  is 
possessed  by  frequent  alterations  of  the  pericardium  and  epi- 
cardium,  trachea  and  larynx,  as  well  as  the  lymph  glands  of  the 
head  and  mesenteries.  The  first-named  alterations  are  usually 
associated  with  tuberculous  processes  in  the  lungs ;  the  latter, 
however,  may  arise  in  consequence  of  swallowing  tuberculous 
bronchial  secretions  (auto-infection,  see  above),  or  by  the  direct 
ingestion  of  the  specific  virus  with  the  food.  I  emphasize  this 
point  for  the  reason  that  some  importance  in  judging  meat  has 
been  erroneously  ascribed  to  the  affection  of  the  mesenteric  glands. 

*  For  this  reason  distinction  should  be  made  in  affections  of  the  organs  of 
^the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities  between  parenchymatous  tuberculosis  and 
tuberculosis  of  the  serous  membranes. 


TUBERCULOSIS  625 

The  organs  which  for  the  determination  of  generalized  tuber- 
culosis are  without  significance  are  to  be  examined  next  in  order 
and  merely  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what  parts  are  to  be 
condemned  in  case  of  the  eventual  release  of  the  meat. 

The  examination  of  parts  which  are  important  for  reaching  a 
sanitary  judgment  on  meat  should  not,  as  was  formerly  the  general 
custom,  proceed  from  organs  known  to  be  diseased,  but  from  those 
which  are  presumably  healthy.  However  unimportant  this  point 
may  seem,  it  can  not  be  impressed  too  strongly  upon  the  meat 
inspector.  Through  the  contamination  of  a  liver  by  means  of  a 
knife  which  was  previously  used  in  sectioning  a  tuberculous  focus 
in  another  organ,  as,  for  example,  the  lungs,  more  damage  can  be 
done  in  case  the  liver  is  released  after  the  determination  of  its 
intact  character  than  under  other  conditions  by  the  release  of  the 
meat  of  an  animal  suffering  from  general  tuberculosis.  For,  by  the 
above  mentioned  manipulation,  the  liver  may  receive  a  large  quan- 
tity of  tuberculous  virus.  It  therefore  frequently  happens  that  the 
liver  is  eaten  in  an  incompletely  cooked  condition.  The  muscula- 
ture, on  the  other  hand,  is  quite  rarely  the  seat  of  tuberculous 
alterations  and  even  its  lymphatic  glands  are  only  in  certain  cases 
affected  with  generalized  tuberculosis. 

The  practice  which  was  formerly  observed  in  certain  locali- 
ties of  condemning  all  internal  organs  in  all  animals  affected  with 
tuberculosis,  but  which  were  released  for  sale,  is  a  radical  and,  so 
far  as  human  health  is  concerned,  a  safe  one,  but  can  not  be 
approved  from  a  scientific  standpoint  or  from  a  consideration  of 
the  material  loss  to  the  producers.  "When  it  can  be  determined 
with  certainty  that  the  organ  is  free  from  pathological  alterations,  it 
should  never  under  any  circumstances  be  withheld  from  sale.  If, 
however,  it  is  contaminated  with  tuberculous  material,  this  material 
must  be  removed,  but  the  expert  has  thereby  committed  a  technical 
error. 

This  technical  error  may  be  avoided  if  the  examination  of 
tuberculous  animals  begins,  not  with  the  organs  which  are  known 
to  be  tuberculous,  but  with  those  which  are  presumably  healthy. 
I  purposely  emphasize  this  point  since  the  warning  already 
sounded  from  another  source  (Deutscher  Veterinar  Kalender  and 
Zschokke),  not  to  contaminate  healthy  parts  by  tuberculous 
material,  does  not,  in  and  of  itself,  furnish  any  guide  for  the  mani- 
pulation and  may,  perhaps,  bring  it  about  that  the  above  direc- 
tions are  followed  by  merely  washing  the  contaminated  knife 
before  making  an  incision  into  an  apparently  healthy  organ.  More- 


626  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

over,  for  reasons  already  given,  all  unnecessary  cutting  of  tubercu- 
lous foci  should  be  avoided.  Butchers  should  likewise  be  expressly 
forbidden  to  cut  into  the  tuberculous  organs  of  tuberculous  ani- 
mals or  to  continue  the  operation  of  cutting  up  the  animal  with 
knives  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  examination  of  slaughtered  tuberculous  animals  must  pro- 
ceed postero-anteriorly,  and,  on  animals  which  are  hung  up,  from 
above  downward.  We  examine  first  of  all  the  "meat"  and  the 
lymphatic  glands  which  receive  the  lymph  from  it,  and  then  the 
internal  organs.  In  making  the  examination,  the  following  sequence 
may  be  observed  : 

1.  Popliteal,  kneef old,  inguinal,  pubic  or  supramammary  lymph 
glands. 

2.  In  case  of  an  intact  peritoneum,  the  iliac  and  the  other  retro- 
peritoneal  lymph  glands. 

3.  Vertebral  column,  ribs  and  sternum. 

4  Pre scapular  and  axillary  glands.  (For  the  examination  of 
the  latter,  the  anterior  extremities  must  be  removed.  The  prescap- 
ular  glands,  however,  may  be  conveniently  reached  without 
removing  the  extremities  by  a  simple  incision  in  front  of  the 
shoulder  joint.) 

5.  The  udder  in  female  animals. 

6.  The  kidneys  and  renal  lymphatic  glands.     (The  latter  are 
usually  found  by  making  an  incision  directly  over  the  point  wher* 
the  renal  artery  branches  off  from  the  aorta.) 

7.  Spleen. 

8.  Liver. 

9.  Lungs. 

10.  The  other  internal  organs,  together  with  the  corresponding 
lymph  glands. 

The  characteristic  symptoms  of  tuberculous  affection  of  the 
above  named  parts  of  the  body  have  already  been  described  in  the 
chapter  on  "Organic  Diseases."  In  addition  to  the  discussion 
found  there,  the  following  notes  may  be  added  with  reference  to 
the  technique  of  the  demonstration  of  tuberculous  processes  in 
individual  organs. 

The  tuberculous  affection  of  the  udder  is  best  demonstrated  by 
palpation.  The  healthy  udder,  although  of  strikingly  large  size, 
possesses  in  all  its  parts  a  uniformly,  moderately  soft  character. 
A  tuberculous  udder,  on  the  other  hand,  as  is  well  known,  in  case 
of  striking  enlargement  of  one  or  more  quarters,  shows  a  firm,  often 


TUBERCULOSIS  627 

-stony  consistency  of  the  affected  parts.  One  must  remove  all 
uncertainty  concerning  the  nature  of  doubtful  tubercular  thicken- 
ings present  in  the  udder  by  means  of  a  cross  section.  It  should 
be  noted  that  Bang,  in  his  well  known  work  on  tuberculosis  of  the 
udder,  called  attention  to  the  absence  of  softened  spots  (abscesses) 
in  tuberculosis  of  the  udder.  In  general,  abscesses  in  the  udder 
jire  to  be  considered  as  non-tuberculous  alterations.  Any  possible 
doubt,  however,  may  be  easily  removed  by  an  examination  of  the 
•supramammary  lymph  gla>nds. 

The  kidneys  and  suprarenal  bodies  are  to  be  removed  from  the 
fatty  capsule  in  situ,  and  after  a  superficial  examination  are  to  be 
•cut  open  by  several  sections  running  toward  the  renal  pelvis. 
Since,  however,  palpation  as  well  as  sectioning  of  the  kidneys  can 
not  be  performed  in  such  a  satisfactory  manner  that  a  reliable  con- 
clusion can  be  drawn  upon  this  basis,  for  the  absence  of  tuberculous 
foci,  the  aid  of  an  examination  of  the  lymph  glands  is  indispensable 
for  reaching  a  diagnosis  of  the  condition  of  the  kidneys. 

The  tissue  of  the  spleen  should  be  examined  by  making 
numerous  parallel  longitudinal  sections.  Moreover,  even  small 
tubercles  in  the  spleen  may  be  demonstrated  by  palpation. 

In  case  of  the  liver  it  must  be  insisted  upon  that  the  portal 
lymph  glands  shall  in  no  case  be  removed  before  a  veterinary 
inspection  is  made,  for  frequently  these  glands  exhibit  a  much  more 
strikingly  diseased  condition  than  the  tissue  of  the  liver. 

Similar  conditions  are  present  in  case  of  the  bronchial  glands 
and  the  lungs.  Tuberculous  alterations  in  the  latter  may  be  of  two 
sorts  :  There  are  either  small  or  large  cavities  (primary  pulmonary 
tuberculosis)  or  round  small  and  large  tubercles  (embolic  pulmonary 
tuberculosis).  The  cavities  have  their  seat  especially  at  the  base 
and  apex,  as  well  as  in  the  lower  border  of  the  lungs.  The  embolic 
foci,  on  the  other  hand,  are  uniformly  distributed  in  the  interlobu- 
lar  tissue. 

When  inspection  is  made  according  to  the  foregoing  directions, 
the  inspector  can,  as  a  rule,  decide  without  difficulty  whether  in 
a  particular  case  tuberculosis  is  local  or  generalized.  The  internal 
organs,  particularly  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys,  as  well  as 
the  intermuscular  lymph  glands,  present  a  more  favorable  nutrient 
medium  for  tubercle  bacilli  than  the  meat.  The  most  recent  alter- 
ations, incipient  tubercles,  are  therefore  much  more  easily  and 
-certainly  demonstrated  in  the  internal  organs  and  lymph  glands 
than  in  the  various  joints  and  in  the  marrow  of  the  bones,  quite 
aside  from  the  fact  that  the  dissection  of  the  meat  for  the  purpose 


628 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


of  inspection  is  quite  limited.  The  alterations  in  the  organs,  there- 
fore, together  with  those  which  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  skeleton r 
musculature  and  intermuscular  lymph  glands,  must  be  considered 
as  final  criteria  for  deciding  the  question  whether  the  case  is  one  of 


FIG.  219  a. 


FIG.  219  b. 


>9 


Half  of  beef,  seen  from  the  outside.  Half  of  beef,  seen  from  the  inside,  a,  super- 
a,  popliteal  glands;  b,  kneefold  ficial  inguinal  glands ;  b,  deep  inguinal 
glands;  c,  prescapular  glands.  glands  (of  variable  size  and  not  always  pre- 

sent); c,  internal  iliac  glands;  d,  lumbar 
glands ;  e,  renal  glands ;  /,  lymphatic  glands 
of  the  inferior  thoracic  wall ;  g,  glands  of 
the  superior  thoracic  wall ;  h,  lower  cervical 
glands. 

local  or  generalized  tuberculosis.  By  means  of  the  above  described 
examination  the  organic  alterations  may  be  most  perfectly  deter- 
mined, and,  when  taken  together,  give  positive  evidence  on  the 
question  whether  tubercle  bacilli  have  gained  entrance  into  the= 


TUBERCULOSIS 


629 


general  circulation  or  have  distributed  themselves  beyond  the  point 
of  entrance  into  the  neighboring  organs,  or  not.     At  the  same 


FIG.  219  c. 


'Position  of  the  most  important  lymphatic  glands  after  removal  of  the  retroperitoneal 
fat  tissue,  a,  lymphatic  glands  above  th«*  hock;  b,  popliteal  glands;  c,  super- 
ficial inguinal  glands;  d,  kneefold  glands;  e  and  /,  internal  iliac  glands;  g, 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  lower  thoracic  walls;  h,  lower  cervical  glands  ;  i,  upper 
cervical  glands;  k,  submaxillary  glands. 

it  may  be  determined  by  the  above  described  method  of  examination 
what  parts  are  to  be  destroyed  in  case  the  meat  is  released. 

S.— SANITARY  JUDGMENT  ON  TUBERCULOSIS. 
(a)  Tuberculous  Organs. 

It  must  be  assumed  that  tuberculosis  may  be  transmitted  to 
man  by  the  consumption  of  tuberculous  organs.  For,  tuberculosis 
•of  man  and  animals  is  produced  by  a  bacillus  which,  in  regard  to  its 


630  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

iorm,  stainability,  growth,  and  transmissibility  to  small  experi- 
mental animals,  exhibits  no  essential  differences.  Furthermore,  it  is 
possible  in  a  proportion  of  the  cases,  if  not  always,  to  transmit 
human  tuberculosis  to  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep.  Finally,  a  number 
of  cases  is  known  in  which  tuberculosis  of  domesticated  animals 
has  been  transmitted  to  man  (skin  infection  from  handling  tubercu- 
lous material  and  alimentary  tuberculosis  after  eating  the  milk  of 
cows  affected  with  tuberculosis  of  the  udder). 

By  means  of  experiments  on  animals  it  has  been  shown  that 
the  tubercle  bacilli  introduced  in  food  may  be  taken  up  by  the 
lymphatic  apparatus  of  the  gums  and  pharyngeal  cavity,  and  that 
they  are  also  capable  of  passing  through  the  stomach  and  may  pro- 
duce specific  alterations  in  the  intestines  or  mesenteric  glands.  A 
necessary  condition,  however,  is  that  the  tubercle  bacilli  shall  be 
introduced  in  a  certain  quantity  (see  page  611). 

Recently  the  question  of  the  transmissibility  of  tuberculosis  of 
domesticated  animals  to  man  has  been  thrown  into  doubt  by  Robert 
Koch  on  the  basis  of  experiments  which  he  carried  out  in  coopera- 
tion with  Schiitz.  In  these  experiments  it  was  found  impossible, 
by  any  method  of  inoculating  human  tuberculosis,  to  render  cattle, 
nineteen  in  number,  tuberculous,  while,  on  the  contrary,  cattle 
which  were  inoculated  with  tuberculous  material  from  other  cattle 
became  seriously  affected  and  part  of  them  died. 

Before  the  experiments  of  Koch  and  Schiitz,  Piitz,  Theobald 
Smith,  Frothingham,  Dinwiddie  and  Gaiser  had  demonstrated  the 
difficulty  of  transmitting  human  tuberculosis  to  cattle ;  Koch  and 
Schiitz,  however,  conducted  their  experiments,  in  so  far  as  they 
operated  with  pure  cultures,  exclusively  with  one  culture.  This  is 
of  the  greatest  significance  in  judging  the  results,  as  was  shown  by 
the  experiments  of  Thomassen.  He  infected  four  cattle  with  four 
cultures  of  tubercle  bacilli  of  various  human  origins  and  produced 
positive  results  in  two  cases.  Furthermore,  Karlinski  succeeded 
in  infecting  cattle  with  human  tuberculosis  in  ten  cases  during 
twenty-five  experiments.  Similarly,  Bollinger,  Kitt,  Frothingham, 
Crookshank,  Svennson,  Delepin^,  Arloing,  Krebbs  and  Rievel,  as 
well  as  de  Jong,  obtained  positive  results  in  the  transmission  of 
human  tuberculosis  to  calves.  We  may,  therefore,  agree  with 
Thomassen  when  he  states  that  it  is  difficult  but  not  impossible  to 
transmit  human  tuberculosis  to  cattle. 

In  the  case  of  hogs  and  sheep,  even  Koch  and  Schiitz  suc- 
ceeded in  part  of  their  experiments  in  producing  tuberculosis,  if 
only  of  a  local  character,  in  the  experimental  animals  by  means  uf 


TUBERCULOSIS  631 

tuberculous  material  of  human  origin.  In  hogs  and  sheep  alsor 
tuberculous  material  of  bovine  origin  was  found  to  be  much  more 
infectious  than  that  of  human  origin. 

The  rarity  of  primary  intestinal  tuberculosis  in  man  seems  to 
speak  for  the  soundness  of  Koch's  assumption.  The  question 
should  not  be  decided  by  this  evidence,  but  rather  by  the  occur- 
rence of  primary  tuberculous  alterations  in  the  laryngeal,  cervical 
and  mesenteric  glands,  which  affections  appear  much  more  fre- 
quently after  the  ingestion  of  tubercle  bacilli  with  the  food  than 
does  a  tuberculous  affection  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane. 
Heller  in  Kiel  recently  found  that  in  nearly  one-half  of  the  cases  of 
tuberculosis  of  children  there  was  an  affection  of  the  mesenteric 
glands.  Moreover,  Dr.  Still,  working  on  material  obtained  from 
autopsies  in  a  London  hospital  for  children,  found  29.1  per  cent, 
and  Dr.  Shennan  in  Edinburgh  found  primary  tuberculosis  in  28.5 
per  cent,  of  the  cases  of  tuberculosis  in  children. 

Negative  results  in  the  transmission  of  a  given  race  of  tuber- 
culous cultures  of  bovine  origin  to  man,  as  reported  by  Baum- 
garten,  are  not  sufficient,  according  to  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments by  Thomassen  and  Karlinski,  to  prove  the  non-transmissi- 
bility  to  man  of  bovine  tuberculosis. 

In  favor  of  the  possibility  of  the  transmissibility  of  bovine 
tuberculosis  to  man  we  have  the  case  of  Moses,  that  of  Priester, 
several  cases  of  skin  tuberculosis  of  animal  origin  and  cases  of 
alimentary  tuberculosis  which  have  been  observed  in  man  after 
drinking  tuberculous  milk.  The  veterinarian,  Moses,  of  a  healthy 
family,  received  in  the  summer  of  1885,  a  wound  on  the  left  thumb 
while  making  a  post-mortem  examination  of  a  tuberculous  cow. 
The  wound  healed  without  suppuration,  although  the  point  of  the 
knife  probably  penetrated  into  the  joint.  After  six  months,  how- 
ever, a  so-called  skin  tubercle  developed  on  the  cicatrix  and  the 
joint  became  loose.  In  the  autumn  of  1886  acute  catarrh  appeared, 
and  thereupon  a  chronic  hoarseness,  and,  in  January,  1887,  death 
resulted  (Pfeiffer).  Priester  reported  a  case,  observed  in  a  surgi- 
cal clinic  in  Kiel,  of  skin  tuberculosis  in  a  man  who  for  the  pur- 
pose of  removing  a  tattooing  of  the  skin  pricked  the  tattoo  marks 
and  rubbed  milk  into  the  punctures.  This  operation  was  repeated 
several  times.  Skin  tuberculosis  developed  in  the  punctures  which 
were  rubbed  with  milk  on  a  certain  day. 

Concerning  skin  tuberculosis  in  veterinarians  and  butchers, 
which  may  be  ascribed  to  infection  with  bovine  tuberculosis,  we 
have  the  communications  of  Tscherning,  Ravenel,  Johne,  Miiller  in 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Erfurt,  Sick  and  the  author  (compare  Zeit.  f.  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg.r 
Yol.  XL,  No.  12).  Tn  this  connection  it  should  be  remembered  that 
skin  tuberculosis  can  be  induced  artificially  only  with  some  diffi- 
culty. Chauveau  did  not  succeed  in  infecting  calves  by  super- 
ficial scarification  of  the  skin  and  subsequent  rubbing-in  of  the 
tuberculous  material.  Similarly,  Bellinger  obtained  negative 
results  by  cutaneous  inoculation  of  guinea  pigs. 

With  regard  to  the  transmissibility  of  tuberculosis  by  means 
of  the  milk  of  tuberculous  cows,  particularly  such  as  are  affected 
with  mammary  tuberculosis,  the  following  observations  may  suffice  : 
According  to  a  report  of  Ollivier  in  the  Academy  of  Medicine  at 
Paris,  twelve  girls  in  a  Girls'  Academy  contracted  tuberculosis.  Of 
this  number,  five  died.  The  fact  that  the  infected  and  dead  girls 
came  from  healthy  parents  and  showed  principally  the  symptoms 
of  intestinal  tuberculosis  awakened  the  suspicion  of  alimentary 
infection,  and  this  suspicion  was  fully  confirmed  by  the  slaughter  of 
a  cow  which  for  years  had  furnished  the  milk  for  the  Academy.* 
The  cow  was  found  to  be  infected  with  extensive  tuberculous 
processes  of  the  internal  organs  and  udder.t 

All  organs  affected  with  tuberculosis  must,  therefore,  be 
excluded  from  the  market  as  dangerous  food  material.  In  this 
connection,  it  should  be  observed  that  also  those  organs  are  to  be 
considered  tuberculous  in  which  we  find  merely  an  affection  of  the 
lymph  glands,  for  although  it  is  known  that  tubercle  bacilli  possess 
the  power  of  penetrating  intact  epithelia  and  producing  alterations 
in  the  neighboring  lymph  glands,  nevertheless  we  do  not  know  with 
certainty,  in  individual  cases,  that  no  tubercles  are  actually  found 
in  the  organs.  The  organs  can  not  be  dissected  to  such  an  extent 
that  all  macroscopically-visible  tubercles  in  them  may  be  demon- 
strated. Moreover,  even  if  this  were  true,  the  foci  which  stand  011 
the  borderland  of  macroscopic  visibility  might  escape  our  atten- 
tion. J  For  this  reason  also,  as  frequently  mentioned,  all  lymphatic 

*  This  one  case,  mentioned  incidentally,  should  furnish  sufficient  reason  for 
all  abattoir  directors  allowing  the  milk  of  cows  maintained  at  abattoirs,  a  very 
large  percentage  of  which  are  found  to  be  tuberculous,  and  often  some  with 
mammary  tuberculosis,  to  be  admitted  to  the  market  only  after  previous  boiling 
(compare  Ostertag,  Zeit.  f.  Fleisch  u.  Milchhyg.,  Vol.  V.). 

t  Koch  has  recently  stated  that  Ollivier  subsequently  corrected  his  report 
and  asserted  that  the  girls  did  not  receive  the  milk  of  the  tuberculous  cow. — 
TRANSLATOR. 

\  Rieck  emphasizes  the  fact  that  in  the  frequently  occurring  affection  of  the 
bronchial  glands  there  are  often  only  isolated  minute  peribronchial  foci  to  be 
found,  which  are  distinguished  from  the  normal  parenchyma  by  their  darker  color. 


TUBERCULOSIS  633 

glands  at  the  natural  openings  (alimentary  and  respiratory  tracts) 
in  every  food  animal  should  be  carefully  examined  for  the  presence 
of  tubercles,  by  palpation  and  incision. 

The  requirement  is  evidently  well  based  that  even  in  the  case 
of  the  presence  of  isolated  foci  in  a  given  organ,  the  whole  organ  is 
always  to  be  considered  as  dangerous  to  health.  For,  quite  aside 
from  the  fact  that  the  tubercle  bacilli  quite  regularly  make  their 
way  from  isolated  foci  to  neighboring  lymphatic  glands  and  thus  pass 
through  the  apparently  healthy  parts  of  the  organ,  we  have  no  means 
of  knowing  whether  or  not  similar  foci  have  developed  at  a  greater 
or  less  distance  from  the  visible  tubercles.  A  tuberculous  organ 
can  not,  like  one  which  is  infested  with  animal  parasites,  be  ren- 
dered innocuous  by  removing  the  affected  parts.* 

On  account  of  the  danger  to  health  from  eating  tuberculous 
organs,  they  should  be  carefully  removed  with  all  their  appendices 
and  rendered  innocuous  ;  especially  the  corresponding  lymph  glands 
of  such  an  organ  must  in  each  case  be  excluded  from  market  along 
with  this  organ.  I  emphasize  this  fact,  since  this  requirement  of 
the  sanitary  police  is  frequently  violated.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  the  lobes  of  the  lungs  are  removed,  but  not  the  bronchial 
glands,  trachea,  or  larynx ;  and  also  that  the  peritoneum  or  pleura 
is  removed,  but  not  the  groups  of  lymphatic  glands  which  belong 
to  these  structures.  It  also  occurs  that  the  mesenteric  glands 
are  condemned,  but  not  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  intes- 
tine, etc.  (compare  page  182,  ff.). 

Procedure  in  Cases  of  Local  Affection  of  the  Pleura  and  Peritoneum. 
— In  local  affection  of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum,  it  is  the  common 
practice  merely  to  remove  these  membranes  with  the  lymphatic 
glands  which  lie  upon  them  (Fig.  219).  Objection  may  be  raised  to 
this  practice  that  by  the  careless  dissection  of  the  membranes  in 
question  tuberculous  material  may  remain  on  the  thoracic  or 
abdominal  walls.  Hartenstein,  therefore,  rightly  demands  that  the 
removal  of  the  tuberculous  pleura  and  peritoneum  shall  be  per- 
formed only  by  the  meat  inspector  himself  or  by  some  other  reliable 
official.  Still  better,  however,  is  the  suggestion  of  the  same  author 

*  A  quite  formidable  danger  lies  in  a  procedure  which  I  have  unfortunately 
observed  in  the  case  of  insufficiently-trained  empirical  meat  inspectors.  Such 
persons  content  themselves  with  the  removal  of  the  more  extensively  altered 
parts,  or  with  cutting  out  superficial  foci,  and  admit  the  rest  of  the  organ  to 
market  without  restriction.  These  improperly  instructed  officials  do  not  know- 
that  they  are  thereby  in  each  individual  case  laying  themselves  liable  to  punish- 
ment (Sees.  12  and  14  of  the  Food  Law). 


634  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

that  in  case  of  pleural  tuberculosis  the  whole  thoracic  wall  (ribs, 
intercostal  muscles  and  pleura)  be  removed,  and  that  in  peritoneal 
tuberculosis,  the  whole  abdominal  wall,  or  the  peritoneum,  together 
with  the  lymphatic  glands  and  abdominal  muscles  which  lie  imme- 
diately under  it,  should  be  removed. 

(b)  Judgment  of  the  Meat  of  Tuberculous  Animals. 

The  careful  elimination  of  organs  showing  tuberculous  altera- 
tions is  the  most  important  function  of  the  sanitary  police  with 
regard  to  tuberculosis  of  food  animals.  Tuberculous  organs  con- 
stitute the  chief  danger  to  human  beings.  In  comparison  with  it 
the  danger  from  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals- 
is  slight. 

The  question  whether  and  to  what  extent  the  meat  of  tubercu- 
lous animals  possesses  harmful  properties  has  given  rise  to  more 
investigations  and  experiments  than  any  other  problem  of  hygiene. 
The  modifications  of  the  prevailing  views  concerning  this  question 
during  the  pre-Kochian  epoch  may  be  passed  over,  since  they 
possess  rather  a  historical  interest.  At  the  present  time  the  stand- 
point with  regard  to  the  mooted  question  may  be  described  as. 
follows : 

The  belief  that  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  is,  as  a  rule,, 
harmless  and  that  only  in  exceptional  cases  does  it  possess  harmful 
properties  must  be  looked  upon  as  scientifically  well  founded. 

It  is  one  of  Johne's  great  merits  that  he  introduced  clear  con- 
ceptions concerning  the  harmfulness  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous 
animals  in  the  place  of  the  previously  prevailing  vague  and  ill- 
defined  ones.  Johne  established  the  proposition  that  "  the  gist  of 
the  question  regarding  the  point  of  time  from  which  the  meat  of 
tuberculous  animals  is  to  be  considered  as  infected  and  therefore 
infectious  is  not,  as  maintained  by  Gerlach,  determined  by  the 
affection  of  the  lymph  glands  of  the  neighboring  organs,  bat  simply 
"by  the  demonstration  of  generalized  tuberculosis.  This  alone 
furnishes  positive  proof  of  the  fact  that  the  virus  has  entered  into 
the  systemic  circulation  and  has  infected  the  meat.  Not  until  this- 
point  of  time,  therefore,  are  we  justified  in  unconditionally  exclud- 
ing from  the  market  a  given  piece  of  meat."  Thus  formulated,  this, 
principle  constitutes  a  great  stride  in  advance  as  contrasted  with 
the  general,  meaningless  phrases  which  formerly  passed  current 
regarding  the  judgment  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  and 
Tvhich  are,  unfortunately,  still  to  be  found  in  some  regulations  con- 
cerning meat  inspection. 


TUBERCULOSIS  635 

The  conception  of  the  generalization  of  tuberculosis  which 
Weigert  introduced  into  pathological  anatomy  has  become  an  axiom, 
in  meat  inspection  since  Johne.  At  present,  the  view  is  generally 
entertained  that  in  undoubted  cases  of  local  tuberculosis  the  meat 
is  harmless,  while  in  generalized  cases  it  is  harmful.  In  cases, 
intermediate  between  the  local  and  generalized  forms,  according  to 
the  rules  which  serve  for  the  guidance  of  sanitary  police,  viz.,  to 
assume  in  dubio  the  less  favorable  condition,  the  meat  is  to  be  sus- 
pected of  possessing  harmful  properties  and  is  to  be  treated 
accordingly. 

The  first  point,  the  assumption  of  the  harmlessness  of  meat  m 
cases  of  undoubted  local  tuberculosis,  will  probably  remain  for  all 
time  as  an  immutable  dogma  of  meat  inspection.  The  second  propo- 
sition, on  the  other  hand,  viz.,  that  the  generalization  of  tuberculosis, 
is  always  associated  with  a  harmful  property  of  meat,  can  no  longer 
be  maintained.  Only  under  certain  conditions  and  not  uniformly 
does  the  generalization  of  tuberculosis  produce  a  harmful  property 
in  the  meat. 


9. — EXPERIMENTS  CONCERNING  THE  VIRULENCE  OF  THE  MEAT  OP 
TUBERCULOUS  ANIMALS. 

Nocard  made  inoculations  with  the  muscle  serum  of  twenty-one 
cows  which  were  affected  with  generalized  tuberculosis.  In  only 
one  case,  however,  was  one  of  the  four  guinea  pigs  infected.  Each 
experimental  animal  received  1  cc.  of  fresh  muscle  serum  in  the 
body  cavity.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  should  be  remembered, 
as  stated  by  Nocard,  that  intraperitoneal  infection  is  by  no  nie.uis 
synonymous  with  the  possibility  of  an  infection  through  the 
alimentary  tract.  All  experiments  by  the  last-named  method  of 
inoculation  gave  negative  results.  Even  the  meat  of  the  cow,  the 
muscle  serum  from  which  produced  an  infection  in  an  inoculated 
guinea  pig,  was  eaten  by  four  cats  without  any  ill  effects,  although 
each  cat  received  over  500  gm.  Galtier,  who  had  previously  studied 
the  question  of  the  virulence  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals, 
on  the  basis  of  later  experiments  (1891-1898)  drew  the  same  con- 
clusions that  he  had  previously  drawn,  namely,  that  the  muscle 
serum  of  tuberculous  animals  may  contain  tubercle  bacilli,  but  that, 
as  a  rule,  such  is  not  the  case.  In  inoculating  the  muscle  seruni 
of  fifteen  tuberculous  animals  in  quantities  of  from  4  to  12  cc., 
Galtier  was  able  to  transmit  the  disease  to  experimental  animals- 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

in  only  two  cases.  In  one  case,  4  cc.  was  inoculated  into  the 
experimental  animal  without  any  reaction,  while  12  cc.  produced 
tuberculosis. 

In  order  to  obtain  information  concerning  the  danger  of  eating 
raw  meat,  Galtier  fed  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  to  cats,  dogs, 
•calves  and  hogs — as  much  as  they  would  eat.  In  no  case,  however, 
was  he  able  to  produce  tuberculosis  in  these  animals.  This  result 
is  particularly  remarkable,  since  among  the  samples  of  meat  which 
were  fed  two  were  found  the  serum  from  which  produced  pro- 
nounced cases  of  tuberculosis  in  rabbits  after  subcutaneous 
inoculation.  Galtier  concludes  from  these  experiments  that  the 
consumption  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  is  not  especially 
dangerous,  and  he  holds  to  his  previously  expressed  opinion 
that  in  slight  cases  of  tuberculosis  the  destruction  of  the  dis- 
eased organs  is  sufficient,  while  the  meat  may  be  admitted  to  the 
market. 

Van  der  Sluys  fed  ten  young  pigs  with  the  raw  meat  of  animals 
which  were  affected  with  acute  generalized  tuberculosis.  For  the 
purpose  of  favoring  infection,  bone  splinters  were  mixed  with  the 
meat.  Among  the  ten  experimental  pigs,  three,  or  30  per  cent., 
became  infected  with  alimentary  tuberculosis.  Forster  obtained 
positive  results  in  three  out  of  seven  experiments  in  feeding  finely 
minced  meat  of  highly  tuberculous  animals. 

Bang  attempted  to  transmit  tuberculosis  by  means  of  the 
blood  of  badly  affected  cows.  He  obtained  positive  results,  how- 
ever, in  only  two  out  of  21  experiments.  According  to  the  view 
of  this  noted  Danish  investigator,  there  is  no  danger  from  eating 
the  meat  so  long  as  tuberculosis  is  plainly  localized.  Bang  states 
that  his  experiments  demonstrated  that  the  muscle  serum  and 
muscle  tissue  are  unfavorable  media  for  the  multiplication  of 
tubercle  bacilli.  Bollinger  had  his  pupil,  Hagemann,  inoculate 
guinea  pigs  with  the  blood  of  six  tuberculous  cows.  In  these 
experiments  it  was  found  that  the  blood  of  one  cow  which  showed 
extensive  tuberculosis  was  virulent. 

Under  Bollinger' s  direction,  Kastner  instituted  experiments 
concerning  the  infectiousness  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals. 
In  the  first  series  of  experiments  he  prepared  muscle  serum  from 
12  animals  affected  with  tuberculosis  in  different  degrees,  and 
inoculated  16  guinea  pigs  intraperitoneally  with  this  material.  All 
experiments  gave  negative  results. 

This  result  was  surprising,  since  Bellinger's  pupil,  Steinheil, 
had  found  the  muscle  serum  of  human  beings,  dead  of  phthisis,  ta 


TUBERCULOSIS  637~ 

"be  uniformly  infectious.  Kastner's  cattle,  however,  were  affected 
with  tuberculosis  to  such  a  slight  extent  that  their  meat  could  be- 
admitted  to  the  market.  In  a  second  series  of  experiments, 
Kastner  operated  with  the  muscle  serum  of  cattle  the  meat  of 
which,  with  one  exception,  was  condemned  on  account  of  extensive? 
tuberculosis  in  nearly  all  the  organs.  In  the  animals  in  question 
the  tubercles  in  the  lungs  and  other  organs  were  casefied  as  in 
man  and  did  not,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  cattle,  become  calcined. 
In  all,  twelve  experiments  were  instituted  with  the  meat  of 
seven  animals.  In  only  two  cases  was  a  negative  result  obtained 
(among  them  the  slight  case  mentioned  as  an  exception) ;  in  all 
the  other  cases,  the  muscle  serum  showed  itself  to  be  virulent  in 
intraperitoneal  inoculation  of  guinea  pigs. 

According  to  these  recent  experiments  the  chief  attention  is 
to  be  directed  to  the  pathologico-anatomical  conditions  in  rendering 
a  judgment  on  the  danger  of  infection.  "As  shown  by  the  first 
series  of  experiments,  a  complete  calcification  of  the  tuberculous, 
processes  may  indicate  only  a  slight  danger  of  infection.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  casefied  masses  are  found  from  which  the  virus 
may  escape,  the  danger  of  infection  must  be  recognized.  It  is 
accordingly  the  function  of  meat  inspection  to  render  a  judgment 
on  this  point,  and  that  this  is  possible  by  a  conscientious  fulfil- 
ment of  duty,  is  completely  proved  by  the  work  of  the  sanitary 
authorities  of  the  Munich  abattoir  and  stockyard.  For  I  was 
unable  to  obtain  a  positive  result  from  a  single  case  of  the  meat 
admitted  to  the  market,  while  the  condemned  meat  proved  to  be 
infectious  in  all  cases  except  one  "  (Kastner).* 

Under  the  term  calcification,  Kastner  understood  dry  caseo- 
calcareous,  often  mortar-like  metamorphoses.  Under  caseation,  on 

*  That  it  \vould  be  quite  irrational,  on  the  basis  of  Kastner's  highly  inter- 
esting experiments,  to  conclude  upon  the  necessity  of  a  rigorous  procedure  of 
the  sanitary  police  against  tuberculosis  of  cattle  is  proved  by  the  statistics  of 
condemnations  from  meat  inspection  in  Munich,  set  up  as  a  model  by  Kastner. 
Kastner  instituted  his  experiments  in  1890  with  material  which  had  been  con- 
demned by  the  Munich  meat  inspectors.  In  Munich  in  1890  the  following  num- 
bers of  animals  were  absolutely  excluded  from  market  on  account  of  tubercu- 
losis :  2  steers,  27  cows  and  2  young  cattle  out  of  23,390  steers,  21,540  cows, 
7,511  bulls  and  8,296  young  cattle  slaughtered.  Among  the  cattle  slaughtered, 
394  Bteers,  1,352  cows,  67  bulls  and  41  young  cattle — a  total  of  1,854  animals- 
were  tuberculous,  and  of  this  number  only  41  had  to  be  excluded  from  the  market. 
This  is  a  minimum  proportion,  particularly  if  we  consider  the  fact  that  the> 
percentage  of  tuberculous  animals  in  Munich  was  very  low  ;  viz.,  3  per  cent,  of 
all  animals  slaughtered,  for  in  this  3  per  cent,  numerous  cases  of  primary  tuber- 
culosis of  the  lymphatic  glands  were  not  included. 


638  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

the  other  hand,  which  renders  the  meat  evidently  dangerous,  he 
understood  purulent  caseous  disintegration.* 

The  author  instituted  inoculation  experiments  in  18  guinea 
pigs  with  what  had  the  microscopic  appearances  of  being  healthy 
pieces  of  muscle,  lymph  glands  and  spleen  from  cattle  which  were 
affected  with  dry  caseous  foci  in  the  mesenteric  glands,  lungs,  liver 
and  spleen.  One  animal  soon  died  of  peritonitis.  All  other  ani- 
mals were  found  to  be  non-tuberculous  after  from  6  to  8  weeks. 

Perroncito,  during  the  years  1889-1891,  conducted  experiments 
concerning  the  virulence  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  on  a 
large  number  of  guinea  pigs,  rabbits  and  hogs,  as  well  as  on  two 
cattle.  These  experiments,  however,  like  those  already  mentioned 
by  the  same  author  in  1874  and  1875,  had  a  uniformly  negative 
result.  In  his  experiments  Perroncito  used  the  meat  of  cattle 
•which  had  been  condemned  in  the  abattoir  at  Turin  on  account  of 
"a  considerable  extension  of  the  disease."  Part  of  the  meat  was 
fed,  and  from  another  part  muscle  serum  was  expressed  and  used 
in  subcutaneous  and  intraperitoneal  inoculations. 

In  three  series  of  experiments  with  young  pigs,  Perroncito  fed 
meat  from  tuberculous  animals  without  producing  infection  in  the 
pigs.  In  more  than  200  rabbits  and  as  many  guinea  pigs  the 
muscle  serum  was  injected  under  the  skin  or  into  the  body  cavity 
without  producing  a  trace  of  tuberculosis  observable  when  the  ani- 
mals were  slaughtered  after  1J  months  or  longer.  The  result  from 
subcutaneous  injection  of  muscle  serum  in  the  two  cattle  was  like- 
wise negative. 

*  These  distinctions  should  be  borne  well  in  mind.  Dry  caseation  with  a 
strong  tendency  to  calcification  is  very  frequent  in  tuberculosis  of  domesticated 
animals.  It  is  the  usual  case  in  alimentary  tuberculosis  and  is,  therefore,  met 
with  in  a  great  majority  of  tuberculous  calves  and  hogs.  Purulent  disintegra- 
tion forms  the  exception.  It  takes  place  most  frequently  in  primary  bronchial 
pneumonia  of  cattle,  chiefly  old  cows  and  steers,  in  which  it  may  become  very 
extensive  under  certain  conditions. 

The  author  has  previously  had  opportunity  to  explain  that  in  cattle  those 
forms  of  tuberculosis  are  undoubtedly  most  dangerous,  in  so  far  as  the  meat  is 
concerned,  in  which  softened  tuberculous  foci  are  found  in  the  organs  (mixed 
infection  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  with  staphylococci  and  purulent  streptococci). 
For,  with  the  presence  of  extensive  tuberculous  abscesses  at  the  natural 
entrances  to  the  body,  one  usually  finds  embolic  foci  of  very  different  age  in  the 
spleen  and  in  the  kidneys,  and  very  frequently,  moreover,  an  emaciation  as  evi- 
dence of  the  fact  that  the  bacteria  themselves  or  their  metabolic  products  have 
constantly  had  opportunity  to  enter  into  the  blood  circulation.  It  may  be  inci- 
dentally mentioned  in  this  connection  that  the  histolytic  property  of  pyogenic 
bacteria  must  be  considered  responsible  for  this  varying  condition  of  the  dry 
caseous  and  softened  tuberculous  foci. 


TUBERCULOSIS  639 

Four  young  pigs  of  Italian  breed,  six  months  old,  were  fed 
Jor  four  months  on  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  and  remained 
healthy.  Moreover,  a  litter  of  twelve  pigs,  two  months  old, 
were  fed  for  five  months  on  such  meat  without  becoming  in- 
fected. 

The  majority  of  the  above  described  experiments  were  unfortu- 
nately made  without  an  accurate  determination  of  the  extension  and 
special  condition  of  the  process  in  the  animals  the  musculature  of 
which  was  used  for  inoculation.  Data  on  these  points  would  have 
greatly  increased  the  value  of  the  experiments.  These  experiments, 
however,  in  connection  with  those  of  Kastner,  Bang  and  the  author, 
justify  the  conclusion  that  the  meat  and  muscle  serum  of  tubercu- 
lous animals,  as  a  rule,  contain  no  bacilli  or  not  enough  to  produce 
tuberculosis  in  the  experimental  animals.  Only  in  acute  stages  of 
tuberculosis  and  in  cases  of  a  purulent  softening  of  the  tuberculous 
foci  is  the  meat  infectious.  In  this  connection,  however,  it  should 
be  remembered  that,  even  presupposing  the  same  susceptibility  to 
tuberculosis  in  man  as  in  experimental  animals,  the  quantity  of  the 
tubercle  bacilli  which  produces  tuberculosis  in  intraperitoneal 
inoculation  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  infection  when  administered  by 
way  of  the  alimentary  canal  (page  611).  A  positive  result  from 
inoculation  does  not,  therefore,  indicate  an  injurious  property  of  the 
meat  when  eaten. 

Accordingly,  it  requires  no  further  argument  to  disprove  the 
view  which  was  once  entertained  in  all  seriousness  by  an  expert  on 
the  occasion  of  a  litigation  concerning  tuberculosis,  viz.,  that  a 
single  tubercle  bacillus  is  sufficient  to  injure  human  health  when 
ingested  with  the  -food.  A  certain  quantity  of  bacilli  are  required 
in  order  to  exercise  an  injurious  effect.  For  the  rest,  the  experience 
of  the  pathological  anatomists  show  in  the  most  unambiguous  manner 
that  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  plays  only  an  inconspicuous 
role  in  the  etiology  of  human  tuberculosis.  Baumgarten  states  on 
the  basis  of  his  experience  that,  despite  the  strong  tendency  of  the 
digestive  tract  toward  tuberculous  affection,  "  no  great  significance 
for  the  origin  of  human  tuberculosis  can  be  ascribed"  to  this 
method  of  infection.  "  We  are  forced  to  accept  this  view  by  the 
fact  that  primary  tuberculosis  of  the  digestive  tract  in  man  is,  on 
the  whole,  quite  a  rare  occurrence."  Bollinger  also  emphasizes  the 
fact  that  alimentary  tuberculosis  in  man  is  much  more  frequently 
secondary  than  primary.  Primary  tuberculosis  of  the  intestine  was 
observed  chiefly  in  young  individuals  and  was  to  be  ascribed  mainly 
to  eating  raw  milk. 


I,  Hi  I    ,|   I.'     I  101  1,1     I    A    .1  .... 


vli.    I.    W    I.    m.-n.l.'-l     II,.,  I,    Ulldttr   IIHH-f'll|;.f,<-.l    ,„• 
lllah  -I   MM  .1.1.  111  .|><  •  lion,   yc.uly,  n;iy,  <l.uly,  irntnmiHM  «|ii;uif.il.M'H  of 

fcubtrottlottf  orgfl  |-i...,.,i  u|.<.n  ii,.-,  market  and  :n«  oaten  —  I 

Would    rail  fltt<'lli.i"M   Hi'   K'ly    |,<  »   MM-    |'i  .  .  |  in   nr  y   of   |  >l|  I  m<  m;i  ry 
IOWJM,   !<•     wliH-li,     iinl'ii  I  .m.  «l<  l\  ,     |,I«,|H-I     .ill.iilioii    is    lint,    y«'t, 

M  M  M.IH!  l.li.il.  flu  I  mi  <L  .1,1,1,  ,||y  inf'-'-liMiin  III  ;i  I  .  •  H  ;i  I  ,  only 
ft  \<  >  V  li-.Uly  Julian  .....  i  |,|.,|,cily  l'.,i  1mm  u.  |i<-:i.lMi  r;in  |H> 
UMNIini  .1  I'.,  i  Hi  M  IlK'iil,  .,1  hil..  iri||,,u  >.  :uiiin;i.l  :,  in  \  i«-  \V  nf  UK-  rare 
"•  •  ni  M  n.  •.  ..I  '  |,  M  in.  1  1  \  inl.-lin.il  l.iilinnMiloHJH  in  )i<  I  ii  1  1,  liiiiiin.n  Imin^rt 
Mini  Hi-  |'i  -  .1  •  •  ••.!.••  1  1  1.  «.f  I  iilii-inili*..)  :  .-inM.n;'  r;i.|.|,lc,.x 

IM'i'ly      I'"      H"  i     <  "lllplrh-lirHM,    H,    H||O|||<|     In-    s|,j|,(,r«  M  Ii;i.|. 

Urn  Tubtrouloaitt  Cm^rnMHoi  in  Paris  in  lSHr>  ..ml  ISDI  \«,i,-,i  f.»- 

Hin  fillNnlill.n   ,  -\,   In     |..n    I,,,),,     II,,-     |,m.lK«-|.    nf    ill*'     h  M  'ill,  «  >f  :i.l  I    Illl.rlTll 

I-  -I"  i  :«n  i  in.  -i  I  i       <  >nl  .hln  <•!'  I  Im  TillinnMilimiH  (  '<  HI;-  i  CMMCM,  MUM,  from  ;i, 

..  i.nlili'-    /il  M  nil  |ioiiil,,  ill  >  -  -I  n  I  '  I  \    ii  n  \\  .M  r.i  nl  IM  I   i  «•(  j  n  1  1  cinriil   l<  >n  IK  I   no 

uh  .....  I-  iii     projui  .il  ion    \\  i  ,    ;il  ..»    l.i..ii;-lil     IM-|\U-O     lln> 

nlli     Inl.  in.  i!  .....  .il    <'..H.-M          f..  r    ll\"hiio    iii    Ijiindoii    ami     was 

IMiallillMMlMly    M|..t,,|  L..l(-|    'rillu'irnl..:..:!    ('«,  I.-  .r,-:.;;,-;;(  |S!i:;,    IS'.IS) 

I.  >i  lnn:il<  \\  lonK  M.  Ilioin  I'-il  n  »n:i  I  \i-\\  d'  Ilio  ,  j  n.  -si  i.  m  .si  IUT  lln-y 
.  .  >n  ".nli  I  nl  Ilio  n.'ilo  of  Ilio  liir:il  «'!'  .IIHIUaU  IllViMMnl  Wllll  Ii  )C}|,I  i/.i'd 
I  IllxMMMlloMin  n:i  iidmi  .il>l<-  \\illiiMil  (jUulillcation  nnd  lli.if  of  :inini;ils 

ill!.  •»•!.•.  I      \\llll     ;-(    n,    I  .ill     «-,!      IlllxTflll.-  I  llll:.:.il»lr    ;ifl(T     pn'vioilS 

Mloiiliv.alion. 

O!     »-i  .n-iiilri  ;»l>lo    nil  poll  M  nco     for     HlO     JIH  IJMIKMI  I     of    ill.-    inr.-il    of 

tnborouloiu  unlmuU  it  the  fact,  determined  by  Nooanl,  tli.il  iiu- 

lilooil    |>o:i'.  (•:.•..  <-i    |  M  .  >|  >ci  I  lc  .    1>\     liic.in      .-I    \N|IU'||    ll    soon    lives    lisrlf    of 

u.-n    I'o   I'ounil    in    il.      Norard  dtMUoustrattMl 

iiH    IM|,-,-II>MI  of 


'    I  1,,     1.  n  M,  HI   Muu-.i,-.    ,.i    M.ti.-  en     \u ••••:  •'.  .M,l,-tv,l  (I 

«>(  -.(:»(  i  •-(  i.  .  .  .MI,  .-i  MUI,-.  ll\.'  .Ir.l  i  il  Mill,  MI  .M1'  (  nl'.- 1,  Mil, '•.!•,  .  i  n  i ,  M  i :  •.  (  ho  \\-\\  :iri:u»  pop 
ul  il  i.  MI.  \\  ilh  ,  p,  ,  i  il  i  ,-l,  i ,  u,  ,'  t,>  1  ho  ,-,Min.  ,-|  i,  MI  KM  \\  ,-,-M  I  ul>ri.-ul.".i-,  of  in;  in 
,,M,|  .  nil  NX.. -I. .un.l.  a-,l.U.-,l  1.x  Uollin,.;,M-. 

tlion      xv  ,-.o  coUo»Mo«l  x\  lurh   in.lu-.H,-,!  i  h,> 

.  ••(    t'«s  tuo:»(    .«('   tul.«M,-ul,.i  :.      In    the   \ill.i  •.«•   of 

>  I.M    .   v  uui'l.'.   XN  i  tit    I  «  '  iuh.ilMl.iPl    .  .iliu,-.l   «»\,-hi-.ix  i-lv    (In'  moat   of 
1->XV»V!*1MM»-  i'.M.-nlo-.i-.  oivurMli.M-o  N*Wy 

<    :,n,l  ll»o  >hno-.(  <' x ,  hi-.,  v^'OOMRaAfN  of  (ho  nu\! 

I          w  ,MO     I     I    (OUIUI    10  I-.-    (',,,,.    I,  .M,-;    • 

Iviuxxo,  U,-i    iopoi(->  ll>.»(   ..  -.ho,  in.iK.M    h\,-,l    in     \K,-n      xx  ho,  ( o--.<>{  hov  \x  u  h  his 
•.    <  nu'.lv  ,,     \,\-us    hx,-,l    ,-ilmovt    rutir«ly  UpOtttho  in«\lt  ot" 

tUbHIVVlUmmnvtU^,      "   I'ho   i\\o.U.  \\1\\. -h    NX.I.   oi 
o  u.-u  '•       I'ub, 

:>tt*4  (ftlUttlkMx  tv>  (ho  fiu-(  th»t  inB*T*rift  mtvi 

,'  u,-n  onU    :»(I,M    l-o\nr   oookovl. 


i  THKI;<TI.OSIS 


(Ml 


loses     its    infeel  ioiisiiess     wilhin     four,     live,    or,    ;i,t    most,    six     d;i\v 
(destrnelion  ;ind  excretion  nf  Hie  Icicilli). 

It  is  therefore  evident  tl ml  the  m<-al  of  I  nl>rrenl<  >n^  ;mim;ds  max 
l)e  (|iiile  harmless  in  spile  of  :i.  previous  «;enri-;i  I  i/,al  it  >n  of  lulicren- 
losis.  'IMie  Inherrle  liaeilli  ;m»  eillier  exei'eled  fmm  tin-  I  M  »d  v  or 
I  liv  :i  specili.-  achoii  of  (he  Mood.  In  the 

PIG,  -.".'o. 


f  Oi  llu>  <lors;il    vrrlcln-ir  III  ;i   IK.-.       (i,  caseous  foCUS;   I,  <lrpn--i!ioM  ,,f   |im,. 
ill    llir    CJI  IM.IIV     IMIM!      nii.l    i^ljili.ls   oil    I  lir    l.nnl«-r   «\    tin-    «. 

fiK'lls;   i/.  ^•^•^li^.||  «.|'  :i   \  d  I  «•!  ir;i  :ill.  r  ivinov.il  «.f  I  In-  I  iilicivillini  •   |.r««lin-l  •  . 


of  iuhcntulosis  ;ind  tli<>  nntniiUM!  «,f  Hi-  1  nln-i  cl<-  l»;icilli  inlothe 
l)lood,  tlir  ?iiiiscul;iliii<'  csc;i|)cs  i  nf.M-1  ion  f«»r  Hi"  IV.-IMMI  1  li:it,  if,  is 

almost  immane  i<>  tuberonloBis.     K\«-n  in  oftsesof  extetiHivc  flooding 

of  iln>  l>|ood  wil.li  bacilli,  dnrin;;  \\  ludi  ;ill  llic  i  iilci'n.i  I  OI-J.MHS  ;i.p|ic.'i.r 
lo  l)(i  inTrcIrd  willi  f.nlM'ivl.'  l.;icilli,  ;ind  in  Hi<-  so  c;illc.l  aOUte  inili;i.rf 
ltdx-rciilosis,  tin-  in  nsriihil  urc  is  nsn;i.Ilv  fn-«-  IVoin  1  nlx-rcii  IOIIH  Jlltor- 
ittioiiH. 


642  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

Nevertheless,  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  even  after  the 
process  of  generalization  has  ended,  can  not  be  unconditionally 
admitted  to  the  market;  for,  while  the  musculature,  "the  chief  con- 
stituent of  the  meat  of  traffic,"  is,  as  a  rule,  free  from  tuberculous 
alterations,  the  other  elements  of  the  meat,  lymph  vessels,  bones 
and  lymphatic  glands  in  the  meat,  may  be  tuberculous.  In  such 
cases  the  diseased  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  is  to  be  considered, 
from  a  sanitary  police  standpoint,  in  the  same  category  with  tuber- 
culous organs. 

For  the  determination  of  such  alterations  in  the  meat,  we  now 
possess  valuable  criteria  in  the  intermuscular  lymphatic  glands, 
particularly  in  the  prescapular,  axillary,  popliteal,  inguinal,  knee- 
fold  and  iliac  glands,  as  well  as  in  the  glands  which  lie  underneath 
the  spinal  column.  If  there  are  tuberculous  foci  present  in  the 
meat,  these  lymphatic  glands  are  altered.  In  case  of  localized 
tuberculosis,  on  the  other  hand,  these  glands,  with  the  exception  of 
the  lumbar  glands,  which  may  be  affected  also  in  localized  peritoneal 
tuberculosis,  are  intact.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  an  easy  matter, 
from  the  absence  or  presence  of  embolic  foci  in  organs  which  are 
accessible  only  through  the  blood  circulation,  to  determine  the 
general  nature  of  this  affection.  For  the  rest,  the  less  favorable 
condition  is  to  be  assumed.  Tuberculous  processes  on  the  spinal 
column  and  sternum  may  be  immediately  recognized  in  animals 
which  are  cut  up  according  to  the  butchers'  ordinary  method,  since 
in  such  portions  the  median  plane  of  these  bones  is  exposed  (Fig. 
220).  In  the  case  of  the  ribs,  careful  attention  should  be  given  to 
thickenings.  Alterations  of  the  bones  of  the  extremities  manifest 
themselves  uniformly  by  conspicuous  alterations  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  in  the  shoulder  and  pelvis.  Attention  should  also  be  called 
in  this  connection  to  the  fact  that  costal  tuberculosis  is  always  an 
expression  of  generalization.  It  never  arises  in  a  local  manner  by 
extension  of  alterations  in  the  pleura. 

Doubt  concerning  the  judgment  of  the  meat  of  an  animal  in 
which  the  process  of  generalization  has  taken  place  (tuberculosis  of 
the  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  or  kidneys)  can  arise  only  in  cases  in  which 
ihe  tubercles  in  the  parenchymatous  tissues  are  very  small.  In 
such  cases  it  may  not  be  possible,  by  the  ordinary  macroscopic 
inspection,  to  demonstrate  such  small  foci  in  the  intermuscular 
lymphatic  glands,  the  inspection  of  which  is,  for  the  above  men- 
tioned reasons,  of  greatest  importance.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  in  the  lymphatic  glands  the  tubercles  grow  much 
more  rapidly  and  become  visible  sooner  than  in  the  parenchyma  of 


TUBERCULOSIS  643 

the  organs.  For  example,  in  cases  where  the  foci  in  the  spleen  are 
not  quite  the  size  of  hemp  seed,  one  finds  in  the  prescapular  glands, 
in  consequence  of  an  infection  of  the  blood,  quite  conspicuous 
tubercles  which  are  much  larger  than  hemp  seed.  In  order,  how- 
ever, to  proceed  with  certainty,  it  is  necessary  in  the  presence  of 
embolic  tubercles  in  the  spleen  or  kidneys  of  the  size  of  hemp  seed, 
not  to  consider  the  macroscopic  inspection  of  the  lymph  glands 
lying  in  the  musculature  as  sufficient,  but  to  base  final  judgment 
upon  the  microscopic  inspection  of  the  lymph  glands  by  means  of 
teased  preparations. 

10. — CRITERIA  FURNISHED  BY  EXPERIMENTS  CONCERNING  THE  HARMFUL 
OR  HARMLESS  CHARACTER  OF  THE  MEAT  OF  TUBERCULOUS 

ANIMALS. 

According  to  the  foregoing  discussion,  we  must  consider  the 
meat  of  tuberculous  animals  which  are  infected  with  undoubted 
localized  tuberculosis  as  harmless.  To  this  category  belong  all 
cases  of  localized  tuberculosis  in  which  the  tuberculous  processes 
possess  a  purely  caseous  or  calcareous  character  and  are  not 
purulent.  We  must  render  similar  judgment  concerning  all  healed 
cases  of  typical  generalization  restricted  to  the  internal  organs. 

As  injurious  to  health,  on  the  other  hand,  we  must  characterize 
the  meat  of  all  cases  of  generalization  with  tuberculous  alterations 
in  the  musculature,  bones,  joints  and  lymphatic  glands  of  the 
muscles,  and  also  all  cases  of  fresh  generalization  with  tumefaction 
of  the  spleen  and  all  the  lymphatic  glands. 

We  must  consider  the  meat  as  probably  possessed  of  a  harmful 
character  to  a  high  degree,  and  must  treat  it  in  the  same  manner  as 
that  which  has  been  shown  to  be  harmful  in  cases  where  the  local 
character  of  the  tuberculous  process  is  doubtful.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  formation  of  extensive  cavities  in  the  lungs,  mesen- 
teric  glands,  or  liver,  since,  in  addition  to  the  experiments  of 
Kastner,  experience  teaches  that  in  the  presence  of  tuberculous 
cavities  frequent  outbreaks  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood  take 
place,  a  phenomenon  which  is  readily  recognized  from  the  fact  that 
in  such  cases,  in  contrast  with  other  cases,  foci  of  varying  size  and, 
therefore,  to  be  considered  of  varying  age,  usually  occur  in  the 
spleen  or  kidneys. 

The  meat  of  emaciated  tuberculous  animals  is  to  be  judged  as 
highly  unfit  for  food,  without  regard  to  the  tuberculous  processes. 


644  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

The  distinction,  however,  between  emaciation  and  poorness  should 
be  kept  in  mind. 

11. — BOILING  AND  STERILIZATION  OF  THE  MEAT  OF  TUBERCULOUS 

ANIMALS. 

At  the  Sixteenth  Session  of  the  German  Association  for  Public 
Sanitation,  Bellinger  called  attention  to  the  possibility  of  admitting 
to  the  market  in  a  cooked  condition  the  meat  from  cases  of  gener- 
alized tuberculosis.  At  the  same  time  Hertwig  in  Berlin  instituted 
experiments  to  determine  to  what  extent  we  are  in  a  position  to 
destroy  with  certainty  the  tubercle  bacilli  present  in  the  meat,  by 
boiling  or  some  other  process.  The  results  of  these  experiments, 
which  will  receive  special  consideration  in  an  appendix,  led  to  the 
recommendation  of  a  steam  sterilizing  process  for  rendering  harm- 
less the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals.  By  means  of  this  process  it 
is  possible  in  a  comparatively  short  time  to  heat  the  meat  uniformly, 
that  is,  also  in  the  central  layers,  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C., 
whereby  we  have  the  assurance  that  all  the  bacilli  present  in  the 
meat  will  be  destroyed.  The  organisms  of  tuberculosis  are  rendered 
harmless  by  heating  to  a  temperature  of  95°  C.  (compare  page  610). 
By  means  of  steam  sterilization  it  is  possible  to  save  considerable 
quantities  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  which  formerly  had 
to  be  destroyed.  The  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  can  not  immedi- 
ately be  utilizable  as  human  food,  even  after  the  general  introduction 
of  the  steam  sterilizing  process.  The  meat  of  tuberculous  animals 
which  gives  evidence  of  a  character  highly  unfit  for  food  can  not  be 
improved  in  quality  by  treatment  with  steam,  and  must,  therefore, 
be  excluded  from  the  market  after  such  treatment,  as  well  as  before 
it.  The  same  is  true  of  meat  which  exhibits  tuberculous  foci  in  its 
substance ;  for  tuberculous  foci  are  not  human  food,  even  if  they 
are  sterilized. 

However,  all  meat  which  heretofore  had  to  be  excluded  from 
the  market  because  of  the  local  character  of  the  tuberculosis  and 
the  harmlessness  of  which  was  consequently  doubtful,  may  from 
now  on  be  admitted  to  the  market  conditionally,  after  a  previous 
sterilization.* 


*  Some  authorities,  among  them  the  American  author,  Law,  have  raised 
the  objection  against  the  boiling  and  sterilization  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous 
animals  that  the  tuberculin  contained  in  the  meat  was  not  thereby  destroyed.  It 
has  been  shown  by  A.  Eber,  however,  that  tuberculin  is  not  demonstrable  even 
when  present  in  large  quantities  in  the  blood  of  extensively  tuberculous  ani- 
mals. 


TUBERCULOSIS  (U5 

Utilization  of  the  Fat  of  Tuberculous  Animals. — The  Royal  Presi- 
dent of  Police,  in  agreement  with  the  magistrate  in  Berlin,  has 
allowed  the  fat  of  rejected  tuberculous  hogs  to  be  utilized  as  human 
food  after  previous  rendering.  As  a  result  of  this  permission,  the 
sides  of  bacon  from  fat  tuberculous  hogs,  which  heretofore  had  to 
be  delivered  to  the  knackers,  may  be  removed  from  the  carcasses, 
after  carefully  separating  the  tuberculous  lymphatic  glands  or 
other  tuberculous  foci,  and  rendered  in  a  digester  in  which  a  tem- 
perature of  150°  C.  is  maintained.  From  a  hygienic  standpoint, 
not  the  slightest  objection  can  be  raised  against  this  procedure. 
The  sale  of  rendered  fat,  however,  must  take  place  under  declara- 
tion on  account  of  the  abnormal  material  which  is  utilized  in  pre- 
paring the  product. 

12. — OBLIGATORY  DECLARATION  FOR  THE  MEAT  OF  TUBERCULOUS 
ANIMALS  ADMITTED  FOR  FOOD. 

In  slight  cases  of  tuberculosis,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  "unex- 
pectedly met  with  in  animals  which  during  life  exhibited  a  picture 
of  perfect  health,"  and  which  also  exhibited  no  disturbance  in  their 
fattening,  there  is  no  occasion,  on  the  basis  of  the  foregoing  discus- 
sion, to  exclude  the  meat  from  unrestricted  traffic.  Such  meat  is 
to  be  considered  as  marketable  material.  In  cases  of  extensive 
local  distribution  of  the  tuberculous  processes,  especially  in  cases 
with  widely  distributed  serous  tuberculosis,  not  alone  upon  the 
internal  organs,  but  also  on  the  membranes  of  the  body  walls,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  meat  should  be  sold  as  an  inferior  food  material 
under  declaration  of  its  particular  character.  The  meat  of  tuber- 
culous animals  which  has  been  boiled  or  sterilized  with  steam  is 
likewise  to  be  sold  under  declaration. 

Rumpel  studied  the  meat  of  slightly  tuberculous  animals  by 
means  of  feeding  experiments  with  a  bitch,  and  found,  according  to 
these  experiments,  that  there  is  no  reason  for  characterizing  the 
meat  of  tuberculous  animals  as  of  inferior  quality.  Such  meat  fur- 
nished the  same  amount  of  nutriment  as  was  secured  by  feeding  nor- 
mal meat.  Likewise,  with  regard  to  the  completeness  of  assimilation, 
the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  was  quite  equal  to  normal  meat. 

13. — SCIENTIFIC  METHOD  OF  PROCEDURE  WITH  THE  MEAT  OF 
TUBERCULOUS  ANIMALS. 

1.  The  meat  of  animals  with  slight  or  not  greatly  extended, 
local,  purely  tuberculous  alterations  is  to  be  freely  admitted  for 


646  INFECTIOUS   DISEASE*} 

sale  as  marketable  material  after  the  removal  of  the  tuberculous- 
foci. 

2.  The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  a  greatly  extended,  but 
undoubtedly  local  tuberculous  process,  is  to  be  sold  as  an  inferior- 
food  material  under  declaration  (on  the  freibank). 

3.  In  cases  of  healed  generalization,  restricted  entirely  to  the 
internal  organs  (lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys),  the  meat  is  to  be 
treated  as  marketable  or  of  inferior  value,  according  to  the  degree 
of  the  affection. 

4.  All  animals,  on  the  other  hand,  which  exhibit  pronounced 
emaciation,  or   the   symptoms  of   a  recent  infection  of  the  blood 
(splenic  tumor  and   swelling  of  all  the  lymphatic  glands,  miliary 
tubercles  in  the  lungs,  liver  or  spleen),  as  well  as  muscle  meat 
which  is  permeated  with  tuberculous  alterations,  are  to  be  excluded 
from  the  market  as  unfit  for  human  food  and  are  to  be  utilized 
only  for  technical  purposes.* 

5.  Finally,  the  meat  of  animals  in  which  the  local  character  of 
the   tuberculosis   and   the    harinlessness  of   the   meat  is  doubtful 
(particularly  in  the  presence  of  extensive  tuberculous  cavities  and 
incipient  disturbance  of  nutrition)  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  market 
as   conditionally  marketable  food   material  when  cooked  in  small 
pieces,  or,  better,  when  sterilized  with  steam. 

Likewise,  muscle  meat,  after  careful  removal  of  the  included 
lymphatic  glands,  bones  and  vascular  trunks,  may  be  utilized  in 
cases  in  which  merely  the  corresponding  lymph  glands,  and  not  the 
musculature  itself,  exhibit  tuberculous  alterations. 

With  regard  to  the  fat,  it  may  be  made  utilizable  by  rendering 
in  the  place  of  cooking  or  steaming. 


*  In  animals  in  which  only  one  or  a  few,  but  not  all,  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  of  the  muscles  are  affected,  the  procedure  recommended  by  Hartenstein 
may  be  unhesitatingly  recommended  :  that  only  the  parts  which  are  tributary 
to  those  lymph  glands  should  be  excluded  from  the  market ;  for  example,  in  case 
of  the  affection  of  one  kneefold  gland,  the  corresponding  hind  quarter.  Harten- 
stein recommended  that  the  rest  of  the  meat  of  such  animals  be  admitted  to  the 
market  in  a  cooked  or  sterilized  condition,  since  "a  certain  suspicion "  rested 
upon  it.  Since,  however,  we  are  able,  by  means  of  a  careful  examination,  to 
assure  ourselves  whether  this  suspicion  is  well  founded  or  not,  there  can  be  no 
real  objection  to  the  utilization  in  a  raw  condition  of  the  rest  of  the  meat 
which  is  free  from  tuberculous  alterations  (compare  the  Posen  Declaration  to 
the  Decree  of  the  Prussian  Ministry,  of  March  26,  1893,  page  669). 


TUBERCULOSIS  647 


1 4. _ OFFICIAL  BEGULATIONS  CONCERNING  THE  METHOD  OF  PRO- 
CEDURE WITH  THE  MEAT  OF  TUBERCULOUS  ANIMALS. 

Under  the  complex  conditions  which  prevail  with  regard  to 
the  sanitary  judgment  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  the 
fixed  form  of  legal  provisions  or  of  authoritative  decrees  does  not 
well  adapt  itself  to  the  evident  requirement  of  the  principles  by 
which  the  sanitary  police  should  be  governed.  In  order  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  error,  a  statement  of  reasons  must  be  given  for 
the  authoritative  decrees  and  instruction  for  the  expert  inspectors. 
These  features,  however,  are  wanting  in  all  official  provisions  con- 
cerning the  procedure  with  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals.  These 
provisions,  therefore,  have  not  everywhere  served  their  purpose  as 
well  as  could  be  desired. 

At  the  present  time,  the  following  legal  proceedings  concerning 
the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  are  in  force  :* 

A.  Kingdom  of  Prussia. — Decree  of  the  Ministers  of  the  Interior,  Agricul- 
ture, Education  and  Commerce,  of  March  26, 1892. 

The  regulations  decreed  September  15,  1887,  concerning  the  judgment  of 
the  fitness  for  food  of  the  meat  of  the  tuberculous  food  animals,  have  recently 
given  rise  to  an  erroneous  conception.  We,  therefore,  order  the  repeal  of  this 
decree  as  well  as  all  regulations  published  in  technical  periodicals  July  22,  1882, 
and  June  27, 1882,  and  of  the  decree  of  February  11,  1890,  and  order  that  the  per- 
sons concerned  should  give  heed  to  the  following: 

As  a  rule,  a  harmful  character  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  cattle  must  be 
assumed  when  the  meat  contains  tubercles,  or  when  the  tuberculous  animal  is 
emaciated  without  exhibiting  tubercles  in  its  meat.f 

On  the  other  hand,  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  is  to  be  considered  fit 
for  food  (not  injurious)  when  the  animal  is  well  nourished,  and 

(1)  When  the  tubercles  are  found  exclusively  in  one  organ;  or, 

(2)  When,  in  case  two  or  more  organs  are  affected,  these  organs  lie  in  the 
same  body  cavity,  aud  are  directly  connected  with  one  another,  or  indirectly  by 


*  Through  the  decrees  regarding  the  enforcement  of  the  Imperial  Meat 
Inspection  Law,  provisions  of  general  application  have  been  made  concerning 
the  procedure  with  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals. 

f  By  means  of  a  decree  of  the  Royal  Government  President  at  Posen,  July  8, 
1898,  March  26,  1899,  issued  with  the  consent  of  the  Ministries  concerned,  the 
above  regulation  is  explained  as  referring  only  to  those  quarters  of  the  meat 
which  show  tuberculous  alterations.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  held  that  the 
other  quarters  in  which  the  intermuscular  lymphatic  glands  are  unaltered  may 
be  admitted  to  the  market  without  restriction  ;  and  that,  furthermore,  the  ren- 
dering and  utilization  of  the  fat  of  tuberculous  animals  as  human  food  is  to  be 
permitted  in  all  cases  with  the  exception  of  parts  infected  with  tuberculous 
alterations,  which  must  be  rendered  innocuous.  The  sale  of  the  fat  in  question 
may  be  permitted  only  under  declaration. 


1)48  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

means  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  or  blood  vessels  which  do  not  belong  to  the 
systemic  circulation,  but  to  the  pulmonary  and  portal  circulation. 

Since  in  reality  a  tuberculous  affection  of  the  muscles  occurs  very  rarely, 
and,  furthermore,  since  experiments  conducted  on  a  large  scale  for  years  at  the 
Berlin  Veterinary  High  School  and  at  several  Prussian  Universities,  in  feeding 
muscle  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  for  the  purpose  of  producing  tuberculosis 
in  other  animals,  have  had  for  the  most  part  negative  results  (the  opinion  of 
the  Scientific  Deputation  for  Medical  Service  of  December  1,  1886,  Eulenburg's 
Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  Gerichtliche  Medizin  und  Oeffentliches  Sanitatswesen, 
Vol.  XLVII.,  pp.  307,  ff.)»  since,  therefore,  the  trans missibility  of  tuberculosis 
by  consumption  even  of  meat  affected  with  tubercles  is  not  proved,  therefore 
the  meat  of  well-nourished  animals,  even  if  the  pathological  conditions  men- 
tioned under  1  and  2  are  present,  can  not,  as  a  rule,  be  considered  as  of  inferior 
value,  and  the  sale  thereof  can  not  be  placed  under  especial  police  supervision. 

From  the  standpoint  of  national  economy,  it  is  desirable  that  meat  which 
possesses  a  comparatively  high  nutritive  value,  such  as  that  of  superannuated 
and  poor  cattle,  etc.,  shall  be  admitted  to  market,  the  more  so  since  a  uni- 
form judgment  of  such  meat  in  all  localities  is  impossible  when  we  consider  the 
present  defective  meat  inspection  in  many  regions  and  the  utter  absence  of  meat 
inspection  in  a  large  part  of  the  country. 

In  the  future,  therefore,  such  meat  is  to  be  freely  admitted  to  the  market. 
In  doubtful  cases  the  opinion  of  an  approved  veterinarian  should  be  sought, 
but  the  courts  must  decide  whether  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  is  to  be 
considered  as  spoiled  and  whether  the  sale  thereof  violates  the  provisions  of 
Section  3677  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statute,  or  the  regulations  of  the  Food  Law  of 
May  14,  1879.* 

B.  Kingdom  of  Bavaria. — Police  regulations  with  regard  to  the  inspection 
of  cattle  and  sheep  apparently  affected  with  tuberculosis  (pearl  disease  and  lung 
plague) ,  June  25,  1892. 

gec  i — if  after  slaughtering  cattle  and  hogs,  localized  tuberculosis  is 
found  (pearl  disease,  lung  plague)  in  the  first  stage  of  development,  and  if  at 
the  same  time  the  slaughtered  animal  exhibits  a  good  condition  of  nutrition,  the 
meat  of  such  animals,  after  the  removal  and  destruction  of  the  diseased  organs, 
is  to  be  freely  admitted  to  the  market  and  may  be  sold  for  human  food. 

Sec.  2.  The  meat  of  cattle  and  hogs  affected  with  generalized  and  advanced 
tuberculosis  (pearl  disease  and  lung  plague),  and  exhibiting  at  the  same  time  a 
state  of  emaciation,  as  well  as  meat  which  contains  tuberculous  foci,  is  to  be  con- 
sidered harmful  and  to  be  excluded  from  use  as  human  food.  It  can  not  be 
offered  for  sale  or  sold  for  this  purpose. 

If,  in  case  of  Sec.  2,  the  meat  inspector  is  not  a  veterinarian,  a  subsequent 
inspection  by  an  approved  veterinarian  may  be  demanded. 

Sec.  3.  In  doubtful  cases  (tuberculosis  of  the  organs  of  one  or  more  body 
cavities,  transition  forms  between  local  and  generalized  tuberculosis),  the 
opinion  of  an  approved  veterinarian  is  to  be  obtained. 

If  such  a  veterinarian  finds  that  the  conditions  of  Sec.  1  or  2  are  not  present, 
then  the  meat  may  be  admitted  to  the  market  under  certain  conditions  and 


*  A  similar  regulation  concerning  procedure  with  the  meat  of  tuberculous 
animals  has  been  issued  in  the  Principality  of  Reuss. 


TUBERCULOSIS  6  ±9 

restrictions  and  may  be  sold  for  human  food,  according  to  the  degree  of  exten- 
sion, stage  and  intensity  of  the  pathological  process,  and  according  to  the 
general  nutritive  condition  of  the  animal. 

C.  In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  following  provisions  are  in  force  :* 

1.  As  unfit  for  food  are  to  be  considered :  internal  organs  which  contain 
tuberculous  areas,  or  the  lymphatic  glands  of  which  are  infested  with  tubercu- 
lous foci. 

2.  The  meat  is  to  be  considered  as  unfit  fQr  food  and  the  fat  as  fit  for  food, 
but  not  marketable  (conditional  utilization)',  in  cases  of  tuberculosis  in  which 
the  disease  is  generalized,  that  is,  when  the  extension  of  the  tuberculous  process 
in  the  body  may  have  taken  place  by  means  of  the  circulating  blood  (the  portal 
circulation  excepted)  and  when  fresh  (that  is,  not  calcified,  dried  up,  or  encap- 
suled),  or  numerous  older  tuberculous  foci  are  present  in  the  muscles,  bones,  or 
the  lymphatic  glands  belonging  to  them,  or  when  acute,  miliary  tuberculosis  is 
present,  or  when  in  cases  of  acute  generalized  tuberculosis,  a  high  degree  of 
emaciation  is  found. 

3.  The  meat  and  fat  are  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food  in  a  raw  condition, 
but  as  fit  for  food  but  not  marketable  (conditionally  utilizable)  in  a  cooked  con- 
dition in  cases  of  tuberculosis  where 

(a)  With  generalized  tuberculosis,  the  evidences  of  fresh  generalizations  are 
restricted  to  the  internal  organs  and  their  lymphatic  glands,  particularly  to  the 
spleen,  kidneys  and  udder,  or  when  isolated,  older  (calcified,  dried  up  or  encap- 
suled)  tubercular  foci  are  present  in  the  bones,  muscle  substance  or  lymphatic 
glands  of  the  muscles,  and  these  foci  may  be  removed  with  certainty  ;  or,  when 

(6)  "With  acute  and  generalized  tuberculosis  extensive  softened  foci  and 
emaciation  exist. 

In  the  same  manner  are  to  be  judged  and  treated  parts  of  meat  which 
become  contaminated  with  tuberculous  material  in  removing  tuberculous  parts. 

Cooking  can  be  considered  as  rendering  the  meat  harmless  only  when  it  is 
accomplished  in  a  steam  cooking  apparatus  with  pieces  of  meat  weighing  not 
more  than  5  kg. ;  so  that  the  inside  of  the  pieces  of  meat  has  been  demonstrably 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  not  less  than  80°  C.  for  a  period  of  thirty  minutes  ; 
or  when  pieces  weighing  not  more  than  3  kg.  are  cooked  for  not  less  than  three 
hours  in  open  kettles.  The  rendering  of  the  fat  can  be  considered  as  making  it 
harmless  only  when  this  operation  is  carried  out  in  kettles  on  the  open  fire  or 
when  with  the  use  of  a  steam  apparatus  a  temperature  of  at  least  80°  C.  is  reached 
before  the  fat  is  poured  off. 

4.  All  the  meat,  including  the  fat,  is  to  be  considered  as  non-marketable  in 
cases  where  tuberculosis  is  acute  and  simultaneously  generalized  and  where  the 


*  In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  the  meat  of  animals  found  to  be  tuberculous 
has  been  utilized  as  follows :  In  1895,  1.93  per  cent,  of  tuberculous  cattle  was 
destroyed,  5.51  per  cent,  was  sold  on  the  freibank  and  92.54  p^r  cent,  freely 
admitted  to  the  market;  while  1.42  per  cent,  of  the  tuberculous  hogs  was 
destroyed,  24.25  per  cent,  sold  on  the  freibank  and  74.3  per  cent,  freely  admitted 
to  the  market.  In  1899,  1.41  per  cent,  of  tuberculous  cattle  was  destroyed,  5.15 
per  cent,  sold  on  the  freibank  and  93.43  per  cent,  freely  admitted  to  the  market ; 
while  0.83  per  cent,  of  tuberculous  hogs  was  destroyed,  26.06  per  cent,  sold  on 
the  freibank  and  73.01  per  cent,  freely  admitted  to  the«market. 


650  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

animals  are  found  in  a  good  nutritive  condition,  or  in  cases  of  generalized  tuber- 
culosis in  which  the  generalization  from  the  character  of  the  tuberculosis  is  to  be 
considered  as  having  run  its  course  and  i-j  restricted  to  the  internal  organs,  or 
when  only  isolated,  calcified,  separable  foci  are  present  in  the  muscles,  bones  or 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  muscles. 

D.  The  regulations  of  Wurtemburg  and  Baden  with  regard  to  tuberculosis 
are  restricted  to  a  statement  that  the  meat  in  cases  of  "generalized  lung  plague 
or  pearl  disease  "  is  to  be  considered  as  "unfit  for  food." 

E.  In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hessen  a  decree  of  the  Ministries  of  the  Interior 
and  Justice,  Section  for  Public  Hygiene,  of  October  12,  1883,  makes  the  following 
provisions:  "  According  to  these  principles  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  is 
to  be  declared  unfit  for  food  when  it  must  be  considered  as  infected  with  tuber- 
culosis,   and,    therefore,    as    harmful,  a  conditi<  n    which,    from    a   scientific 
standpoint,  occurs  only  "  when  the  animal  in  question  has  been  affected  with 
generalized  tuberculosis  ;  that  is,  when,  according  to  present  experience,  it  must 
be  assumed  that  the  tubercle  virus  has  entered  into  the  general  circulation  and 
has  been  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  especially  when  the  meat  itself 
contains  infected  lymphatic  glands  ;  furthermore,  when  the  animals,  in  conse- 
quence of  tuberculosis  or  other  incidental  infection,  are  in  a  poor   nutritive 
condition,  or  when  the  meat  of  such  animals,  on  account  of  its  general  character, 
does  not  appear  to  be  suiatble  for  human  food. 

"  In  all  other  cases  of  tuberculosis,  the  meat  is  to  be  recognized  as  fit  for  food 
but  not  in  prime  market  condition.  The  diseased  parts  and  the  surrounding 
tissue  are  always  to  be  removed.  This  must  take  place,  especially  in  tubercu- 
losis of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum,  together  with  the  parts  of  the  meat  which  lie 
next  to  the  pathologically-altered  parts  of  these  organs." 

F.  For  the   Grand  Duchy  of  Meckleriburg-Schwerin  a  circular  letter  con- 
cerning the  sanitary  judgment  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals,  dated  May 
9,  1895,  orders  as  follows  : 

According  to  the  observations  of  the  undersigned  Minister,  the  meat  inspec- 
tors appear  to  judge  the  fitness  for  food  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  food  animals. 
in  very  different  ways.  Since  it  is  of  not  less  interest  to  public  sanitation  that 
meat  should  not  be  unnecessarily  excluded  from  the  market  than  that  no  injurious 
meat  should  be  admitted  to  the  market,  and  since  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the 
practice  of  meat  inspection  has  already  produced  harmful  results,  therefore,  the 
undersigned  Minister  feels  obliged  to  prescribe  for  the  district  veterinarians 
principles  which,  according  to  the  present  status  of  science,  are  considered  by  the 
Minister  as  well  adapted  for  the  classification  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  food 
animals : 

1.  The  following  animals  are  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  use  as  food 
material  and  are  to  be  utilized  only  for  technical  purposes  : 

(a)  Those  in  which  tuberculous  alterations  are  found  in  the  meat,  in  the 
bones  or  in  the  corresponding  lymph  glands. 

(6)  Those  in  which  symptoms  of  acute  miliary  tuberculosis  with  fever  are 
found. 

(c)  Those  in  which  the  emaciation  of  the  body  i*  far  advanced  and  in  which 
numerous  widely-distributed  tubercles  are  found,  or  in  which  the  symptoms  of 


TUBERCULOSIS  651 

generalized  tuberculosis  are  present,    giving   evidence  of  the  distribution  of  a. 
toxin  through  the  systemic  circulation. 

2.  As  harmless  for  the  consumers  in  a  cooked  condition  (Rohrbeek's  steam 
cooking  apparatus),  and,  therefore,  admissible  as  food  material,  with  this  restric- 
tion, is  to  be  considered  the  meat  of  animals  which  are  affected  with  tuberculosis 
to  the  extent  described  in  1,  c  ;  or  the  body  of  which  is  still  well  nourished  or  at 
least  not  conspicuously  emaciated. 

For  the  rest,  it  is  not  required  from  a  sanitary  standpoint  and  it  is  opposed 
to  the  interests  of  public  economy  that  the  meat  of  animals  in  which  tuberculous 
alterations  are  found  in  a  less  extensive  form  than  those  described  in  1  and  2, 
should  be  excluded  from  market  simply  on  account  of  the  presence  ofl 
tuberculosis. 

(Signed)        THE  GRAND  DUCHY  OF  MECKLENBURG, 

Ministry,  Section  for  Medical  Affairs, 

Miihlenbruch. 

Tuberculosis  of  Birds. — Through  the  investigations  of  Eivolta^ 
Mafucci,  Strauss,  Gamaleia,  et  al.,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
avian  tuberculosis  is  produced  by  a  bacillus  which  is  not  essentially 
different,  biologically,  from  the  organism  of  mammalian  tuberculosis. 
The  bacillus  of  avian  tuberculosis  resembles  that  of  human  and 
boviue  tuberculosis  with  regard  to  form,  behavior  toward  reagents 
and  the  gross  anatomical  lesions.  However,  as  a  rule,  it  is  essen- 
tially pathogenic  only  for  birds  and  not  for  mammals,  as,  vice  versa, 
the  bacillus  of  mammalian  tuberculosis,  as  a  rule,  is  not 
transmissible  to  birds.  Nocard  demonstrated  that  by  repeated 
passages  through  animals  the  organism  of  mammalian  tuberculosis 
could  be  rendered  virulent  for  birds.  The  bacillus  of  avian  tuber- 
culosis vegetates  at  temperatures  between  25°  and  45°  C.  Mafucci 
emphasizes,  as  a  prominent  distinction  between  the  pathogenic 
action  of  the  two  species,  the  fact  that  the  tubercle  of  mammals 
usually  possesses  giant  cells,  while  the  latter  are  absent  in  avain 
tubercles. 

Mafucci  suggested  that  possibly  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  of 
chickens  play  a  part  in  the  etiology  of  local  tuberculosis  of  man. 

From  a  histological  standpoint,  Pfander  demonstrated  that  the 
specific  products  of  avian  tuberculosis  were  not  completely  free 
from,  but  are  very  poor  in  Langhans'  giant  cells  (with  peripheral 
nuclei,  Fig.  209),  and  that  they  exhibit  caseation,  not  in  the  form  of 
cloudy  and  finely  granular  masses,  as  in  the  case  of  mammalian 
tuberculosis,  but  rather  in  the  form  of  a  hyaline,  glassy  sub- 
stance. 


<652  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


(g)  Pseudo-Tuberculosis. 

NATURE  AND  ETIOLOGY. — Under  the  term  pseudo-tuberculosis 
included  pathological  processes  which,  without  being  caused  by 
the  tubercle  bacillus,  have  the  essential  character  of  caseation  in 
common  with  tuberculosis.  The  etiology  of  so-called  pseudo- 
tuberculosis  is  exceedingly  multiform.  Micrococci,  bacilli,  clado- 
thrices  and  mold  fungi  may  cause  tubercle-like  processes.  Formerly 
tubercles  produced  by  animal  parasites  were  classified  with  the 
pseudo-tuberculous  processes ;  for  example,  when  degenerated  tape- 
worm larvae  were  present  in  the  musculature,  one  spoke  of  cestode 
tuberculosis.  Ebstein  and  Nicolaier  accepted  this  term  for  vermin- 
ous tubercles  in  the  kidneys  of  dogs  and  in  the  lungs  of  cats. 

OCCURRENCE. — Tubercle-like  alterations  which  were  not  pro- 
duced by  the  tubercle  bacillus  were  observed  by  Eberth,  Pfeiffer 
and  other  authors  in  guinea  pigs  and  rabbits ;  by  Melassez  and 
"Vignal  in  chickens ;  by  Megnin  and  Mosny  in  horses ;  by  Hayem, 
Toupet  and  Eppinger  in  man ;  and,  finally,  also  by  a  large  number 
of  observers  in  food  animals,  especially  cattle  and  sheep.  In  the 
last  named  animal  pseudo-tuberculosis  may  appear  as  an  epizootic, 
as  has  been  the  case  of  late  years  in  Australia  and  America. 

Kitt  described  a  case  of  bacterial  caseous  pneumonia  in  cattle. 
The  lungs  exhibited  the  symptoms  of  caseous  bronchial  pneumonia. 
The  disease  was  distinguished,  however,  microscopically  from 
tuberculous,  bronchial  pneumonia  by  the  complete  absence  of 
calcification  and  the  formation  of  cavities.  The  condition  of  the 
lymphatic  glands  could  not  be  determined.  In  the  caseous  material, 
thick  masses  of  fine  rods  were  found  which  were  1.5  /*  long  and 
about  as  broad  as  swine  erysipelas  bacilli.  They  were  readily 
stained  by  the  Gram  method  and  when  so  stained  were  to  be 
recognized  by  their  abundance,  even  in  sections  from  the  freezing 
microtome,  under  low  magnification. 

In  connection  with  this,  from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  highly 
important  observation,  Kitt  cites  the  following  similar  cases  from 
literature  :  Stohr  saw  a  case  of  pseudo-tuberculosis  (caseous  pneu- 
monia) in  sucking  calves,  which  was  produced  by  a  bacillus.  Nocard 
discovered  masses  of  bacilli  lying  close  together  in  the  tubercles 
^which  occur  in  France  in  pseudo-farcy  of  horses  and  which  appear  in 
the  lungs,  liver,  spleen  and  lymphatic  glands  and  show  a  central 
enseation.  These  bacilli  were  about  as  long  as  those  of  swine 


PSEUDO-TUBERCULOSIS  653 

erysipelas  and  as  wide  as  tubercle  bacilli.  They  were  stained  by 
the  Weigert  modification  of  Gram's  method.  Courmont  found  a 
specific  bacillus  in  a  case  of  pleural  tubercles  in  a  cow,  and,  finally, 
Baumgarfcen  found  a  specific  micrococcus  in  a  caseating  granulation 
tumor  in  a  lamb. 

Preisz  and  Guinard  reported  concerning  a  case  of  pseudo- 
tuberculosis  in  a.  sheep.  Both  kidneys  of  a  sheep  which  was 
slaughtered  in  an  abattoir  were  covered  with  old  calcified  granules 
which  greatly  resembled  tubercles.  Koch's  bacillus,  however,  could 
not  be  demonstrated  in  the  granules.  By  the  inoculation  of  rabbits 
and  guinea  pigs  the  authors  uniformly  obtained  positive  results  :  a 
rapid  generalization  of  small  tubercle-like  structures  which  con- 
tained large  quantities  of  very  delicate  fresh  bacteria,  rounded  at 
both  ends.  This  micro-organism  could  also  be  demonstrated  in  the 
tubercles  of  the  sheep  kidneys.  Preisz  and  Guinard  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  bacterial  pseudo-tuberculoses  are  all  identical. 
Later  Preisz  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  pseudo-tubercu- 
losis investigated  by  him  was  distinguished  from  true  tuberculosis 
by  the  fact  that,  in  the  former,  tubercles  were  rapidly  produced 
and  casefied  immediately  after  their  appearance,  while  true  tubercles 
do  not  become  visible  and  begin  to  casefy  until  three  or  four  weeks 
after  inoculation. 

In  the  frequently-occurring  pseudo-tuberculosis  of  rodents,  w& 
apparently  have  to  do  with  a  bacterial  affection  as  in  similar  casas 
in  sheep  and  cattle.  The  Bacillus  pseudo-tuberculosis  of  A.  Pfeiffer, 
which  is  identical  with  the  zoogleacoccus  of  pseudo-tuberculosis, 
described  by  Eberth  and  others,  may  be  successfully  transmitted  to 
house  mice,  hamsters,  guinea  pigs,  rabbits  and  hare.  The  author 
was  able  to  demonstrate  Bacillus  pseudo-tuberculosis,  as  described  by 
Kitt,  Preisz  and  Guinard,  in  caseated  lymphatic  glands  in  sheep  of 
various  origin.  In  one  case,  reported  by  Turski,  there  was  an 
extensive  outbreak  of  pseudo-tuberculosis  in  a  herd  of  Merino 
sheep.  Among  150  ewes,  44,  or  29.3  per  cent.,  were  more  or  less 
affected.  The  sheep  which  were  affected  with  pseudo-tuberculosis 
were  emaciated  and  after  slaughter  exhibited  caseous  alterations  hi 
various  lymphatic  glands,  bronchial,  mediastinal,  portal,  prescap- 
ular,  kneefold  and  other  intermuscular  lymphatic  glands.  The 
lymphatic  glands  were  either  completely  modified  into  caseous  foci, 
or  were  sprinkled  with  caseous  areas,  varying  in  size  from  a  hemp 
seed  to  that  of  a  hazel  nut.  The  substance  of  these  areas  wa« 
greenish-yellow,  caseous,  purulent,  crumbling  or  dry,  and  in  layers 
like  an  onion.  Calcification  was  completely  wanting  in  the  caso 


654  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

described  by  Kitt.  Moreover,  the  parenchyma  of  the  internal 
organs  was  unaltered.  On  the  other  hand,  metastatic,  caseous  foci 
were  found  in  the  musculature.  In  these  foci  numerous  rods, 
resembling  those  01  swine  erysipelas,  were  demonstrated  by  Gram's 
staining  method  (Fig.  221).  These  rods  grew  on  blood  serum  in  the 
form  of  milk-white  colonies,  produced  pseudo-tuberculosis  in  mice, 
rabbits  and  guinea  pigs,  and  killed  sheep  with  symptoms  of  violent 
septicemia,  even  when  inoculated  in  comparatively  small  doses. 
Likewise  in  pseudo-tuberculosis  of  sheep,  which  has  occurred  in 
epizootic  form  in  Australia  and  America,  the  bacillus  pseudo- 
tuberculosis  in  question  was  demonstrated 
FIG.  221.  as  the  pathogenic  organism  (Cherry  and 

Ball,  Norgaard  and  Mohler). 
I 
(  f 

* ,  DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — 

' )  The  general  symptom  of  pseudo-tuberculous 

x_  processes,  caseation,  has  already  been  men- 

tioned. Pseudo-tuberculosis  has  this  symp- 
tom in  common  with  true  tuberculosis.  For 
the  differentiation  of  the  two  processes,  the 

casualistic  material  furnishes  essentially  two 
Bacilli  of  pseudo-irabercii-  .         ._-,.  .  i     .    i  i 

losis  in  a  smear  rrepara-     criteria:    First,  the  pseudo-tuberculous  tu- 

tion  of  pseud^uoercu-     bercles  appear,  as  a  rule,  not  to  contain  giant 
lousmediastiiu';;!andof  ^       '  '  fo 

a  sheep,  x  500  diam.         cells  or  epithehoid  cells  ;  furthermore,  it  is 

to  be  concluded  from  observations  thus  far 

made  that  the  caseous  foci  which  appear  in  the  lymph  glands  in 
pseudo-tuberculosis  do  not  calcify,  but  dry  up,  and,  consequently, 
exhibit  an  onion-like  stratification. 

JUDGMENT. — The  sanitary  police  judgment  of  pseudo-tubercu- 
lous alterations  varies  like  their  etiology.  In  all  cases,  however, 
the  character  of  the  process  justifies  the  complete  exclusion  from 
the  market  ot  organs  which  are  affected  with  the  alterations  in 
question,  and  of  the  meat  which  is  sympathetically  affected  by  the 
generalization  process. 


(h)  Actinomycosis. 

ETIOLOG*. — Actinomycosis  (ray  fungus  disease)  belongs  to  the 
chronic  infectious  diseases.  It  is  produced  by  actinomyces  (ray- 
fungus),  which  was  observed  by  Perroncito,  Rivolta  and  Hahn,  but 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  655 

was    first  recognized   as   an   etiological   factor   and   described  by 
Bellinger  in  1877. 

MORPHOLOGY. — Actinomyces  is  classified  with  the  pleomorphic 
bacteria  for  the  reason  that  in  cultures  it  forms  short  and  long  rods, 
simple  and  branched  threads,  spirally  twisted  organisms  and  cocci- 
like  elements  (Wolff  and  Israel).  In  animal  tissues  the  ray  fungus 
is  observed  in  the  form  of  graceful  rosettes,  the  chief  character  of 
which  consists  in  club-shaped  swellings  of  the  radially-arranged 
mycelia  (Fig.  222). 

In  domesticated  animals,  actinomyces  does  not  produce  sup- 
puration, but  simply  an  extensive  infiltration  of  round  cells  and,  in. 

FIG.  222. 


Actinomyces  mycelia  from  a  sub-maxillary  actinomycoma  of  a  beef  animaL 
X  240  diameters. 

the  neighboring  tissue,  giant  cells,  the  formation  of  which,  to  the 
best  of  the  author's  knowledge,  was  first  described  by  Kitt  (Fig.  223). 
The  giant  cells,  however,  are  not  of  such  regular  form  as  hi  tuber- 
culosis, but  are  of  a  more  irregular  shape.  Suppuration  in  domesti- 
cated animals  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  mixed  infection  with  pyogenie 
bacteria.  In  purulent  actinomycotic  foci,  I  was  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  the  fungus  rosettes  do  not  show  the  fine  growth  and 
development  which  we  are  accustomed  to  see  in  domesticated  ani- 
mals, but  that  they  resemble  in  this  respect  more  nearly  the  ordi- 
nary picture  of  actinomyces  in  man  (Fig.  225). 

By  transmitted  light  the  actinomyces  rosettes  exhibit  an  evi- 
dent greenish  sheen ;  in  consequence  of  calcification  they  lose  this 
sheen  and  become  black  under  transmitted  light.  The  ray  fungus 
rosettes  are  commonly  located  close  together,  in  "mulberry-like 


656  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

masses,"  and  thereby  form  pale-yellow  granules  of  the  size  of 
millet  seed,  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  which  are  plainly  distin- 
guished from  the  diseased  tissue  (Fig.  224). 

PATHOGENESIS. — Actinomyces  may  produce  ulcers  of  consider- 
able size.  According  to  their  exterior  condition,  these  ulcers  are 
classified  into  soft  and  firm  actinomycomata,  the  former  being  the 
more  frequent.  They  possess  the  firmness  of  myxofibromata,  while 
in  the  case  of  the  firm  actinomycomata,  the  consistency  is  similar 

FIG.  223. 


Section  through  an  actinomycotic  tongue,     a,  central  part  of  the  actinomyces; 

&,  radially  arranged  clavate  hyphae;  c,  giant  cells  in  the  adjoining  zone 

of  infiltration.     X  240  diameters. 

to  that  of  pure  fibromata.  The  firm  actinomycomata  are  compara- 
tively poor  in  mycelia.  All  actinomycotic  foci  are  delimited  from 
the  surrounding  tissue  by  a  thick  wall  of  connective  tissue. 

In  case  of  actinomycosis  of  one  part  of  the  body,  the  cor- 
responding groups  of  lymphatic  glands  may  take  part  in  the  affec- 
tion. Bay  fungi  which  accidentally  find  their  way  into  the  afferent 
lymphatic  vessel  produce  in  the  lymphatic  glands,  as  well  as  in  the 
other  tissues,  small  infiltration  foci,  inside  of  which  the  fungus  colo- 
nies may  be  plainly  recognized  (compare  Fig.  223).  Neither  sup- 
puration nor  caseation  appears  in  actinomycotic  lymph  glands. 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  657 

OCCURRENCE. — Actinomycosis  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  cattle 
and  hogs.  As  a  rule,  the  disease  appears  sporadically.  It  may, 
however,  attain  an  enzootic  distribution  (Jensen,  Stienon,  Glaus, 
Neuwirth).  Iti  rare  cases  the  ray  fungus  disease  has  been  observed 
in  horses,  sheep  and  deer. 

In  cattle,  it  is  especially  the  head  which  is  the  seat  of  the  dis- 
ease. Almost  all  parts  of  the  head  may  be  attacked  by  the  ray 
fungus.  Formerly  the  lower  jaw  was  considered  the  most  fre- 
quent point  of  attack.  In  this  location  the  fungus  may  produce 
enormous  deformities  in  consequence  of  raref active  ostitis,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  enormous  granulation  formations,  on  the  other, 
likewise,  in  the  upper  jaw,  actinomycomata  have  frequently  been 
demonstrated.  According  to  recent  investigations,  however,  the 

FIG.  225. 
PIG.  224. 


i 

' '.'-  '•'. 

\ 


Actinomyces  mycelia  from  a  Actinomyces  mycelia  from  a  purulent  actinomy- 

laryngeal  actinomycorna.  coma  in  a  beef  lung.     X  240  diameters. 

X  35  diameters. 

accuracy  of  which  the  author  can  fully  verify,  the  tongue  must  be 
considered  as  the  most  frequent  seat  of  actinomycosis.  Henschel 
and  Falk  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  besides  the  form  of  lingual 
actinomycosis  in  cattle,  known  under  the  name  of  wooden  tongue, 
actinomycosis  occurs  in  this  organ  quite  frequently  in  the  form  of 
tubercles.  Henschel  and  Falk  specified  a  particular  part  of  the 
dorsal  surface  of  the  tongue  which  is  frequently  affected  with 
primary  actinomycosis,  and  which  must,  therefore,  be  carefully 
inspected  in  every  slaughtered  animal  (Fig.  52).  Besides  in  the 
musculature  of  the  tongue,  one  observes  fungoid  actinomycomata 
(Fig.  226,  b)  and  superficial  actinomycotic  erosions  (Fig.  226,  a)  on 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  tongue  and  also  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  cheeks  and  gums.  These  erosions  are  distinguished  from 
similar  alterations  by  their  firm,  leathery  basis.  Moreover,  actino- 
mycotic foci  may  be  plainly  recognized  iu  the  form  of  yellow  spots. 


G58  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

It  was  shown  by  Klepzow  that  in  cattle  slaughtered  at  the 
Moscow  abattoir  the  mucosa  and  subrnucosa  of  the  under  lip  are 
very  frequently  permeated  with  actinornycomata.  From  March  to 
June,  1892,  among  42,230  slaughtered  cattle,  1,030  cases  of  actino- 
mycosis  were  found,  and  among  these  not  less  than  621  cases  of 
labial  actinomycosis. 

In  the  pharyngeal  cavity,  larynx  and  esophagus,  pedunculate 
actinomycomata  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  or  a  potato  frequently 
occur  (Fig:  227).  These  are  distinguished  from  non-actiuomycotic 
polyps  by  their  rough,  pale-red  surface  and  the  sprinkling  of  yel- 
low spots. 

Moreover,  the  skin  of  the  head  and  neck,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
cutis  of  these  parts  of  the  body,  are  frequently  the  seat  of  hard  or 

FIG.  226. 


Beef  tongue  with  (a)  actinomycotic  erosions ;  b,  mushroom-shaped  actinomycomata. 
The  tip  of  the  tongue  also  exhibits  the  condition  of  wooden  tongue. 

soft,  sharply  delimited  or  diffuse  tumors,  in  which,  when  carefully 
examined,  yellow  spots  or  actinomyces  colonies  may  be  observed. 
The  neighborhood  of  the  angle  of  the  jaw  and  the  larynx  are  very 
often  affected  with  actinomycosis.  According  to  Rasmussen,  sub- 
cutaneous actinomycomata  also  occur  on  the  back,  elbow  and 
femur,  and  in  the  form  of  the  so-called  knee-sponge.  Liipke 
observed  a  case  of  elephantiasis  which  was  caused  by  actinomy- 
cosis. Actinomycosis  may  also  take  its  origin  from  castration 
wounds. 

Contrasted  with  the  frequency  of  actinomycosis  in  the  head, 
that   of   other   organs    is   rare.      In  the  first  stomachs   one   finda  , 
pedunculate   actinomycomata  like  those  in  the  pharyngeal  cavity 
and  esophagus.     In  the  lungs  smaller  scattered  tubercles  and  large 
tumors  occur  up  to  the  size  of  a  child's  head  ;  the  latter  in  delimited  > 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  659 

portions  of  the  lungs.  The  large  tumors  are,  without  exception,  of 
a  soft,  myxoma-like  consistency.  They  frequently  show  a  central 
puriform  softening.  Hepatic  actinomycosis  appears  either  in  the 
form  of  solitary  tumors  (infection  through  fungi-bearing  bodies 
from  one  of  the  first  stomachs)  or  in  the  form  of  numerous 
abscess-like  tubercles  (infection  through  the  portal  vein).  Actino- 
mycosis of  the  udder  is  found  in  cattle  in  the  form  of  tubercles 
varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  bean  to  that  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  pos- 
sessing a  fibrous  peripheral  zone  with  a  soft  center  permeated 
with  actinomyces  foci,  or  in  the  form  of  diffuse,  acute  inflamma- 
tion with  a  tendency  to  induration.  Bang  and  Jensen  also  found 

FIG.  227. 


Bovine  larynx  with  an  actinomycoma  on  the  epiglottis. 

actinomycomata  in  the  kidneys.  Affections  of  the  intestines,  blad- 
der, vagina,  spleen,  peritoneum,  vertebral  column  and  sternum  are 
rare.  In  hogs,  Johne  has  shown  that  the  tonsils  are  a  frequent 
seat  of  actinomyces.  Moreover,  in  the  hog  the  ray  fungus  fre- 
quently leads  to  the  infection  of  the  mammary  glands,  which  affec- 
tion frequently  appears  in  the  form  of  a  cold  abscess.  In  the 
contents  of  the  abscess  one  finds  well  developed  rosettes  in  great 
quantity,  which  do  not  differ  in  any  respect  from  Actinomyces  bovis. 
Besides  the  abscess  form,  actinomyces  of  the  mammary  gland  may 
appear  also  in  the  form  of  tubercles  and  large  tumors  leading  to 
suppuration  and  the  formation  of  fistulse.  Fungoid  actinomyco- 
mata may  grow  out  through  the  openings  of  the  fistulae.  Rasmus- 
sen  states  that  at  the  abattoir  in  Copenhagen  he  observed  actino- 


660  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

myces  of  the  mammary  gland  in  hogs  in  52  cases  inside  of  three- 
months.  The  same  author  demonstrated  actinomycomata  in  the 
subcutis  on  the  neck,  in  the  fore-arm,  abdominal  wall  (castration- 
cicatrices)  and  hind  quarters  of  hogs. 

Finally,  in  the  horse  several  cases  of  actinomycosis  of  the 
tongue,  lymphatic  glands  and  of  the  generalized  form  have  been 
observed.  In  the  sheep,  one  case  of  pulmonary  actinomycosis  was 
observed  by  Grips,  and  two  cases  of  lingual  as  well  as  one  case  of 
labial  actiuomycosis  by  Berg.  In  the  last  named  case  and  in  one 
of  the  cases  of  lingual  actinomycosis,  specific  alterations  in  the 
cavity  of  the  lower  jaw  were  present  simultaneously. 

GENERALIZATION  OF  ACTINOMYCOSIS.— The  ray  fungus  may,  under 
certain  circumstances,  exhibit  a  general  distribution.  This,  how- 
ever, is  an  extremely  rare  occurrence.  Hertwig  described  a  case  of 
this  sort  in  the  hog,  the  only  one  in  several  million  hogs  which  were 
slaughtered  in  Berlin.  In  the  case  in  question,  in  addition  to 
actinomycomata  in  the  mammary  gland,  softened  actinomycotic 
foci  were  found  in  various  dorsal  vertebrae.  Moreover,  two  cases  of 
generalized  actinomycosis  were  demonstrated  in  cattle  in  Berlin. 
In  these  two  animals,  in  connection  with  actinomycosis  of  the  head, 
embolic  foci  had  developed  in  the  lungs,  liver,  and,  in  one  case,  also 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  kidneys.  Furthermore,  in  the  second 
cervical  vertebra,  embolic  actinomycosis  (granulations  and  granular 
pus)  was  observed  in  a  beef  animal  by  a  Swedish  veterinarian 
(Jensen). 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Upon  superficial  examination,  actino- 
mycosis may  be  confused  with  tuberculosis  and  also  with  simple 
non-specific  tumors  (fibromata,  myxomata,  etc.).  In  all  these  cases 
microscopic  examination  makes  certain  the  diagnosis  of  actinomy- 
cosis. Moreover,  the  above  described  microscopic  peculiarities  of 
actinomycomata,  especially  the  sprinkling  of  punctate  yellow  foci 
and  the  usual  negative  findings  in  the  corresponding  lymphatic 
glands,  furnish  important  criteria  for  the  identification  of  the  disease,, 
without  the  assistance  of  the  microscope. 

JUDGMENT. — The  question  whether  actinomycosis  of  animals 
may  be  transmitted  to  man  has  recently  been  made  a  subject  of 
lively  investigation,  especially  in  America.  The  possibility  of  such 
a  transmission  must  be  theoretically  admitted,  since  Wolff  and  Israel 
succeeded  in  inoculating  actinomycosis  from  one  animal  to  another^ 


ACTINOMI COSIS  <  >< >  L 

However,  all  experience  is  opposed  to  tlie  spontaneous  occurrence 
of  a  direct  transmission  of  the  disease  from  animals  to  man. 

According  to  statistics  collected  by  Moosbrugger,  including  75 
cases,  54  in  men  and  21  in  women  and  children,  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  actinomycotic  patients  had  no  contact  with  animals.  In 
11  cases  the  occupation  was  not  stated  ;  20  cases  developed  among 
farmers  ;  33  patients,  however,  had  nothing  to  do  with  animals 
(millers,  glaziers,  tailors,  merchants  and  students).  Contact  with 
diseased  animals  could  be  demonstrated  in  only  one  case.  Of  the 
21  women  and  children,  not  more  than  4  belonged  to  the  farming 
class  and  none  of  these  individuals  had  come  in  contact  with  a 
diseased  animal.  Concerning  the  transmission  of  actinomycosis  by 
the  consumption  of  actinomycotic  organs  or  meat  of  actinomycotic 
animals,  nothing  whatever  is  known.  Ponfick,  Bostrom,  Nocard, 
Crookshank,  et  al.,  are  of  the  opinion  that  man  and  animals  become 
affected  with  actinomycosis  from  one  and  the  same  source,  and  that 
in  this  regard  grains  are  highly  suspicious.  Of  special  importance 
is  the  communication  of  Bostrom,  according  to  which,  after  he  had 
especially  directed  attention  to  this  point,  he  could  uniformly 
demonstrate  the  undoubted  presence  of  grains  in  the  actinomycotic 
foci.  Bostrom  thereby  substantiated  the  .early  observations  of 
others,  especially  the  observation  of  Lanow,  Schartau,  Soltmann, 
Fischer  and  Bertha,  who  likewise  found  portions  of  grains  in 
actiuomycotic  foci  in  man.  Since  Bostrom  has  called  attention 
to  this  point,  the  grains  of  barley  and  the  chaff  of  oats  have  been 
found  in  actinomycotic  foci  in  man  by  Hummel,  Bernstorff  and 
Jurnika. 

These  experiences  agree  entirely  with  those  had  in  connection 
with  domesticated  animals.  The  usual  occurrence  of  the  disease  in 
the  anterior  portions  of  the  digestive  apparatus  in  cattle  speaks  in 
favor  of  infection  through  the  food,  and  the  affection  of  the  mammary 
glands  in  hogs,  of  infection  through  straw.  Furthermore,  one  quite 
frequently  finds  positive  proof  of  the  assumed  method  of  infection 
in  parts  of  grains  surrounded  by  ray  fungi,  especially  cereal  grains 
and  particles  of  straw,  within  actinomycotic  foci  in  cattle  and  hogs. 
Henschel  and  Falk  have  shown  beyond  question  that  lingual  actino- 
mycosis arises  exclusively  in  consequence  of  the  penetration  of 
fungus-bearing  food  material.  Finally,  the  transmission  of  the 
disease  from  one  animal  to  associated  animals  has  never  been, 
observed  with  certainty. 

Accordingly,  the  assumption  that  the  consumption  of  actino- 
mycotic organs  is  injurious  to  health,  is  scarcely  justified.  Under 


662  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

all  conditions,  we  must  combat  this  assumption  for  the  meat  of 
actinomycotic  animals  in  case  of  local  actinomycosis.  The  activity 
of  the  sanitary  police  should  therefore  be  restricted  to  the  removal 
of  all  affected  organs,  and  these  should  be  excluded  from  the  market 
as  highly  unfit  for  food  in  so  far  as  the  removal  of  the  specifically 
altered  parts  is  not  possible.  This  is  the  case  in  isola{ed  foci  in 
the  tongue,  and  the  removal  of  the  diseased  parts  for  the  purpose 
of  releasing  the  rest  of  the  tongue  is  very  desirable,  since  the 
tongue  is  so  valuable  an  organ. 

In  the  extremely  rare  cases  of  generalization,  the  whole  animal 
should  be  excluded  from  the  market,  since  generalization  in  actino- 
mycosis appears  to  run  a  very  atypic  course,  and  the  detection  of 
all  the  foci  (in  the  bones  and  inside  the  muscles)  is  much  more 
difficult  than  in  tuberculosis,  in  which  a  uniform  affection  of  the 
regional  lymphatic  glands  furnishes  a  valuable  guide  in  finding  the 
diseased  parts. 

(i)  Botryomycosis. 

HISTORY.  —  Under  the  term  botryomycosis,  we  understand  a 
chronic  proliferation  of  the  connective  tissue  which  is  produced  by 
a  specific  micro-organism  (botryomyces  of  Bellinger).  Bollinger 
first  found  this  fungus  in  1869  in  firm  pulmonary  tubercles  of  the 
size  of  a  hazel  nut  or  a  walnut  in  a  horse,  and  gave  it  the  name 
"  Zooglcea  pulmonis  equi."  Later  this  fungus,  after  it  had  been 
forgotten,  was  discovered  "anew"  by  Rivolta,  who  named  it 
"  Discomyces  equi"  as  well  as  by  Johne  and  Eabe,  who  proposed  the 
names  Micrococcus  ascoformans  and  M.  botryogenus.  Hereupon  Bol- 
linger changed  his  first  name  to  botryomyces  (grape  fungus). 


PATHOLOGICAL    ANATOMY    AND    BACTERIOLOGY.  —  Through 
investigations  of  Rabe,  Johne  and  Kitt,  concerning  botryomycomata 
and  botryomyces,  the  following  points  have  been  determined  : 

Botryomycoma  is  a  connective  tissue  tumor  of  chronic  charac- 
ter and  peculiar  structure.  It  has  thus  far  been  demonstrated  only 
in  horses  and  in  one  beef  animal  and  one  hog.  In  horses  the  tumor 
is  found  most  frequently  on  the  spermatic  cord  after  castration  ; 
also  in  the  iutermuscular  and  intramuscular  tissue  in  the  retro- 
peritoneal  tissue,  in  the  subcutis  under  the  collar,  on  the  breast  and 
tail,  and,  finally,  in  the  udder,  lungs,  ribs  and  pleura. 

Botryomycosis  of  the  lungs  may  arise  primarily  or  secondarily. 
Kitt  reported  a  case  in  which  metastatic  foci  in  the  lungs  developed 


BOTRYOMYCOSIS  663 

after  a  case  of  botryomycosis  of  the  spermatic  cord.  Jensen 
enlarged  the  casuistics  of  metastatic  pulmonary  botryomycosis  by 
three  other  cases  :  one  of  his  own  and  two  of  Steiner  and  Thomsen. 
The  case  observed  by  Jensen  is  remarkable  in  that  the  lymphatic 
glands  lying  at  the  entrance  to  the  thorax  showed  some  botryo- 
myces  foci  as  large  as  nuts.  A  similar  case  was  observed  by 
Frohner  in  a  horse.  In  this  case,  in  addition  to  botryomycosis  of 
the  spermatic  cord,  skin,  abdominal  musculature  and  lymphatic 
glands,  metastases  were  present  in  the  lungs  ;  also  botryomycotic 
peritonitis.  Botryomycoma  appears  in  the  form  of  tubercles  of 
various  size  which  consist  of  a  firm  connective  tissue  framework 
and  soft,  yellowish-brown  tissue  in  the  interstices.  The  latter  con- 

FIG.  228. 

~ 


Botryorayces  colonies,     a  intact,  &  calcified.     X  35  diameters. 

sists  of  small  tubercles,  softened  in  the  center,  in  which  without 
exception  yellowish-white  granules  of  the  size  of  a  grain  of  sand 
may  be  demonstrated  (Fig.  228).  "  These  depositions,  of  the  size 
of  grains  of  sand,  like  the  similar  granules  in  actinomycomata,  are 
to  be  considered  as  the  pathogenic  criteria  of  this  new  infectious 
tumor  "  (Johne). 

In  a  microscopic  examination  one  observes  that  these  deposi- 
tions are  nothing  but  "  mulberry  and  grape-shaped  conglomerations 
of  micrococcal  masses,  which  lie  close  together,  are  mostly  round, 
and  are  about  5  to  10  or  even  100  /*  in  diameter  "  (Fig.  229).  These 
structures  are  held  together  by  a  membrane  or  capsule.  The 
masses  of  micrococci  are  stained  by  gentian  violet  and  Loffler's 
methylene-blue  solution. 


664 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


Relationship  of  Botryomyces  to  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus. — 
Babe  determined  that  pure  cultures  of  botryomyces  killed  guinea 
pigs,  and  in  sheep  and  goats  produced  an  acute  inflammatory 
edema.  Kitt  succeeded  in  cultivating  cocci  from  colonies  of  botryo- 
myces which  possessed  great  similarity  to  Staphylococcus  pyogenes 
aureus  and  produced  suppuration  as  well  as  connective  tissue  pro- 
liferation. Hell  states  that  he  always  obtained  S.  pyogenes  aureus 
in  pure  cultures  from  botryomycomata.  According  to  Poucet, 
Dor  and  Parascandolo,  botryomyces  is  a  specific  bacterium,  never 
agrees  in  form,  size,  stainability,  formation  of  pigment  and  growth 

FIG.  229. 


Botryomyces  colonies  from  a  botryomycoma  of  the  spermatic  cord.     X  240  diameters. 


on  various  nutrient  media  with  S.  pyogenes  aureus ,  and  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  it  by  serum  diagnosis. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Botryomycomata  may  be  confused 
with  actinomycomata,  simple  tumors  and  glanderous  neomorphs. 
In  all  cases  the  findings  of  sand-like  depositions  and  a  micro- 
scopic examination  make  certain  a  positive  diagnosis. 

JUDGMENT. — Botryomycosis  has  never  been  demonstrated  in 
man.  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  that  botryomyces  may  be  patho- 
genic for  man  in  another  form  than  in  the  horse — perhaps  as  & 
purulent  organism  (compare  the  investigations  of  Kabe,  Kitt  and 


RINDERPEST  665 

Hell).  For  these  reasons,  at  least,  the  parts  of  the  organs  which 
are  affected  with  botryomycomata  must  be  carefully  removed  and 
rendered  innocuous. 


3. — Infectious  Diseases  Which  Occur  Only  in  Animals  and  are 
not  Communicable  to  Man  in  any  Form.* 

(a)   Rinderpest. 

Rinderpest  possesses  interest  merely  from  a  veterinary  police 
standpoint.  For  clinical  and  pathologico-anatomical  details,  refer- 
ence is  here  made  to  text  books  on  epizootic  diseases  and  special 
pathology.  The  only  matter  of  importance  to  experts  in  meat 
inspection  is  the  differential  diagnosis  of  this  plague,  which,  despite 
its  unusually  great  infectiousness,  is  still  quite  unexplained  from  an 
etiologieal  standpoint.  As  a  result  of  the  great  development  of  our 
commerce,  it  may  occur  and  has  occurred,  in  spite  of  our  strict 
quarantine  regulations,  that  rinderpest  has  suddenly  broken  out  in 
the  interior  of  the  country.  This  plague  is,  therefore,  to  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind,  in  stock  yards  and  abattoirs. 

The  following  are  the  chief  diseases  which  may  give  occasion 
to  confusion  with  rinderpest : 

Malignant  catarrhal  fever  and  intoxications. 

In  malignant  catarrhal  fever,  as  well  as  in  rinderpest,  all  the 
mucous  membranes  may  be  inflamed  (catarrhal,  croupous  and 
diphtheritic  inflammations).  Malignant  catarrhal  fever,  however, 
is  distinguished  from  rinderpest  by  its  very  slight  infectiousness 
and  especially  by  the  usual  involvement  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  by  the  appearance  of  parenchy- 
matous  keratitis  and  by  the  integrity  of  the  parenchyma  of  the 
internal  organs.  In  cases  of  rinderpest,  cloudiness  of  the  eyes  is 
wanting,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  parenchyma  is  greatly  altered 
(cloudy  swelling,  fatty  metamorphosis). 


*  The  infectious  diseases  peculiar  to  the  horse,  viz. ,  horse  distemper,  pneu- 
monia and  contagious  coryza,  possess  only  a  very  subordinate  significance  for 
meat  inspection.  This  is  evident,  on  the  one  hand,  from  the  usual  benign 
course  of  these  diseases,  and,  on  the  other,  from  the  low  slaughter  value  of 
horses.  In  severe  cases  the  owner  will,  as  a  rule,  prefer  the  risk  of  eventual 
death  to  a  saving  of  an  inconsiderable  slaughter  value.  Transmission  of  horse 
distemper,  pneumonia  and  contagious  coryza  to  man  from  eating  meat,  has  thus 
far  never  been  observed  ;  nor  have  infections  appeared  in  the  attendants  of  ani- 
mals affected  with  these  diseases. 


666  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

Intoxications  are  clinically  sufficiently  differentiated  from 
rinderpest  by  the  absence  of  infectioasness.  Intoxication  may, 
however,  occur  in  the  form  of  an  extensive  outbreak.  Thus,  for 
example,  it  may  occur,  in  the  careless  use  of  gray  mercurial  salve 
as  an  insecticide,  that  several  or  all  the  cattle  of  a  herd  become  sick 
at  the  same  time.  Mercurial  poisoning  is  characterized  by  the  f<ict 
that  it  produces  alterations  in  the  digestive  and  respiratory  appara- 
tus, which,  to  some  extent,  resemble  the  alterations  in  rinderpest, 
especially  the  punctate  and  spotted  reddened  areas,  ulcers  and  sub- 
mucous  infiltrates  in  the  intestines  and,  finally,  croupous  deposits 
on  the  respiratory  mucous  membranes.  In  cases  of  mercurialism, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  wanting  that  universal  croupous  diph- 
theritic inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  which  characterizes, 
rinderpest. 

In  addition  to  mercurial  poisoning,  other  intoxications  may  be 
confused  with  rinderpest.  Such  a  confusion  occurred  a  few  years 
ago  in  the  Rhine  Province,  where  a  1,-irge  number  of  cattle  suddenly 
became  seriously  affected  after  feeding  on  poisoned  maize  slump. 
In  a  subsequent  investigation  of  the  case  one  was  inclined  to 
ascribe  the  disease  to  the  development  of  hydrogen  arsenide  which, 
may  have  gotten  into  the  slump  by  the  utilization  of  impure  sul- 
phuric acid. 

JUDGMENT.— The  meat  of  cattle  affected  with  rinderpest  is 
harmless  for  man.  This  is  to  be  considered  as  demonstrated  by 
the  numerous  experiences,  especially  those  which  were  had  in  field 
campaigns.  Gerlach  emphasizes  the  fact  that  rinderpest  followed 
the  armies  in  all  of  the  European  wars  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  that  the  meat  of  affected  cattle  was  eaten  without  any  harm. 
From  1813  to  1815,  the  allied  as  well  as  the  French  troops  received 
cattle  affected  with  rinderpest,  and  among  them  many  animals  in 
an  acute  stage  of  the  disease.  An  isolated  observation  of  Ziickert 
on  the  alleged  injuriousness  of  the  meat  of  a  beef  animal  affected 
with  rinderpest  has  no  weight  against  this  experimental  material, 
especially  since  in  the  case  in  question  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
meat  had  already  begun  to  decompose. 

Despite  its  harmlessness,  however,  the  meat  of  cattle  affected 
with  rinderpest  in  well  regulated  conditions  in  time  of  peace  can. 
uot  be  admitted  to  the  market,  for  veterinary  police  reasons.  The 
Imperial  law  of  April  7, 1869,  concerning  regulations  against  rinder- 
pest prescribed  incineration  of  animals  killed  on  account  of  rinder- 
pest or  dead  of  this  disease. 


MALIGNANT   CATARRHAL   FEVER   OF   CATTLE  66T 


(b)   Malignant  Catarrhal  Fever  of  Cattle. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Malignant  catarrhal  fever  is  a 
specific  disease  of  cattle.  In  all  probability  it  depends  upon  the 
entrance  of  micro-organisms.  Thus  far,  however,  they  have  not 
been  demonstrated.  The  disease  is  usually  not  directly  infectious. 
It  appears,  rather,  to  be  contracted  exclusively  through  intermediate 
carriers  (food,  fl  >ors  of  stalls). 

Malignant  catarrhal  fever  in  the  majority  of  cases  appears 
sporadically.  Under  certain  conditions,  however,  it  may  obtaiu 
great  distribution  as  a  local  plague.  Frank,  in  Alsenz,  called  atten- 
tion to  the  occurrence  of  catarrhal  fever  in  an  enzootic  form.  Many 
similar  occurrences,  however,  had  been  reported  previously.  The 
author,  himself,  observed  an  outbreak  of  the  disease  in  which, 
among  a  herd  of  80  animals,  60  became  more  or  less  seriously^ 
affected  within  a  short  time. 

ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — Pathological  alterations  are  primarily 
observed  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  respiratory  apparatus^ 
The  mucous  membrane  from  the  nostrils  to  the  small  bronchi  niajr 
exhibit  all  degrees  of  inflammation,  catarrh,  croup  and  diphtheria. 
The  inflammatory  phenomena  of  the  alimentary  tract  may  be  asso- 
ciated with  symptoms  in  the  form  of  a  croupous  and  diphtheritic 
stomatitis  and  of  gastritis  and  croupous  enteritis  and  with  the 
formation  of  the  well-known  croupous  tubes.  Moreover,  malignant 
catarrhal  fever  may  be  complicated  with  inflammatory  phenomena, 
of  the  urino-genital  apparatus  (nephritis,  cystitis  and  vaginitis  of 
various  degrees).  The  affection  of  the  eyes  is  of  characteristic  and 
differential  diagnostic  importance  (Gerlach).  One  observes  in 
nearly  all  cases  inflammation  of  the  lids,  conjunctivas,  cornea  and 
even  of  the  iris. 

It  is  quite  remarkable  that  in  spite  of  the  serious  character 
of  the  disease,  the  parenchyma  of  the  internal  organs  is  found  to 
be  intact  post  mortem.  Bollinger  characterizes  this  fact  as  au 
important  differential  diagnostic  criterion  of  this  disease,  as  com- 
pared with  rinderpest.  The  musculature  also,  as  mentioned  by- 
Frank,  shows  no  variations  from  the  normal  condition. 

JUDGMENT. — In  the  larger  number  of  cases  with  which  I  am 
acquainted,  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  malignant  catarrhal 
fever  was  eaten  without  harm.  Likewise  in  the  literature  of  the 


C68  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

subject  there  are  no  statements  of  injury  to  human  health  from  eat- 
ing the  meat  of  animals  which  had  been  affected  with  malignant 
catarrhal  fever. 

In  my  own  opinion,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  the 
sale  of  the  meat  as  an  inferior  food  material  if  the  symptoms  are 
restricted  simply  to  the  respiratory  apparatus,  for  all  the  post- 
mortem findings  in  these  cases  are  in  favor  of  the  propositon  that 
the  process  ruus  a  local  course.  In  cases  of  complication  with 
croupous  enteritis,  on  the  other  hand,  and  with  serious  inflamma- 
tory phenomena  in  the  urine-genital  apparatus,  the  meat  is  to  be 
considered  as  highly  unfit  for  food  and  is  to  be  excluded  from  the 
market,  for  in  these  cases  there  is  usually  a  rapid  emaciation  of 
the  diseased  animals. 

(c)  Pleuro-Pneumonia  of  Cattle. 

GENERAL. — Pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  like  rinderpest,  is  of 
interest  chiefly  from  a  veterinary  police  standpoint.  This  fact, 
however,  should  not  prevent  the  meat  inspector  from  giving  care- 
ful attention  to  the  disease ;  for,  by  means  of  an  expert  control  of 
the  slaughter  of  cattle  it  is  possible  to  render  material  assistance 
to  the  veterinary  police  in  combating  pleuro-pneumonia,  since  the 
inspection  in  abattoirs  may  serve  to  detect  with  certainty  cases 
which  run  an  occult  course,  and  hereby  to  furnish  a  timely  demon- 
stration of  concealed  foci  of  pleuro-pneumonia. 

ETIOLOGY. — Nocard  and  Boux,  by  means  of  a  new  and  excellent 
culture  method,  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  lungs  affected  with 
pleuro-pneumonia  micro-organisms,  which,  according  to  the  state- 
ment of  both  investigators,  do  not  possess  the  power  of  producing 
pleuro-pneumonia,  but,  like  the  lymph  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  are 
capable  of  producing  immunity  against  pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle. 
Nocard  and  Boux  prepared  small  sacks  of  collodion,  filled  them 
with  bouillon,  and,  after  a  previous  sterilization,  inoculated  them 
with  a  small  quantity  of  the  fluid  exudation  from  the  lungs  of  a 
beef  animal  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia.  "When  the  collodion 
sacks  thus  prepared  were  placed  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  cattle 
or  small  experimental  animals,  the  bouillon  became  cloudy  and 
under  a  microscopic  examination  was  seen  to  contain  a  pure  cul- 
ture of  extraordinarily  minute  micro-organisms.  The  dimensions 
of  these  micro-organisms  were  smaller  than  those  of  the  smallest 
iuown  bacteria.  They  are  capable  of  passing  through  the  pores. 


PLEURO  PNEUMONIA  OF  CATTLE  (>69 

of  a  Beikefeld  and  Chamberland  filter,  and  can  not,  therefore,  be 
definitely  identified,  even  after  a  previous  staining.  Nocard  suc- 
ceeded in  rendering  cattle  insusceptible  to  pleuro-pneumonia  by 
inoculation  with  the  organisms  cultivated  "in  vivo." 

The  clinical  picture  of  pleuro-pneumonia  offers  little  of  inter- 
est to  us.  Of  much  more  interest  are  the  pathologico-anatomical 
findings.  Pleuro-pueumonia  is  a  chronic,  progressive  pneumo- 
pleurisy.  It  is  restricted,  as  a  rule,  to  one  lung  (chiefly  the  left). 
The  most  striking  feature  of  the  process  is  the  affection  of  the  inter- 
lobular  tissue,  hyperemia,  gelatinous  infiltration  and  thrombosis  of 
the  lymph  and  blood  vessels.  The  lobuli  which  are  surrounded  by 
the  diseased,  greatly  enlarged  connective  tissue  strands,  uniformly 
exhibit  various  stages  of  hepatization  (red,  yellow,  gray).  More- 
over, necrotic  lobuli  (sequestration)  may  be  present,  or  lobuli  which 
have  lost  their  original  structure  in  consequence  of  puriform  altera- 
tions. The  pleura  exhibits  the  alterations  of  fibrinous  pleuritis. 
At  first  one  finds  only  small  foci  in  the  lungs,  of  the  size  of  a  hazel 
nut  or  walnut.  Finally,  however,  the  larger  portion  of  the  lungs, 
may  be  attacked  by  the  progressive  pathological  process.  The 
characteristic  symptoms  of  pleuro-pneumonia  are  the  extensive 
affection  of  the  interlobular  connective  tissue  and  the  presence  of 
inflammatory  foci  of  different  ages  in  the  pulmonary  parenchyma 
between  the  diseased  interlobular  connective  tissue  strands  (mar- 
bled hepatization,  according  to  Gerlach).  A  cross  section  through 
a  lung  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia  presents  no  uniform  picture, 
as,  for  example,  is  obtained  by  a  cross  section  through  lungs 
affected  with  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle,  pneumonia  of  horses, 
or  swine  plague ;  but  always  presents  to  view  freshly  inflamed  foci, 
together  with  older  ones  (see  Fig.  4  of  the  lithographic  plate). 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — 1.  Genuine  Pneumonia. — In  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject,  we  find  isolated  statements  concerning  the 
occurrence  of  a  genuine  non-infectious  pulmonary  inflammation  in 
cattle.  This  usually  occurs  on  the  right  side.  Genuine  pneumonia 
is  distinguished  from  pleuro-pneumonia  by  its  acute  course,  and, 
therefore,  by  the  fact  that  the  alterations  in  the  lungs  are  all  of 
the  same  age. 

2.  Pectoral  Form  of  Hemorrlmgic  Septicemia  of  Cattle. — In  the 
pneumonia  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  we  also  find  extensive  infiltra- 
tion of  the  interlobular  tissue  and  pleuritis.   The  hepatization  of  th« 
lungs,  however,  is  uniform  and  of  the  same  age  (as  in  pneumonia  of 
'  horses).    Moreover,  the  inoculation  of  animals  furnishes  an  excellent 


'£70  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

differential  diagnostic  criterion  (see  under  "  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia 
of  Wild  Game  and  Cattle  "). 

3.  Infectious  Broncho-pneumonia  of  Calves. — In  this  disease,  the 
distension  of  the  interlobnlar  tissue  is  entirely  wanting  and  the 
pulmonary  parenchyma  exhibits  phenomena  of  a  lobular  desquama- 
tive  pneumonia.     The  affected  parts  of  the  lungs  are  grayish-red, 
rich  in  fluids  and  free  from  air.  A  slimy  purulent  secretion  is  found  in 
the  bronchi.     The  inoculation  of  diseased  portions  of  the  lungs  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  kill  small  experimental  animals. 

Nocard  observed,  in  five  steers  imported  from  America,  a 
contagious  broncho-pneumonia  which  aroused  a  suspicion  of 
pleuro-pneumonia.  The  disease  in  question,  however,  was  distin- 
guished from  pleuro-pneumonia  by  its  acute  character,  flabby 
hepatization  and  the  less  extensive  infiltration  of  the  interlobular 
tissue.  A  considerable  quantity  of  ropy,  slimy,  purulent  secretion 
•escaped  from  some  of  the  bronchi.  In  this  secretion  Nocard  found 
a  micro-organism  which  killed  mice,  guinea  pigs,  rabbits  and 
pigeons  within  forty-eight  hours. 

4.  Traumatic    Pneumonia. — The     differentiation    of    traumatic 
pneumonia  from  pleuro-pneumonia  is  simple.     In  cases  of  traumatic 
pneumonia,  a  "  marbled  "  appearance  may  arise  in  the  tissue  sur- 
rounding the  foreign  body  in  consequence  of  the  extensive  affection 
of  the  interstitial    pulmonary  tissue   by  the  process.     The  easily 
demonstrable  trauma,  however,  removes  all  doubt. 

5.  Aspergillosis  (see  page  325). 

JUDGMENT. — Section  85  of  the  Instructions  with  regard  to  the 
Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law  declares  that  "  the  lungs  of  animals 
Mlled  on  account  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  or  dead  of  the  disease,  must 
be  buried  at  least  one  meter  deep,  in  order  to  render  them  innocuous. 
The  meat  of  such  animals  shall  not  be  removed  until  it  is  entirely 
cooled  off." 

According  to  the  provisions  of  the  Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law, 
the  sale  of  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia  is 
permitted.  The  restriction  that  the  meat  of  such  animals  suall  not 
l>e  transported  until  after  it  is  perfectly  cool  was  adopted  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  it  was  assumed  that  a  virulence  attached  to 
the  meat  while  still  possessed  of  the  animal  heat. 

From  a  sanitary  standpoint,  no  objection  can  be  raised  against 
the  release  of  the  meat  as  permitted  by  the  Imperial  Animal 
Plague  Law,  for  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia 
is  e»Un  without  an.y  bad  effects.  In  cases  where  the  lungs  are  not 


HEMORBHAGIC   SEPTICEMIA  671 

seriously  affected,  the  meat  may  be  considered  as  marketable.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  animals  are  slaughtered  during  the  crisis  of 
the  disease  in  an  acute,  feverish  condition,  in  which  animals  sub- 
jected to  emergency  slaughter  do  not  bleed  adequately,  the  meat  is 
to  be  sold  under  declaration  as  an  inferior  food  material.  The  meat 
is  usually  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market  in  cases  in  which 
emaciation  and  edematous  processes  have  developed  during  the 
course  of  the  disease.* 

In  a  dissertation  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Jiirgensen, 
Wiedermann  propounds  the  question  whether  pleuro-pneumonia 
occurs  in  man.  The  occasion  for  this  was  given  by  the  post-mortem 
findings  in  two  children  in  a  region  (Lustnau,  near  Tubingen)  in 
which  at  the  time  in  question  pleuro-pneumonia  was  very  prevalent 
among  cattle.  The  lungs  of  both  of  the  children  were  stated  to 
have  exhibited  a  picture  resembling  that  of  pleuro-pneumonia,  viz., 
fibrinous  pneumonia  and  purulent  pleuritis,  together  with  peri- 
carditis. No  transmission  of  the  virus  from  eating  the  milk  or  by 
any  other  method  could  be  demonstrated  with  certainty  in  other 
cases  and  no  confirmation  of  this  observation  (1878)  has  since  been 
furnished,  although  there  has  been  no  lack  of  opportunities  for 
observation  in  the  districts  affected  with  pleuro-pneumonia  for 
example,  in  the  government  district  of  Magdeburg. 

(d)  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia  of  Wild  Game  and  Cattle. 

ETIOLOGY. — This  disease,  thus  named  by  Bellinger,  who  first 
described  it,  has  been  explained  from  an  etiological  standpoint, 
especially  through  the  investigations  of  Kitt.  The  disease  is  due 
to  bacteria  which  are  classified  with  the  group  of  rabbit  septicemia 
(Koch),  or  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia  (Hiippe).  In  addition  to 
rabbit  septicemia  and  the  septicemia  of  wild  game  and  cattle,  this 
bacteriological  pathogenic  group  includes  also  swine  plague,  buffalo 
plague  and  fowl  cholera.  In  order  to  avoid  repetitions,  the  most 
important  peculiarities  of  the  bacteria  in  question  may  here  be  dis- 
cussed together. 

The  organisms  of  septicemia  of  wild  game  and  cattle,  swine 
plague,  rabbit  septicemia  and  fowl  cholera  are  characterized  by 


*  As  in  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  so  in  infectious  broncho-pneumonia  of 
calves  and  infectious  pneumonia  of  horses,  sheep  and  goats,  no  injury  to  health 
has  been  observed  from  eating  the  meat.  With  regard  to  Swine  Plague,  com- 
pare page  695. 


672  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

their  almost  complete  agreement  in  morphology,  biology  and  experi- 
mental pathogenic  properties  (Baumgarten)  The  identity  of  these 
bacteria,  however,  may  still  be  doubted,  for  the  certain  proof  of 
identity  has  thus  far  been  furnished  only  for  fowl  cholera  and  rabbit 
septicemia  (Kitt).  The  bacteria  of  this  group  are  about  1  to  1.4  /* 
long,  0.4  to  .7  /*  wide,  and  rounded  at  the  ends  (Fig.  239).  They 
are  non-motile,  and  stain  most  deeply  at  the  poles.  They  are 
decolorized  by  Gram's  method.  Inoculation  witbthem  kills  rabbits 
and  mice,  as  well  as  pigeons.  With  regard  to  other  experimental 
animals,  considerable  differences  exist. 

Quite  remarkable  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  bacteria  of  the  rabbit 
septicemia  group  that  they  possess,  with  the  exception  of  the  swine 
plague  bacteria,  the  power  of  passing  through  the  stomach  unatten- 
uated.  For  the  rest,  they  die  in  aqueous  suspension  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  55°  C.  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  80°  C.  for  ten  minutes.  For 
the  destruction  of  the  bacteria  in  the  meat,  however,  thin  slices 
must  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  for  at  least  one  hour. 
According  to  Hiippe,  the  bacteria  in  question  are  killed  by  being 
brought  to  a  boiling  temperature,  a  result  which,  according  to 
Yolsch,  is  not  observed  in  imbedding  the  bacteria  in  substrata  con- 
taining mucin. 

OCCURRENCE. — Hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  wild  game  and  cattle 
occurs  in  deer,  wild  boars  and  cattle.  Moreover,  the  disease  is 
transmissible  to  horses,  hogs  and  goats,  while  sheep  are  infected 
with  difficulty. 

COURSE  AND  ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — Hemorrhagic  septicemia 
of  wild  game  and  cattle  appears  in  three  principal  forms  :  As  an 
exanthematic,  pectoral  and  intestinal  affection.  In  the  exanthe- 
matic  form,  which  is  the  common  form  of  affection  in  cattle  and 
which  sometimes  occurs  also  in  wild  game  (Liipke),  rapidly  appear- 
ing swellings  of  enormous  size  are  formed  on  the  soft  parts  of  the 
head,  neck,  and  develop  with  an  elevation  of  the  internal  tempera- 
ture up  to  42°  C.  Death  may  result  within  six  hours.  As  a  ruler 
however,  it  does  not  appear  until  after  twelve  to  thirty-six  hours. 
The  swelling  arises  in  consequence  of  serous  infiltration  of  the 
subcutis  and  submucosa  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth. 
After  death  we  find  not  only  swellings,  but  hemorrhages  in  the 
different  organs. 

In  the  pectoral  form  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  which  is  the 
common  form  in  wild  game,  one  observes  the  phenomena  of  an 


HEMORRHAGIC   SEPTICEMIA  673 

acute  pneumopleurisy.  This  form  is  characterized  by  a  less  rapid 
course  (fi\7e  to  eight  days).  In  addition  to  alterations  in  the 
thoracic  cavity,  hemorrhages  are  found,  in  the  pectoral  form  of  the 
disease,  in  all  parts  of  the  body. 

The  intestinal  form  is,  as  a  rule,  present  in  association  with  the 
two  first-named  forms  and  is  characterized  by  the  fact  that  the 
feces  exhibit  a  bloody  character  in  consequence  of  hemorrhagic 
inflammation  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  especially  of  the 
small  intestines. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Hemorrhagic  septicemia  may  be  con- 
fused with  anthrax  (exanthematic  form)  and  with  pleuro-pneumonia, 
(pectoral  form).  The  disease  is  distinguished  from  anthrax  by  the 
absence  of  splenic  tumor  and  anthrax  bacilli,  and  from  pleuro- 
pneumonia  by  the  fact  that  the  pulmonary  foci  are  all  of  the  same 
age.  The  interlobular  connective  tissue  strands  are  serously  infil- 
trated and  consequently  distended.  The  pulmonary  lobules,  how- 
ever, which  lie  between  the  infiltrated  connective  tissue  strands 
always  exhibit  the  same  stage  of  inflammation,  and  not,  as  in  the 
case  of  pleuro-pneumouia,  old  inflammatory  foci  side  by  side  with, 
fresh  ones.  Furthermore,  in  all  cases  hemorrhagic  septicemia  is 
usually  recognized  as  such  by  a  bacteriological  examination  and 
inoculation  of  animals.  In  the  blood  and  in  the  bloody  exudations 
one  always  finds  the  above  described  bacteria  in  large  numbers. 
Mice  and  rabbits  die  within  from  12  to  36  hours  after  cutaneous 
or  subcutaneous  inoculation,  and  exhibit,  post  mortem,  a  pro- 
nounced laryngo-tracheitis,  characterized  by  a  scarlet-red  colora- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  trachea  (Kitt).  Moreover,; 
hemorrhagic  septicemia — and  hereby  the  disease  is  distinguished 
from  many  other  infectious  diseases — is  transmissible  to  experi- 
mental animals  by  feeding. 

JUDGMENT.— The  resistance  of  the  bacteria  of  hemorrhagic 
septicemia  to  the  gastric  juice  has  already  been  mentioned.  Never- 
theless, the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  hemorrhagic  septicemia 
can  not  be  considered  as  injurious  to  health;  for  the  transmission, 
of  the  disease  to  man  has  never  been  observed.  Injuries  received 
in  making  post-mortem  examinations  have  never  been  followed  by 
evil  consequences  and  the  meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency 
slaughter  has  never  caused  any  harm  when  eaten  (Freidberger  and 
Frohner).  In  his  first  communication  concerning  this  interesting 
disease,  Bellinger  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  meat  of  diseased 


(574:  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

animals  had  been  eaten  by  men  in  numerous  instances  and  pre- 
pared in  various  ways  without  any  demonstrable  harm.  This  was 
confirmed  by  Eranck.  Moreover,  according  to  Bollinger,  contamina- 
tion of  the  hands  with  the  blood  while  making  post-mortem  exami- 
nations was  followed  by  no  bad  consequences.  A  case  of.  illness  in 
it  workman  after  the  sting  of  an  insect  at  a  time  when  hemorrhagic 
septicemia  prevailed  extensively  could  not  be  definitely  referred  to 
infection  with  the  virus  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia.  The  possibil- 
ity was  not  excluded  that  the  case  was  one  of  ordinary  septic  infec- 
iion.  Moreover,  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  been  affected  with 
hemorrhagic  septicemia  can  not  be  admitted  to  the  market,  since 
this  disease,  from  a  veterinary  police  standpoint,  is  classed  along 
with  anthrax,  and  is  to  be  treated  like  the  latter  (see  page  583). 

The  buffalo  plague  (barbone  disease)  is  also  classified  with  the 
diseases  which  belong  to  the  group  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia. 
Buffalo  plague  usually  attacks  young  animals  and  runs  a  course  of 
peracute  or  acute  septicemia  with  the  simultaneous  appearance  of 
hot,  doughy  tumefactions  in  the  region  of  the  larynx.  Upon  post- 
mortem examination,  the  most  striking  alteration  observed  is  an 
extensive  edema  of  the  neck,  face  and  the  base  of  the  tongue.  The 
cause  of  buffalo  plague  was  discovered  by  Oreste  and  Armanni  in 
a  micro-organism  0.9  to  1.8  ft  long  and  A  to  .6  jj.  wide,  which,  mor- 
phologically and  biologically,  is  closely  related  to  the  organism  oi 
hemorrhagic  septicemia.  The  organisms  of  buffalo  plague  are 
found  especially  abundant  in  the  subcutaneous  edematous  swellings, 
less  abundantly  in  the  internal  organs,  and  not  at  all  in  the  cardiac 
Mood  of  affected  animals.  It  was  demonstrated  by  von  Batz  that 
the  rabbit  is  extraordinarily  susceptible  to  infection  from  buffalo 
plague.  Babbits  die  within  9  to  15  hours  after  subcutaneous  inocu- 
lation. Guinea  pigs  are  more  resistant,  pigeons  still  more  so,  and 
inoculated  chickens  and  ducks  remain  perfectly  healthy.  On  the 
other  hand,  white  and  gray  mice  die  in  from  19  to  36  hours.  The 
disease  may  be  artificially  transmitted  to  cattle,  horses,  sheep  and 
hogs.  Spontaneous  transmission,  however,  during  an  outbreak  of 
buffalo  plague  has  been  observed  only  in  hogs.  According  to  von. 
Batz,  buffalo  plague  is  most  closely  related  to  hemorrhagic  septi- 
cemia. 

(e)  Blackleg. 

OCCURRENCE. — Blackleg  of  cattle  is  a  stationary  disease.  It  ia 
observed  almost  exclusively  in  so-called  blackleg  districts  and  is 


BLACKLEG  675 

only  occasionally  conveyed  to  other  localities  in  the  transportation 
of  animals  already  infected.  The  incubation  period  is  two  days.  It 
is  worthy  of  mention  that  usually  only  cattle  between  one  and  four 
years  of  age  are  affected.  Besides  cattle,  blackleg  may  rarely  attack 
goats,  sheep  and  horses.  Hogs  are  immune  to  the  disease. 

BACTEBIOLOGY. — Blackleg,  as  shown  by  Feser  and  Bollinger,  is 
caused  by  the  strictly  anaerobic  blackleg  bacillus.  On  account  of 
its  behavior  toward  oxygen,  it  is  found  only  in  affected  connective 
tissue  and  muscles  and  never  in  the  living  blood.  It  may  occur, 
however,  in  the  de-oxydized  cadaveric  blood. 

Blackleg  bacilli  are  3  to  6  /*  long  and  about  1  JJL  wide  and  are 
characterized  by  an  evident  motility.     As  soon,  however,  as  sporu- 
lation    begins,   they  become   non-motile    (Kitasato).     The   spores 
occupy  a  polar  position  in  the  straight,  stiff 
rods  and  the  blackleg  spores  are  character-  FIG.  230 

ized  l>y  their  strong  resistance  to  heat.  ^ 

Kitasato   emphasizes   the  fact  that  the  \ 

irregular,  shining  corpuscles,  which  may  be        ^  $ 

found   in   the   bacilli   while    the    animal   is  ^ 

living,  and  which  are  characterized  by  the  \  ^    «• 

fact  that  they  stain  better  in  the  ordinary 
manner  than  the  bacilli  themselves,  are  not 
spores.  "  The  true  -blackleg  spores  (resting 
spores)  are  not  formed  in  the  animal  body  X  500  diameters, 

until  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours 

after  the  death  of  the  animal."  Pieces  of  meat  taken  immediately 
after  death  and  heated  for  twenty  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  65° 
C.  proved  to  be  sterile  upon  inoculation,  while  material  which  was 
taken  two  days  after  death  and  treated  in  the  same  manner  killed 
all  the  experimental  animals  by  the  development  of  blackleg. 
According  to  the  experiments  of  Kitt,  blackleg  bacilli  in  dried  meat 
are  not  destroyed  by  live  steam,  but  are  merely  attenuated.  Fresh 
blackleg  meat  was  not  sterilized,  but  was  merely  rendered  somewhat 
less  infectious  by  boiling  one  hour  in  a  steamer,  and  the  same  is 
true  for  dry  meat  powder  after  similar  treatment  for  six  hours. 

SYMPTOMS. — Blackleg  infection,  as  in  the  case  with  all  diseases 
caused  by  anaerobic  material,  takes  place  only  in  the  subcutis  or 
submucosa  in  consequence  of  injury  to  those  parts.  The  most 
important  criterion  of  this  almost  always  fatal.disease  is  the  appear- 
ance of  crackling  tumors  which  contain  gas  and  which  extend  very 


676  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

rapidly.     The  most  frequent  locations  of  the  tumors  are  the  thigh^ 
neck,  shoulder  and  lower  part  of  the  breast  as  well  as  loin  and 
sacral  regions  (Friedberger  and  Frohner).     Simultaneously   there 
is  a  serious  disturbance  of  the  general  condition  and  a  high  fever- 
(42°  0.). 

ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — The  skin  over  the  tumors  crackles  when; 
stroked  and  is,  as  a  rule,  necrotic.  The  subjacent  subcutis  is  infil- 
trated with  bloody  gelatinous  material  and  the  musculature  is- 
cloudy  and  either  reddish-brown  or  black.  An  abundant  accumu- 
lation of  gas  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  subcutis  and  musculature.- 
The  gas  possesses  a  disagreeably  stale  odor  (chiefly  carburetted 
hydrogen),  but  no  odor  of  decomposition.  The  rest  of  the  muscu- 
lature may  be  only  slightly  altered.  Numerous  hemorrhages  are- 
found  under  the  serous  membranes.  The  parenchyma  of  the  liver 
and  kidneys  and  the  myocardium  are  cloudy.  In  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  cavities,  serous  effusions  mixed  with  blood  may  be 
present.  The  spleen  is  intact  and  the  blood  shows  no  alterations. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Blackleg  may  be  confused  witk> 
dermal  emphysema  of  mechanical  origin,  malignant  edema  and 
anthrax. 

Dermal  emphysema  may  arise  mechanically  from  injuries  of 
the  external  skin,  trachea  and  larynx,  as  well  as  secondarily  in  con- 
nection with  interstitial  pulmonary  emphysema  (see  page  321). 
Emphysemata  of  mechanical  origin  gradually  progress  from  the 
cervical  region  ;  the  skin  does  not  become  necrotic  and  when  an 
incision  is  made  we  do  not  find  any  bloody,  gelatinous  effusions. 
Finally,  no  bacilli  are  demonstrable.  In  malignant  edema,  the  gases, 
after  necrosis  of  the  skin  has  taken  place,  possess  the  odor  of 
decomposition.  Furthermore,  in  a  bacteriological  examination,  the 
bacilli  of  blackleg  are  distinguished  from  those  of  malignant  edema 
by  the  fact  that  they  are  more  slender  than  the  latter  and  never 
develop  into  threads  in  the  carcass.  Spore  formation  in  blackleg 
bacilli  occurs  only  in  a  polar  position  (drum- stick  form)  and  not  in, 
the  middle  as  in  the  bacilli  of  malignant  edema. 

With  malignant  edema  is  associated  a  so-called  parturient 
blackleg  (Carl).  This  rarely  occurs  in  blackleg  regions,  but  fre- 
quently in  regions  in  which  true  blackleg  has  never  been  observed. 
In  contrast  with  true  blackleg,  it  is  also  frequently  observed  in  old 
cows.  According  to  Albrecht,  parturient  blackleg  occurs  two  to  five 
days  after  parturition  and  usually  causes  death  within  one  to  three 


BRAXY  677 

days.  The  chief  clinical  symptoms  are  fever  (41°  C.  or  more), 
depression,  lack  of  appetite  and  thirst,  and  a  tumefaction  of  the 
external  genitals  which  extends  to  the  sacrum,  thigh  and  back,  and 
crackles  on  stroking.  A  foul-smelling  fluid  is  found  in  the  uterus 
and  vagina,  post  mortem,  pronounced  reddening  of  the  mucous 
jnembrane  and  edema  of  the  submucous  and  rnuscularis  coats  of  the 
uterus.  The  emphysematous  parts  of  surrounding  tissues  are 
affected  with  bloody  serous  or  fibrinous  infiltration.  In  two  cases 
of  parturient  blackleg,  Carl  demonstrated  the  bacillus  of  malignant 
edema  as  the  cause  of  the  blackleg-like  alterations. 

The  differentiation  of  blackleg  from  anthrax  should  not  offer 
:any  difficulty  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  concerning  the 
etiology  of  both  diseases.  Blackleg  is  distinguished  macroscopi- 
cally  from  anthrax  by  the  crackling  tumors,  intact  spleen  and  the 
normal  character  of  the  blood.  All  doubt  may  be  removed,  how- 
ever, by  the  bacteriological  findings,  and  especially  by  the  inocula- 
tion of  animals.  Babbits  are  immune  to  blackleg  and  guinea  pigs 
are  infected  with  blackleg  only  by  a  subcutaneous  injection,  while 
anthrax  kills  rabbits  as  well  as  guinea  pigs  by  mere  cutaneous 
inoculation. 

JUDGMENT. — The  older  veterinary  observers  have  already  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  blackleg 
may  be  eaten  by  man  without  any  harm,  and  that,  in  contrast  with 
anthrax,  infection  does  not  take  place  in  man  even  in  dissecting  the 
carcasses.  The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  blackleg  is  accordingly 
not  injurious  to  health.  Nevertheless,  it  is  always  highly  unfit  for 
food,  for  it  rapidly  passes  into  decomposition,  and  while  being  pre- 
served develops  a  disagreeable,  rancid  odor  resembling  smoked 
.herring  (Kitt). 

For  veterinary  police  reasons,  the  carcasses  of  animals  affected 
with  blackleg  must  be  rendered  innocuous,  since  blackleg,  like 
liemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle,  is,  from  a  veterinary  police  stand- 
point, classed  with  anthrax  (page  583). 

(f)  Brajcy. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Braxy  (braasot  of  the  Norwegians 

-and  braxy  of  the  Scots)  is  an  infectious  disease  of  sheep,  which 

runs  an  acute  or  peracute  course,  which  begins  as  a  heinorrhagic 

inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  fourth  stomach,  is 

accompanied  with  a  pronounced  development  of  gas  in  the  alimen- 


678  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

tary  tract,  especially  in  the  stomachs,  and  in  some  cases  causes  the 
death  of  the  animal  by  general  infection,  in  others,  presumably,  by 
intoxication  or  dyspnea,  due  to  tympanites  (Jensen).  The  disease 
for  the  most  part  attacks  young  animals ;  animals  over  three  years 
of  age  are  seldom  affected  with  braxy.  It  is,  furthermore,  worthy  of 
note  that  braxy  is  observed  almost  exclusively  in  the  winter  months 
and  either  does  not  occur  at  all  in  the  summer  or  only  rarely. 

Braxy  occurs  in  an  epizootic  form  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway, 
in  Iceland,  Faroe  Islands  and  in  Scotland.  According  to  Gamgee, 
the  annual  loss  from  braxy  in  Scotland  amounts  to  about  150,000 
sheep.  In  Germany  the  disease  has  been  identified  in  Mecklen- 
burg. It  is  said  to  occur  there  quite  frequently  (Peters). 

ETIOLOGY. — Credit  should  be  given  to  Ivar  Nielsen  for  having- 
cleared  up  the  etiology  of  braxy.  In  the  hemorrhagically  altered 

parts  of  the  alimentary  tract  and  in  other 

FIG.  231.  organs   of   affected  animals,  he   found    a 

«*i  bacillus  2  to  6  /*  long  and  1  ju  wide,  B. 

s~  ^       gastromycosis  ovis  (Fig.  231).    The  bacillus- 

is  actively  motile  and  is  stained  b}'  Gram's. 

'"I  /      method.     It  is  often  found  associated  in 

pairs  ;   seldom,  however,  in  longer  chains. 

/  \"        The  braxy  bacillus  is  anaerobic,  grows  in 

\  '  gelatin,  agar  and  gelatin-agar,  but  best  OIL 

">  —  ^          blood-serum-agar  and  blood-serum-bouil- 

Braxy  bacilli  from  the  hem-      Ion  (Jensen).      In  the  carcass  and  in  arti- 

rtoto^r/Sdofgaufnt  ficiai  nutrient  «>edia> the  baciii"s  f°™« 

pig.    x  500  diameters.  spores,  either   in   the    middle  or  at   one 

pole,  and    may   be   transmitted    to  mice, 

pigeons,  chickens,  guinea  pigs,  rabbits,  sheep,  calves  and  hogs  by 
subcutaneous  inoculation.  At  the  point  of  inoculation  a  hemor- 
rhagic  inflammation  develops  with  the  formation  of  gas  as  in 
blackleg.  Artificial  infection  of  sheep  by  feeding  has  not  been 
accomplished.  The  spores  of  the  braxy  organisms  are  very  resist^ 
ant  and  withstand  boiling  heat. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS.— Sheep  become  suddenly  sick,  exhibit 
weakness,  usually  lie  down  and  are  unable  to  stand  again.  This 
comatose  condition  persists  for  a  few  hours  and  leads  almost  uni- 
formly to  death. 

POST-MORTEM  FINDINGS. — The  carcasses  of  dead  animals  are- 
much  bloated.  The  wool  is  so  loose  that  it  may  be  rubbed  onT 


DIPHTHERIA   OF   CALVES  679 

/ 

with  the  hand.  The  most  striking  alterations  are  dark,  bluish-red 
spots  in  the  wall  of  the  fourth  stomach.  The  mucous  membrane 
of  this  organ  is  of  a  dark-red  color  and  shows  a  bloody  or  bloody- 
serous  infiltration.  Hemorrhagic  inflammation  may  also  be  present 
in  the  first  stomachs  and  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  intes- 
tines. The  parenchyma  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  as  well  as  the 
myocardium,  are  cloudy.  Occasionally  the  spleen  is  somewhat 
swollen.  The  carcasses  rapidly  pass  into  decomposition  and  give 
rise  to  a  powerful  stench. 

JUDGMENT. — Braxy  runs  its  course  so  rapidly  that,  as  a  rule, 
affected  animals  die.  The  question  of  judging  the  meat  of  sheep 
affected  with  braxy,  therefore,  possesses  no  practical  interest.  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  disease  may  be  carried 
by  means  of  meat  traffic,  and  that,  on  account  of  the  resistance  of 
the  braxy  spores  to  heat,  we  are  not  in  a  position  to  destroy  the 
virulence  of  the  meat  by  boiling.  The  meat  of  sheep  affected  with 
braxy  is,  therefore,  to  be  rendered  innocuous,  for  sanitary  and 
veterinary  police  reasons.  It  is  of  interest,  however,  to  note  that  the 
meat  of  sheep  which  have  died  of  braxy  is  quite  commonly  eaten  in 
Scotland,  without  a  single  case  of  illness  having  appeared  in  the 
consumers  (Jensen).  To  remove  the  disagreeable  odor,  the  meat  is 
rubbed  with  salt,  washed  in  water,  again  salted  and  smoked.  After 
some  weeks,  braxy  meat,  according  to  the  somewhat  questionable 
statements  of  Scottish  informants,  is  as  good  or  even  better  than 
the  meat  of  healthy  sheep. 

Reindeer  Plague. — Reindeer  plague,  which,  in  the  summers  of 
1895  and  1896,  prevailed  among  the  reindeer  herds  of  the  Laps, 
appears  with  symptoms  resembling  blackleg.  The  subcutaneous 
emphysema  is  not  so  well  delimited  as  in  blackleg.  Furthermore, 
on  post-mortem  examination  one  finds,  in  addition  to  the  accumula- 
tion of  gas  in  the  subcutis,  occasionally  a  fibrinous  inflammation  of 
the  pleura  and  peritoneum.  In  the  spleen  and  pericardial  fluid, 
bacilli  are  found,  which  are  more  slender  than  the  anthrax  bacilli 
and  bear  an  oval  spore  in  the  center  or  at  one  pole.  The  bacilli 
are  stained  by  the  Gram  method,  are  aerobic,  produce  gas  and  kiil^ 
mice  as  well  as  guinea  pigs. 

(g)   Diphtheria  of  Calves. 

NATURE. — In  1877,  Dammann  described  under  the  name  of 
"calf  diphtheria"  a  disease  of  calves,  the  most  conspicuous  symp- 


680  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

toms  of  which  consist  in  the  appearance  of  croupous  deposits  and 
diphtheritic  inflammation  upon  and  in  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  mouth  and  pharyngeal  cavities.  These  alterations  may  also 
develop  in  the  esophagus,  second  stomach,  small  intestine,  nasal 
cavity,  larynx  and  trachea,  and  may  reach  an  acute  stage.  The  dis- 
ease possesses  an  unusually  malignant  character ;  most  animals  die 
after  four  or  five  days,  or  after  two  or  three  weeks. 

ETIOLOGY. — According  to  the  investigations  of  Dammami,  the 
infectious  nature  of  the  disease  is  certain.  He  succeeded  in  trans- 
mitting the  disease  to  rabbits  and  lambs.  Loffler  studied  the 
pathological  products  of  calf  diptheria  and  found  in  them  bacilli 
which  formed  large  undulating  threads,  but  which  were  essentially 
different  from  the  diphtheria  bacillus  of  man. 

According  to  Bang,  the  bacillus  found  by  Loffler  in  the  caseous 
foci  of  calf  diphtheria  is  a  widely  distributed  pathogenic  organism 
and  nob  only  has  the  power  of  producing  the  alterations  of  calf 
diphtheria  in  calves,  but  may  also  cause  necrosis  in  other  domes- 
ticated animals  and  in  various  organs.  Bang,  therefore,  gave  the 
bacillus  the  name  "  necrosis  bacillus."  It  is  identical  with  the 
organism  discovered  by  Schmorl  in  an  epizootic  disease  of  rabbits, 
and  called  Streptothrix  cuniculi. 

The  necrosis  bacilli  are  thread  bacteria  which  appear  as  short 
or  long  rods  and  as  threads  of  80  to  100  JA  in  length  and  0.75  to 
1.5  /*  in  thickness.  The  threads  are  stained  with  Loffler' s  blue  and 
with  carbol  fuchsin,  but  not  by  the  Gram  method.  In  the  necrotic 
foci  the  necrosis  bacilli  are  found  arranged  radially  and  often  in 
thick  bundles  like  palisades  on  the  boundary  between  the  living 
and  the  dead  tissue.  Inside  of  the  necrotic  parts  they  are  not 
demonstrable,  or,  if  so,  only  with  difficulty.  The  necrosis  bacilli 
are  strictly  anaerobic,  grow  only  in  blood  serum  and  blood  serum 
agar,  and  may  be  transmitted  to  mice  and  rabbits  by  subcutaneous 
inoculation.  In  mice  a  necrosis  of  the  inoculation  wound  appears 
with  pronounced  collateral  edema  and  death  after  about  12  days. 
In  rabbits,  on  the  other  hand,  necrosis  is  progressive  and  results 
in  death  in  from  12  to  16  days. 

In  addition  t(5  calf  diphtheria,  the  necrosis  bacillus  of  Bang 
has  been  found  in  panaris  of  cattle,  in  dry  gangrene  of  the  skin, 
and  subcutis  of  the  teats  of  cows,  in  multiple  necrosis  of  the  liver 
of  cattle,  in  one  form  of  liver  abscess  of  cattle  which  arose  from 
necrosis  of  the  liver,  in  deeply  penetrating  diphtheria  of  the  small 
intestine  of  the  calf,  in  diphtheria  of  the  uterus  and  vagina,  in. 


DYSENTERY  OF  CALVES  681 

embolic  necrosis  of  the  lungs,*  in  cardiac  necrosis,  one  case  of 
which  was  of  embolic  and  the  other  of  traumatic  origin,  in  wound 
necrosis  of  a  beef  animal,  in  gangrenous  dermatitis,  fistula  of  the 
lioof,  and  diphtheria  of  the  colon  of  a  horse,  and  in  necrosing 
processes  in  the  oral  and  nasal  cavities,  lungs  and  intestine  of  a 
hog  (see  under  "Hog  Cholera").  M'Fadyean  and  Hamilton  found 
multiple  necrosis  also  in  the  liver  of  a  sheep  and  of  a  mule.  Fur- 
thermore, the  author  has  repeatedly  demonstrated  bacillar  necrosis 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  first  stomachs  of  cattle. 

KELATION  BETWEEN  DIPHTHERIA.  OF  CALVES  AND  HUMAN  DIPH- 
THERIA.— The  assumption  of  Dammanr  that  calf  diphtheria  is 
identical  with  diphtheria  of  man  is  accordingly  not  substantiated  by 
bacteriological  investigations,  since  no  observation  whatever  has 
been  recorded  of  the  occurrence  of  true  diphtheria  in  domesticated 
.animals  identical  with  human  diphtheria  (compare  also  "  Diph- 
theria of  Fowls  ").  Likewise,  inoculation  experiments  with  virus  of 
human  diphtheria  have  given  negative  results  in  animals.  In  no 
case  has  a  disease  been  produced  in  experimental  animals  similar 
to  human  diphtheria.  At  most  there  were  local  affections  of  the 
mucous  membranes.  Friedberger  and  Frohner  emphasize  the  fact 
that  similar  inoculation  experiments  with  exclusively  negative 
results  have  been  made  by  Colin  in  hogs,  Harley  in  dogs,  Pentzoldt 
in  rabbits,  chickens  and  pigeons,  and  Esser  in  calves. 

JUDGMENT. — The  necrosis  bacillus  is  characterized  by  its  ten- 
dency to  localization.  In  the  case  of  a  local  necrosis,  as  in 
diphtheria  of  calves,  and  in  the  absence  of  symptoms  of  septicemia 
of  a  secondary  nature  arising  from  necrosis,  the  meat  can  be 
admitted  to  the  market  as  a  spoiled  (inferior)  food  material. 

In  cases  of  a  secondary  sepsis,  the  meat  should  be  treated  as  a 
dangerous  food  material. 

(h)  Dysentery  of  Calves. 

Among  the  intestinal  diseases  of  domesticated  animals,  enzootic, 
so-called,  white  dysentery  of  calves  possesses  special  interest  on 
account  of  the  frequency  of  its  occurrence. 

BACTERIOLOGY. — Jensen  demonstrated  that  not  only  in  the 
intestinal  contents  and  the  inflamed  mucous  membrane,  but  also  in 

*  Embolic  pulmonary  necrosis  in  cattle  may  occasion  confusion  -with  pleuro- 
pneumonia. 


682  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

the  swollen  lymphatic  glands  and  in  the  blood  of  calves  affected 
with  dysentery,  oval  bacteria  ("  calf  dysentery  bacteria  ")  occur, 
-which  in  feeding  experiments  produce  fatal  dysentery  in  new-born 
calves,  but  in  subcutaneous  inoculation  cause  either  a  local  swelling 
or  septicemia.  The  organism  of  calf  dysentery  is  morphologically 
and  biologically  closely  related  to  Bacillus  coli  communis,  B.  neapoli- 
tanus  and  B.fcetidus  lactis  (Fig.  232).* 

The  clinical  symptoms  of  dysentery  of  calves  are  well  known. 
Upon  post  mortem  examination  one  finds  advanced  emaciation, 
diffuse  red  coloration  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  small  intestine 
and  cecum,  swelling  of  the  mesenteric  glands  and  often  hemorrhages 
in  them,  petechise  under  the  epicardium  and  a  dirty-red  coloration, 
of  the  skeletal  musculature.  As  a  rule,  the  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys 
show  no  gross  alterations. 

FIG.  232.  FIG.  233 


'V 


Bacteria  of  calf  dysentery  from  an  Bacteria  of  calf  dysentery  from  a 

agar  culture  24  hours  old.  smear  preparation  from  the  crural 

X  500  diameters.  vein  of  a  calf  slaughtered  in  the 

crisis  of  dysentery.     X  500  diam. 

JUDGMENT. — The  meat  of  calves  affected  with  dysentery — thafe- 
is,  of  calves  which  are  prematurely  slaughtered  on  account  of  dys- 
entery— is  almost  always  admitted  to  the  market,  and,  as  a  rule,  no 
harm  has  resulted  therefrom.  The  meat,  however,  is  a  spoiled 
(inferior)  food  material  and  should  be  sold  only  under  declaration. 
The  attention  of  the  purchasers  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
meat  must  be  eaten  soon,  since  it  passes  into  decomposition  in  a 
comparatively  short  time.  If  calves  affected  with  dysentery  are  not 
slaughtered  until  the  agony  of  the  disease,  the  meat  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  harmful  food  material,  according  to  present  knowledge. 
At  any  rate,  the  harmfulness  of  the  meat  of  dysenteric  calves 


*  During  his  investigations  of  white  scour  in  Ireland,  Nocard  found  a  pas- 
teurella  to  be  the  pathogenic  organism.  Calves  become  infected  at  the  time  of 
birth,  through  the  umbilicus. — TRANSLATOR. 


SWINE   ERYSIPELAS  68&: 

slaughtered  during  the  agony  is  connected  with  the  fact  that  in 
such  cases  the  specific  bacteria  are  found  also  in  the  blood  (Fig. 
233).  Furthermore,  the  dysentery  bacteria  may  multiply  excess- 
ively, even  at  ordinary  temperatures,  in  the  carcasses  of  calves  sub- 
jected to  emergency  slaughter  (the  author).  In  doubtful  cases,, 
therefore,  the  decision  concerning  the  admission  of  the  meat  to  the 
market  should  be  based  on  a  bacteriological  investigation  (compare 
page  739). 

(i)  Swine  Erysipelas. 

NATURE. — The  elucidation  of  the  term  "swine  erysipelas  "  is 
due  entirely  to  bacteriology.  Swine  erysipelas  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  erysipelas  of  man  except  the  reddening  of  the  skin. 

FIG.  234.  FIG.  235. 


fife 

«        ...  ) 

•„*?"'• 

Swine  erysipelas  bacilli.     Smear  pre-  Same  preparation  as  Fig.  234, 

paration  from  the  cardiac  blood  of  staited  bj  the  Gram  method, 

an  inoculated  mouse,    stained   with 
f  uchsin.     X  500  diameters. 


,  however,  the  erysipelas  of  man,  or  traumatic  erysipelas, 
•which  also  occurs  in  hogs,  is  caused  by  Streptococcus  erysipelatis 
(Fehleisen),  the  organism  of  swine  erysipelas  is  a  delicate,  slender- 
bacillus,  and,  for  the  purpose  of  differentiation,  swine  erysipelas  is 
also  called  "  bacillar  erysipelas  of  swine." 

BACTERIOLOGY. — The  discovery  of  the  swine  erysipelas  bacillus 
is  due  to  the  investigation  of  the  bacteriologist  Loffler,  who  has 
done  much  toward  the  elucidation  of  the  etiology  of  animal  plagues. 
As  a  result  of  the  discovery  of  the  swine  erysipelas  bacilli,  we  are 
in  a  position  to  distinguish  bacillar  erysipelas  from  the  other 
epizootic  diseases  of  hogs  with  which  it  was  formerly  classified  and 
confused.  Farther  valuable  results  in  the  elucidation  of  the  subject 


'684  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

were  accomplished  by  the  work  of  Schiitz,  Lydtin  and  Schottelius. 
The  bacilli  of  swine  erysipelas  are  about  0.8  to  1.5  /*  long  and  .1  to 
,2  /f  wide.  They  are  rendered  visible,  therefore,  only  by  the  use  of 
oil  immersion.  The  bacilli  are  stained  by  all  the  basic  analin  dyes 
.as  well  as  by  Gram's  method.  By  means  of  the  latter  stain,  it  is 
possible  to  demonstrate  all  the  erysipelas  bacilli  present  in  the 
preparation  (compare  Figs.  234,  235).  The  growth  of  these  bac- 
teria on  gelatin  is  characteristic.  Stab  cultures  at  a  living  tempera- 
ture, after  three  or  four  days,  take  on  the  form  of  a  test  tube  brush. 
Ill  plate  cultures,  on  the  other  hand,  bluish  gray  spots  appear  after 
two  or  three  days,  which  under  slight  magnification  exhibit  a  deli- 
cately branched  figure  (configuration  of  a  bone  corpuscle).  Spores 
Lave  not  been  observed  in  the  erysipelas  bacillus.  Petri  and 
Maasen  demonstrated  that  the  erysipelas  bacilli  possess  to  a  high 
-degree  the  power  of  forming  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  fact  that 
the  growth  of  erysipelas  bacilli  does  not  require  a  blood  temperature 
explains  the  fact  demonstrated  by  Lydtin  and  Schottelius,  that 
erysipelas  bacilli  in  the  carcass  may  multiply  to  such  an  extent  that 
within  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  all  the  vessels  are  filled  with 
bacilli. 

Susceptibility  of  Other  Animals  to  Erysipelas  Bacilli. — The  erysip- 
elas bacilli  are  transmissible  by  inoculation  to  mice,  rabbits  and 
pigeons.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  cats  and  guinea  pigs,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  immune  to  bncillar  erysipelas.  At  first  it  was  sus- 
pected that  the  erysipelas  bacillus  of  hogs  was  identical  with  the 
bacillus  of  mouse  septicemia,  with  which  it  agrees  almost  completely, 
morphologically  and  biologically,  as  well  as  with  regard  to  its 
pathogenicity  to  mice,  rabbits  and  pigeons.  This  view,  however, 
can  not  be  sustained,  since  Preisz  has  shown  that  in  the  inoculation 
•of  hogs  the  erysipelas  bacilli  are  virulent,  while  those  of  septicemia 
.are  not.  Prettner,  however,  has  lately  maintained  the  identity  of 
both  species  of  bacteria  on  the  basis  of  experimental  investigations. 

Resistance  of  Erysipelas  Bacilli  to  Heat  and  Preserving  Re-agents. — 
"The  erysipelas  bacilli  belong  to  the  least  resistant  micro-organisms. 
It  is  difficult,  however,  to  kill  the  bacilli,  with  certainty,  in  meat  by 
means  of  the  common  domestic  and  commercial  methods  of  prepar- 
ing and  preserving.  This  has  been  demonstrated  by  the  thorough 
investigations  of  Petri.  The  same  investigator  reported  as  follows 
•concerning  these  investigations : 

1.  The  bacilli  of  swine  erysipelas  may  usually  be  killed  by 
beating  to  55°  C.  for  five  minutes.  In  some  cases,  however,  they 
•endure  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  for  the  same  period. 


SWINE   ERYSIPELAS 

2.  In  the  usual  methods  of  cooking,  frying  and  roasting,  the 
heat  penetrated  into  the  pieces  of  meat  very  irregularly  and  slowly- 
even  when  the  period  of  application  of  heat  was  extended  to  four 
hours.     Bones  seemed  to  conduct  the  heat  into  the  center  of  the 
mass  more  rapidly  than  the  soft  parts. 

3.  In  pieces  of  meat  not  heavier  than  1  kg.  from  hogs  affected 
with  erysipelas,  it  was  not  possible  to  kill  with  certainty  all  the 
erysipelas  bacilli,  especially  those  which  were  found  deep  in  the 
muscle  or  in  the  bone  marrow,  by  means  of  the  ordinary  methods 
of  boiling,  frying  and  roasting,     By  boiling,  for  two  and  one-half 
hours,  pieces  of  meat  which  were  not  heavier  than  those  mentioned 
above,  this  result  was  obtained  with  certainty,  although  the  same 
result  was  not  secured  by  long  frying  and  roasting. 

4.  The  usual  salting  and  pickling  materials,  common  salt,  salt- 
peter and  sugar,  in  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution,  affected  the 
germinating  power    of  erysipelas    bacilli    in    pure    cultures    only 
slightly  and  slowly;  so  that  the  destruction  of  the  bacilli  was  not 
accomplished  until  after  four  weeks.     Pickling  brines  containing 
albumen  and  other  materials  obtained  from  the  meat  itself  exer- 
cised a  more  energetic  effect  upon  the  bacteria.     The  death  of  the 
bacteria  occurred  after  about  eight  days. 

5.  In  the  meat  of  hogs  affected  with  erysipelas,  the  virus  was 
present  in  an  unatteuuated  form  after  salting  for  one  month. 

6.  In  pickling  meat  covered  with  brine,  the  erysipelas  virus 
retained  its  normal  virulence  for  several  months.     A  slight  attenua- 
tion  appeared   after   the   lapse   of  this   time,  but  even   after   six: 
months  there  were  still  virulent  erysipelas  bacilli  in  the  pickled 
meat. 

7.  After  meat  which  had  been  salted  or  pickled  for  one  month 
was  thoroughly  smoked  for  14  days,  the  erysipelas  bacilli  in  pieces- 
of  meat  freshly  removed  from  the  smoke  were  still  unattenuatecL. 
It  was  not  until  after  a  further  preservation  of  the  meat  that  the 
bacilli  appeared  gradually  to  lose  their  virulence.     After  a  period 
of  three  months  some  virulent  bacilli  could  still  be  demonstrated  in 
smoked  hams.     In  the  bone  marrow,  also,  the  bacilli  retained  their 
virulence  for  a  long  time.     It  was  not  until  after  the  lapse  of  six: 
months  after  smoking  that  the  erysipelas  bacilli  in  hams  appeared 
to  have  died. 

According  to  Petri,  however,  boiling  small  pieces  (under  1  kg.) 
for  2J  hours  gives  &  guaranty  that  the  erysipelas  bacilli  are 
destroyed,  even  in  the  central  parts  of  the  meat. 

A  certain  destruction  of  the  bacilli  in  the  meat  of  hogs  affected 


686  INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

with  erysipelas  is  accomplished  by  steam  sterilization  more  quickly 
than  by  boiling. 

OCCURRENCE. — The  improved  breeds  of  hogs  with  light-colored 
skin  are  most  disposed  to  erysipelas,  while  native  hogs  are  least  sus- 
ceptible. In  animals  under  three  months  of  age,  erysipelas  is  rare. 

Erysipelas  causes  annually  enormous  losses  in  the  national 
wealth.  According  to  statistics  collected  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  the  number  of  hogs  affected  with  the  disease  in  that  region 
in  the  period  1875  to  1884  was  not  less  than  62,568,  or  1.8  per 
«ent.  of  the  total  number  of  hogs.  Of  this  number,  7,004  recovered, 
15,512  died  and  40,052  were  slaughtered  for  meat.  In  Saxony,  the 
-annual  loss  is  estimated  to  be  at  least  1.3  to  2.8  per  cent. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  SWINE  ERYSIPELAS  BY  MEANS  OF  MEAT  TRAF- 
FIC.— From  a  veterinary  police  standpoint,  the  question  whether 
bacillar  erysipelas  of  hogs  can  be  disseminated  as  a  result  of  feed- 
ing offal  and  meat  or  blood  of  diseased  animals  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  Several  observations  appear  to  favor  an  affirmative 
answer,  and  Pasteur,  Lydtin  and  Schottelius  assert  they  have  pro- 
duced the  disease  by  feeding  erysipelas  material.  Against  these 
positive  results,  however,  we  have  the  negative  results  of  Petri, 
^ho  tried  in  vain  to  infect  three  young  hogs  by  feeding  erysipela- 
vtous  organs  and  parts  of  meat,  although  in  two  experiments  he 
fed  100  gm.  of  coarsely  minced  material.  Fischer  and  Bang  fed 
material  from  acute  erysipelas  of  hogs  with  similar  negative  results. 
Pischer  fed  the  spleen,  liver,  contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines, 
and  excrement  without  result,  while  he  obtained  positive  results  by 
confining  healthy  hogs  with  diseased  ones.  It  should  always  be 
remembered,  however,  that  the  erysipelas  bacilli  disseminated  by 
means  of  meat  traffic  may,  when  set  free,  acquire  an  increased  viru- 
lence under  conditions  which  are  thus  far  not  well  understood,  and 
may  produce  outbreaks  of  erysipelas. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS  AND  PATHOLOGICO- ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS.— 
TBacillar  erysipelas  of  hogs  appears  suddenly,  and,  as  a  rule, 
quickly  leads  to  death.  The  essential  symptom  of  bacillar  erysipe- 
las, in  addition  to  fever,  great  depression  and  weakness,  is  a  red 
coloration  of  the  skin,  which  first  appears  in  spots,  but  rapidly 
spreads  over  the  whole  body.  The  redness  of  the  skin  is  character- 
ized by  its  dark  shade. 

Upon  post-mortem  examination  of  animals  affected  with  ery- 
sipelas, one  uniformly  finds  extensive  alterations  in  the  internal 


SWINE   ERYSIPELAS 


687 


FIG.  236. 


organs.  In  addition  to  the  reddening  of  the  skin  and  of  the  panni- 
culus  adiposus,  there  appears  extensive  parenchymatous  degenera- 
tion of  the  liver,  heart,  and,  in  a  higher  degree,  also  of  the  kidneys. 
Hemorrhages  are  observed  under  the  serous  membranes.  The 
spleen  is  quite  swollen  and  of  a  bluish-red  color.  In  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  one  observes  the  symptoms  of  inflammation  in  vari- 
ous stages,  but,  as  a  rule,  bloody,  with  extensive  affection  of  the 
lymph  follicles  in  the  inflamed  area.  The  lymphatic  glands  exhibit 
tumefaction  and  hemorrha- 
ges. Moreover,  nephritis  of 
a  hemorrhagic  character  is 
seldom  absent.  The  kidneys 
&re  dark,  grayish-red  and 
swollen,  and  a  cloudy,  red- 
dish -  colored  fluid  exudes 
from  the  cut  surface.  The 
symptoms  vary,  as  is  readily 
understood,  according  to  the 
stage  of  the  disease  in  which 
the  animals  are  slaughtered. 
In  animals  slaughtered  dur- 
ing the  agony  of  the  disease, 
the  above  described  altera- 
tions are  very  pronounced. 
Moreover,  in  these  cases  the 
musculature  is  discolored, 
grayish-red,  and,  altogether, 
the  internal  organs,  especially 
the  liver,  are  very  rich  in 
blood. 

The  carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  erysipelas,  in  addition 
to  the  above  mentioned  alterations,  possess  the  further  peculiarity 
that,  as  a  rule,  they  exhibit  either  no,  or  only  a  slightly  pronounced, 
rigor  mortis  (Hertwig),  and  rapidly  pass  into  decomposition. 

Bang  has  given  us  detailed  information  concerning  an  interest- 
ing and  important  sequela  of  bacillar  erysipelas.  After  Hess  and 
Gillebeau,  as  veil  as  Schottelius,  had  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  hogs  which  recover  from  natural  or  inoculation  erysipelas  may 
subsequently  become  affected  and  die  of  endocarditis,  Bang  made 
the  surprising  discoveiy  that  this  endocarditis  of  hogs  which 
recover  from  erysipelas  is  clue  to  a  localization  of  the  erysipelas 
bacilli  in  the  valves  of  the  heart.  This  endocarditis  (Fig.  236)  may 


Heart  of  a  hog  with  valvular  verrucose  endo- 
carditis as  a  sequela  of  swine  erysipelas. 
a,  warty  thickenings. 


688  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

reach  such  an  acute  stage  within  two  months  that  it  causes  death 
from  mechanical  causes.  The  animals  either  die  suddenly  or  show 
symptoms  of  disease  for  eight  to  fourteen  days.  In  the  latter  case 
a  reddening  of  the  skin  appears.  This,  however,  in  general  is  less 
intense  than  in  cases  of  acute  erysipelas.  It  is  worthy  of  mention, 
according  to  Bang,  that  this  reddening  of  the  skin  may  appear  more 
conspicuously  after  death  than  during  life.  Burggraf  demonstrated 
erysipelatous  endocarditis  in  four  out  of  30,000  slaughtered  hogs. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS.— The  following  diseases  may  be  mis- 
taken for  the  hemorrhagic  infiltration  of  the  skin  in  cases  of  bacillar 
erysipelas :  (1)  Reddening  of  the  skin  from  mechanical  causes 
(blows  from  clubs,  whips,  etc.) ;  (2)  inflammation  of  the  skin  from 
thermic  causes  (sun's  rays,  intense  cold) ;  (3)  traumatic  erysipelas  ; 
(4)  swine  plague  ;  (5)  hog  cholera ;  (6)  urticaria. 

Erythrism  of  the  skin  from  mechanical  or  thermic  causes  is 
always  confined  to  the  skin.  In  extreme  cases  of  blows  from  clubs, 
which  are,  however,  distinguished  by  their  characteristic  form,  the 
panniculus  adiposus  may  also  be  colored  red  in  consequence  of 
hemorrhages.  The  internal  organs,  however,  are  always  intact. 
Reddening  of  the  skin  from  mechanical  causes  is  due  to  hemor- 
rhages. In  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  skin  which  appear  after 
prolonged  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays  upon  susceptible  hogs,  we 
have  a  reddening  which  at  first  is  punctate  and  confined  to  the  pap- 
illae ;  later  the  inflammatory  reddening  of  the  skin  assumes  a  diffuse 
character,  but  is  distinguished  from  erysipelas  by  its  lighter  shade 
and  the  complete  integrity  of  the  hypodermal  fat  tissue.  Inflam- 
matory phenomena  of  the  skin  in  consequence  of  freezing  are  usually 
localized  on  the  inferior  parts  of  the  body  (lower  portion  of  the 
breast  and  abdomen,  posterior  portion  of  the  cheeks).  This  condi- 
tion may  result  in  necrosis  in  cases  of  prolonged  transportation 
during  intense  cold. 

In  cases  of  defective  bleeding,  it  may  occur  that  stunned  and 
stuck  hogs  exhibit  active  movements  after  being  placed  in  the 
scalding  vat.  In  such  animals  one  observes  alight  red  color  similar 
to  that  which  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun's  rays  and  restricted  to 
the  unscalded  parts  of  the  skin.  Brusaffero  maintains,  further- 
more, that  he  observed  hyaline  degeneration  in  the  muscles  which 
were  not  submerged. 

Traumatic  erysipelas  in  hogs  usually  appears  in  the  form  of  a 
painful  inflammation  of  the  skin  about  the  head  and  may  lead  to 
necrosis.  According  to  Graffunder,  erysipelas  of  the  head  in  hogs 


SWINE    ERYSIPELAS 


089 


Is  usually  unilateral.     When  one   considers  the  usual  picture    of 
swine  plague  and  bog  cholera,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  these 
diseases  were  formerly  confused  with  swine  erysipelas.     The  alter- 
ations   in    the    internal   organs,  especially    in    the    lungs,    spleen, 
intestines  and  kidneys,  are  of  a  totally  different    sort    (page   694 
to  703).     Moreover,  the  reddening  of  the  skin  which  is  common  to 
the  diseases  just  named  is  in  cases  of  swine  plague 
restricted  to  the  deeper-lying  parts  of  the  body  and 
possesses  a  lighter  shade  of  color.   Urticaria  appears 
in   the   form   of   rhombic,  dark-red,  elevated  areas 
(Fig.  238).    The  red  spots  on  the  skin  do  not  coalesce. 
The  internal  organs  are  intact. 

In  all  cases  erysipelas  should  be  recognized 
without  special  difficulty  by  the  course  of  the  disease 
and  the  findings  at  the  time  of  slaughter.  For  a 
bacteriological  confirmation  of  the  diagnosis,  Johue 
recommends  the  preparation  of  a  stab  culture  from 
the  interior  of  the  spleen  in  addition  to  the  demon- 
stration of  the  erysipelas  bacilli  under  the  micro- 
scope. Stab  cultures  in  gelatin  show  the  character- 
istic form  of  a  test  tube  brush  after  a  few  days 
(Fig.  237). 

JUDGMENT. — It  must  be  considered  as  demon- 
strated by  experience  in  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
cases  that  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  erysipe- 
latous  hogs  is  without  injurious  effect  upon  man. 
This  fact  was  emphasized  even  during  the  '50's 
by  experienced  veterinarians  (Nicklas,  Hartmann, 
Straub,  Gerlach,  et  al.)  at  a  time  when  bacillar  ery- 
sipelas of  hogs  was  still  erroneously  considered  to 
be  anthrax.  Hartmann,  for  example,  in  his  veter- 
inary reports,  states  that  in  the  government  district 
of  Oppeln,  the  meat  of  hogs  dead  of  erysipelas 
was  quite  commonly  eaten  by  man  without  any  bad 
consequences  being  noted.  Straub  reports  that  the  consumption 
of  such  meat  is  harmless,  even  when  the  hogs  are  affected  with 
erysipelas  in  an  acute  stage.  The  unavoidable  conclusion  from  this 
enormous  mass  of  experimental  material  is  not  altered  by  the  fact 
that  erysipelas  bacilli  are  occasionally  found  in  human  excretions 
(Lubowski),  and  may  be  transmitted  to  man  by  inoculation  (Hille- 
brandt,  Casper).  At  the  end  of  the  '80's,  Dieckerhoff,  and  after 


Stab  culture  of 
swine  erysipelas 
bacilli  in  gelatin 
at  a  living  room 
temperature  (18° 
C.),  4  days  old. 
Natural  size. 


690  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

him,  Schmidt-Miilheim,  expressly  emphasized  the  fact  of  the  harm- 
lessness  of  the  meat  of  erysipelatous  hogs,  with  special  reference  to 
the  assumption  of  the  harmful  property  of  the  meat  in  question, 
which  prevailed  in  medical  circles.  The  necessity  for  this  is  best 
shown  by  the  "  extracts  from  legal  decisions  concerning  the  food 
Jaw,"  published  by  the  Imperial  Health  Office.  In  these  decisions, 
38  cases  are  reported  in  which  swine  erysipelas  gave  occasion  to 
criminal  procedures.  In  these  38  cases  the  meat  was  considered 
harmful  in  25  cases  and  a  spoiled  food  material  in  9  cases.  In  4 
<^ases  the  opinions  of  experts  were  directly  contradictory. 

In  agreement  with  the  opinion  rendered  by  Dieckerhoff,  that 
the  meat  of  erysipelatous  hogs,  as  long  as  it  is  fresh  and  not  passing 
into  decomposition,  is  not  harmful  to  human  health,  the  Royal 
Prussian  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service,  in  an 
opinion  rendered  November  6,  1889,  declared  that  proof  was  not 
forthcoming  that  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  erysipelatous  hogs 
was  calculated  to  injure  human  health. 

We  must  particularly  combat  the  erroneous  belief  that  the 
t>acterial  nature  of  swine  erysipelas,  in  and  of  itself,  indicates  the 
presence  of  a  harmful  property  in  the  meat.  This  is  by  no  means 
the  case,  since,  according  to  all  experience — infection  in  man  has  not 
been  observed  in  a  single  case,  even  after  handling  erysipelatous 
meat — the  erysipelas  bacilli  are  harmless  saprophytes  for  the 
human  organism. 

In  so  far,  therefore,  as  the  meat  of  erysipelatous  hogs  does  not 
give  evidence  of  a  badly  spoiled  condition  as  a  result  of  advanced 
stage  of  the  disease  (intense  reddening  of  the  skin  and  of  the 
panniculus  adiposus,  discoloration  of  the  musculature,  etc.),  it  may 
l>e  sold  as  an  inferior  food  material  under  declaration.  This  is  to 
be  permitted  especially  in  cases  where  the  animals  were  slaughtered 
in  an  early  stage  of  the  disease.  Declaration  is  to  be  required, 
however,  in  all  cases  in  the  sale  of  erysipelatous  meat,  since  it  comes 
from  badly  diseased  animals,  and,  in  contrast  with  normal  meat, 
possesses  much  poorer  keeping  qualities,  even  when  the  specific 
alterations  are  not  especially  pronounced. 

Regard  for  the  prophylaxis  of  the  bacillar  erysipelas  of  hogs 
requires  that  the  meat  of  erysipelatous  animals  shall  be  admitted 
to  market  only  in  a  cooked  or  sterilized  condition.  For,  while 
bacillar  erysipelas  is  pre-eminently  a  stationary  disease,  restricted 
io  certain  localities,  there  is  a  possibility  that  an  opportunity  may 
be  given  for  the  dissemination  of  the  disease  through  the  unregu- 
lated sale  of  the  raw  meat  of  erysipelatous  animals.  It  is  imma- 


URTICARIA  691 

terial  in  this  connection  whether  the  infection  of  hogs  takes  place 
through  the  feed,  the  water  used  for  washing  the  meat,  or  by  other 
means. 

The  Koyal  Saxon  Commission  for  the  Veterinary  Service  recom- 
mended, for  preventiog  bacillar  erysipelas,  the  compulsory  boiling 
or  pickling  of  the  meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaugh- 
ter and  intended  for  sale.  It  has  already  been  stated,  however, 
that  pickling  does  not  have  the  effect  ascribed  to  it  by  the  Saxon 
Commission.  Pickling  may  be  permitted  merely  as  a  temporary 
method  of  treating  meat  in  localities  in  which  erysipelas  occurs  in 
an  epizootic  form  and  where,  consequently,  the  utilization  of  the 
meat  in  a  cooked  condition  is  impossible.  Furthermore,  pickling 
in  cities  is  unobjectionable,  since  here  traffic  in  meat  can  not  give 
rise  to  the  dissemination  of  erysipelas  bacilli  in  hog  yards,  as 
would  be  the  case  in  country  districts.* 

The  Danish  Government  has  ordered  that  erysipelatous  hogs, 
against  the  consumption  of  which  the  veterinarian  raises  no  objec- 
tion, shall  be  used  for  food  only  within  the  limits  of  the  infected 
locality.  In  order  to  avoid  the  danger  of  dissemination  of  ery- 
sipelas by  means  of  the  meat  of  infected  animals,  it  was  also 
ordered  that  permission  for  the  sale  of  hogs  in  an  infected  herd, 
including  those  which  appeared  to  be  healthy,  shall  be  made 
dependant  upon  the  proof  of  the  normal  character  of  various  parts, 
including  the  heart. 

The  restriction  of  the  consumption  of  the  meat  to  the  infected 
localities  is  undoubtedly  an  effective  means  of  preventing  the  dis- 
semination of  erysipelas  bacilli.  In  cases,  however,  in  which 
emergency  slaughter  is  performed  on  a  large  scale  on  account  of 
erysipelas,  the  restriction  is  practically  the  same  as  an  absolute 
destruction  of  the  meat,  since  the  owners,  especially  in  summer, 
are  not  able  to  eat  all  of  the  meat.  In  such  cases  traffic  may  be 
conducted  by  permitting  preliminary  pickling,  since  pickled  meat 
is  eaten  only  in  a  cooked  condition,  and  the  erysipelas  bacilli  are 
destroyed  after  a  short  exposure  in  the  pickling  brine  (page  685). 

(k)   Urticaria. 

NATURE. — Urticaria  ("  backsteinblattern,"  formerly  also  called 
*'  spot  erysipelas  of  hogs  ")  is  a  disease  of  swine,  characterized  by 

*  By  proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor,  September  8,  1898,  compul- 
sory notification  for  erysipelas  of  hogs  is  required  for  the  whole  German 
Empire. 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

the  eruption  of  hemorrhagic,  diamond-shaped  patches.  Simul- 
taneously there  appear  a  rather  serious  disturbance  of  the  general 
condition,  inappetency  and  obstipation.  The  diamond-shaped 
patches  are  scattered  irregularly  over  the  body.  Their  color  at 
first  is  dark-red  (hemorrhages) ;  later  they  become  pale  in  the 
superficial  layers,  and  still  later,  also  in  the  deeper  layers  of  the 
tissue. 

After  slaughter  the  diamond-shaped  patches  subside  somewhat 
and  exhibit  a  pronounced  rhombic  form  (Fig.  238).  By  means  of 
an  incision  one  may  be  convinced  that  the  disease  affects  not  ouly- 


Skin  of  hog  affected  with  urticaria,  two-thirds  natural  size,     a,  rhombic 
hemorrhagic  area ;  b,  area  disappearing. 

the  skin,  but  extends  quite  deeply  into  the  panniculus  adiposus. 
When  the  diamond-shaped  patches  begin  to  heal,  they  become 
round  and  lose  their  sharp  delimitation  from  the  surrounding 
tissue. 

ETIOLOGY. — Lorenz  in  Darmstadt  demonstrated  bacilli  in  the 
diamond-shaped  patches  which,  according  to  Hessian  usage,  he 
designated  as  "backsteinblattern."  They  possessed  great  similar- 
ity with  those  of  mouse  septicemia  and  erysipelas.  According  to» 
a  private  communication,  Liipke,  independently  of  Lorenz,  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  urticaria-like  eruptions  by  the  intravenous. 


URTICARIA 

inoculation  of  the  bacilli  of  mouse  septicemia.  Simultaneously 
•with  Lorenz  and  Liipke,  Jensen  found  bacilli  in  cases  of  urticaria. 
Jensen,  however,  did  not  consider  them  a  distinct  species,  but  held 
them  to  be  merely  erysipelatous  bacilli.  Jensen  drew  the  conclu- 
sion that  bacillar  erysipelas  of  hogs  can  no  longer  be  considered 
as  a  simple  process.  According  to  our  present  knowledge,  erysipe- 
las appears  in  several  different,  well-characterized  forms,  between 
which,  however,  transition  forms  sometimes  occur.  Jensen  distin- 
guishes the  following  clinical  forms  of  bacillar  erysipelas:  (1) 
"  rouget  blanc ;"  (2)  erysipelas  in  the  narrower  sense ;  (3)  diffuse 
necrosing  inflammation  of  the  skin  (dry  gangrene  of  the  skin) ;  (4) 
nettle  fever  (urticaria) ;  (5)  bacillar  verrucose  endocarditis.  With 
regard  to  "  rouget  blanc"  of  the  French,  he  remarks  that  this  dis- 
ease does  not  often  occur  and  runs  its  course  very  rapidly,  without 
#,ny  red  coloration.  Even  on  the  carcass,  the  skin  in  cases  of 
"rouget  blanc"  possesses  its  normal  character. 

JUDGMENT. — The  meat  of  hogs  which  have  beer:  affected  with 
urticaria  is  everywhere  admitted  to  the  market  after  the  removal 
of  the  diseased  spots.  As  in  cases  of  erysipelas,  no  injury  to 
human  health  has  been  observed.  In  the  more  acute  forms  of  the 
disease,  the  meat  is  to  be  treated  as  an  inferior  food  material. 

For  the  rest,  meat  inspectors  will  do  well,  on  account  of  the 
depreciation  of  the  value  of  the  meat  in  by  far  the  larger  number  of 
cases,  to  advise  against  emergency  slaughter  of  animals  affected 
with  urticaria,  since  the  disease  commonly  ends  in  recovery, 
especially  if  suitable  therapeutic  measures  (administration  of 
cathartics)  are  taken. 

VETERINARY  POLICE  TREATMENT  OF  URTICARIA.— Opinions  vary 
on  the  question  whether  urticaria,  from  a  veterinary  police  stand- 
point, should  be  treated  like  erysipelas.  Against  the  justification 
of  such  a  procedure,  the  objection  has  been  raised  that  erysipelas 
can  not  be  produced  by  inoculation  of  urticaria  material,  and, 
.furthermore,  that  veterinary  police  measures  against  urticaria  are 
practically  of  no  importance,  and  the  value  of  such  procedure  in 
any  case  stands  in  no  relation  to  the  hardships  which  result  from  a 
veterinary  police  interference.  This  point  of  view  receives  strong 
support  from  the  more  recent  investigations  concerning  the  sapro- 
phytic  occurrence  of  the  organism  of  urticaria  in  the  intestines  of 
healthy  hogs  (Olt,  Jensen). 


694: 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 


FIG.  239. 


(1)   Swine  Plague. 

NATURE  AND  OCCURRENCE. — Swine  plague  is  an  infectious  dis- 
ease of  bogs  which  is  produced  by  micro-organisms  similar  to  those 
of  hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle  (compare  page  671). 

According  to  an  observation  of  Loffl^r,  swine  plague  may 
appear  as  septicemia  with  serous  infiltration  of  the  subcutis. 
Usually,  however,  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  multiple  necrosing 
pneumonia.  This  is  the  genuine  swine  plague,  as  described  and 
demonstrated  b;icteriologically  by  Schutz.  As  a  rule,  in  addition  to- 
pneumonia,  there  exists  a  sero-fibrinous  pleuritis  and  pericarditis. 
The  latter  affections,  however,  may  constitute  the  only  anatomical 
alterations  of  swine  plague.  Furthermore,  a  diffuse  fibrinous 

pleuro-peritonitis  (pectoral-abdominal 
form  of  swine  plague,  according  ta 
Graffunder)  is  observed,  as  a  result  of 
swine  plague. 

During  the  acute  stage  one  ob- 
serves general  phenomena  in  the  form 
of  cloudy  swelling  of  the  parenchyma 
of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  myocardium 
and  skeletal  musculature,  associated 
under  certain  conditions  with  an  en- 
largement of  all  the  lymphatic  glanda 
of  the  body.  Moreover,  specific  pneu- 
monia, like  pneumonia  of  horses,  is  fre- 
quently ushered  in  by  hematogenous 
icterus. 

The  sequelae  of  swine  plague  possess  special  interest.  After 
the  acute  inflammatory  stage  is  passed,  adhesions  of  the  pulmonary 
pleura  and  pericardium  with  the  pleura  may  occur,  as  well  as 
adhesions  of  the  pericardium  with  the  epicardinm.  Moreover,  the 
formation  of  caseous,  purulent  and  dry  necrotic  foci  (sequestrations) 
may  take  place  in  the  lungs. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — Upon  a  superficial  examination  dur- 
ing the  acute  stage,  swine  plague  may  be  confused  with  swine 
erysipelas,  especially  since  in  cases  of  swine  plague  a  reddening  of 
the  skin  is  observed.  Acute  swine  plague,  however,  is  distinguished 
from  erysipelas  with  regard  to  its  gross  anatomy,  by  the  lighter 
shade  of  the  red  coloration;  the  restriction  of  the  latter  to  the 


Swine  plague  bacteria  in  a  smear 
preparation  from  the  cardiac 
blood  of  an  infected  mouse. 


SWINE  PLAGUE  695 

under  parts  of  the  body  and  the  absence  of  splenic  tumor  and 
inflammatory  phenomena  in  the  intestines.  Furthermore,  in  swine 
plague  the  hemorrhage  nephritis  which  is  characteristic  of 
erysipelas  is  wanting.  Finally,  however,  the  presence  of  the  specific 
alterations  in  the  lungs  and  on  the  serous  membranes  of  the 
thoracic  cavity  in  ordinary  cases  furnishes  a  demonstration  of  the 
presence  of  swine  plague. 

In  doubtful  cases  a  decision  must  be  reached  by  a  bacteriologi- 
cal investigation.  This  is  most  usually  accomplished  by  making 
streak  cultures,  or,  if  this  is  without  result,  by  diagnostic  inocula- 
tion. After  inoculation  with  erysipelatous  material,  mice  and 
pigeons  die,  rabbits  develop  merely  typical  erysipelas,  and  guinea 
pigs  remain  healthy.  With  swine  plague,  however,  mice,  rabbits, 
and  guinea  pigs  die  within  one  to  three  days  after  inoculation, 
while  pigeons  are  not  affected.  Accordingly,  in  doubtful  cases 
differentiation  is  made  possible  by  merely  inoculating  guinea  pigs 
or  pigeons  (Kitt). 

The  pneumonia  of  swine  plague  is  distinguished  from  catarrhal 
pneumonia  by  its  fibrinous  character,  the  lobular  distension,  the 
greater  firmness  of  the  diseased  parts  of  the  lungs  and  the  finding 
of  ovoid  bacteria  which  are  pathogenic  for  experimental  animals, 
especially  mice. 

According  to  Strose  and  Heine,  catarrhal  pneumonia  occurs  in 
one  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  slaughtered  in  Hanover,  causes  no  patho- 
logical symptoms  except  coughing,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  restricted  to 
a  lobular  affection  of  portions  of  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  lungs.  In 
the  bronchial  glands  of  hogs  affected  with  catarrhal  pneumonia, 
ovoid  bacteria  could  also  be  demonstrated,  but,  in  contrast  with  the 
bacteria  of  swine  plague,  they  were  not  pathogenic  for  mice. 

JUDGMENT. — Fiedler  and  Bleisch  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
meat  of  hogs  affected  with  swine  plague  should  be  considered  as 
injurious  to  health.  They  state,  "We  should  not  fail  to  mention 
that  as  long  as  the  immunity  of  man  toward  the  bacteria  of  swine 
plague  has  not  been  demonstrated,  the  pathogenic  action  shown  in 
our  experiments  of  the  bacteria  of  swine  plague  toward  different 
animal  genera  creates  a  fear  of  such  action  toward  man.  Especial 
care  in  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  appears  to  be  required  with 
regard  to  this  matter."  Against  this  view  is  arrayed  the  experience 
of  meat  inspection.  Quite  aside  from  the  fact  that  the  pathogenic- 
action  of  the  micro-organism  in  experimental  animals  proves 
nothing  with  regard  t  >  man  (page  114),  before  the  discovery  of  the 


INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

specific  nature  of  swine  plague,  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with 
the  pectoral  and  intestinal  form  of  the  disease  was  always  admitted 
to  the  market  for  the  reason  that  the  disease  was  considered  as  a 
simple  pulmonary  inflammation  as  a  result  of  colds.  Nothing, 
however,  is  known  concerning  injury  to  human  health  from  eating 
such  meat.  To  be  sure,  Pouchet  and  Zschokke  reported  observa- 
tions, according  to  which  the  meat  of  hogs  affected  with  swine 
plague  is  said  to  have  exercised  harmful  effects.  These  observa- 
tions, however,  are  not  unexceptionable.  In  the  case  reported  by 
Pouchet,  the  pork  was  in  a  state  of  decomposition,  while  the  case 
of  Zschokke  is  not  clearly  explained,  and,  as  the  author  himself 
states,  was  perhaps  to  be  considered  as  a  case  of  poisoning  from 
saltpeter.  Prettner  made  inoculation  experiments  on  mice  with 
swine  plague  by  rubbing  infectious  exudations  from  a  hog  into  skin 
wounds.  The  result  was  negative.  Furthermore,  an  infection  of 
man  from  handling  the  altered  organs  of  animals  affected  with 
swine  plague  has  never  occurred. 

If  in  spite  of  these  facts  all  scruples  against  the  admission  of 
the  meat  to  the  market  can  not  be  overcome,  at  any  rate  no  objec- 
tion can  be  raised  against  the  sale  of  the  meat  when  well  boiled  or 
sterilized,  since  we  know  that  the  bacteria  of  swine  plague  in 
pieces  of  meat  which  are  not  too  thick  are  destroyed  by  exposure 
for  one  hour  to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  In  this  way,  also,  the 
requirements  of  the  veterinary  police  are  satisfied.  Such  a  pro- 
cedure, however,  is  necessary  only  in  case  of  acute  swine  plague, 
since  in  this  form  bacteria  are  present  in  the  blood  and  even  in  the 
meat. 

The  meat  of  hogs  affected  with  swine  plague  is  to  be  excluded 
from  the  market  as  highly  unfit  for  food  when  icterus  is  associated 
with  an  acute  stage  of  specific  inflammation  of  the  pulmonary  and 
costal  pleura ;  or  when  the  animals  are  greatly  emaciated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  disease.* 

(m)  Hog  Cholera. 

OCCURRENCE. — Hog  cholera  is  a  devastating  infectious  disease 
of  hogs  which  has  been  brought  into  Europe  from  the  New  World. 
For  nearly  forty  years  the  Disease  has  been  known  in  America 
under  the  names  hog  cholera  and  swine  fever.  The  losses  from  this 
plague  in  the  United  States,  for  a  period  of  a  few  years,  amounted, 


*  With  regard  to  compulsory  notification  of  swine  plague,  see  page  702. 


HOG   CHOLERA  697 

according  to  Schiitz,  to  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  million  dollars. 
In  1862  the  disease  was  introduced  into  England  and  became 
stationary  there.  From  England  it  was  carried  to  Sweden,  pre- 
sumably through  the  agency  of  breeding  boars,  and  from  thence 
was  introduced  into  Denmark  in  1887.  Recently  the  disease  has 
also  appeared  in  an  epizootic  form  in  Germany,  especially  in 
Austria-Hungary. 

BACTERIOLOGY.— Hog  cholera  is  produced  by  small,  motile 
bacilli  which  accumulate  in  the  organs  in  very  characteristic  masses 
like  the  typhoid  bacillus.  They  are  stainable  with  some  difficulty. 
The  staining  is  best  accomplished  with  Loffler's  alkaline  methylene 
blue  solution,  carbol  fuchsin,  and  according  to  Kuhne's  method 
(carbol  methyleue  blue).  Mice,  guinea  pigs  and  rabbits  are  killed 
by  the  bacilli  within  from  two  to  twelve  days 
either  by  inoculation  or  by  feeding.  Hogs  like-  FlG<  24°* 

wise  die  of  pronounced  cases  of  hog  cholera  after          \    ' 
receiving  the  bacilli  in  food.      In  animals  fed  on        • 
such  material,  an  extensive  enteritis  is  uniformly        »     % 
present.     The  mucous   membrane   of  the   small  .   * 

intestine  is  reddened  and  congested.     The  intes-  ^ 

tinal  contents  are  mixed  with  blood.     In  chronic  *   .      • 

cases  of  the  disease  there  is  a  localization  in  the    jj0g  cholera  bacillus 

inferior  portion  of  the  ileum  and  cecum  in  the  from  an  a£ar  culture 
,  .  •  i  i  •  j-  -un,  -i-  24  hours  old.  X  500 

form    of    a   simple     hyperemia    or    diphtheritic    diameters. 

destruction  of  the  mucous  membrane.  In  ex- 
perimental animals  fed  on  hog  cholera  bacilli,  the  organisms  are 
recovered  particularly  from  the  intestine,  mesenteric  glands,  liver 
and  spleen.  The  bacilli  of  hog  cholera  are  commonly  found  in  the 
blood  of  hogs  only  in  cases  which  run  a  rapid  course  and  even 
then  are  not  very  abundant. 

CLINICAL  SYMPTOMS. — Hog  cholera  most  frequently  attacks 
young  animals,  sucking  pigs  and  young  pigs  up  to  four  months  of 
age.  The  period  of  incubation  is  from  five  to  twenty  days.  The 
pathological  symptoms  are  inappetence,  slight  constipation  and, 
later,  a  stinking  diarrhea.  Frequently  red  spots  and  a  scab-like 
eczema  appears  on  the  ears,  snout  and  in  the  region  of  the  anus. 
A  purulent  conjunctivitis  is  frequently  present.  There  is  rapid 
emaciation  and  death  takes  place  after  five  to  eight  days,  or  several 
weeks  with  progressive  coma.  In  slight  cases  of  the  disease  the 
perceptible  pathological  symptoms  are  less  pronounced.  The  ani- 


698 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


mals  which  recover  are  stunted,  fail  to  develop  and  die  after  linger- 
ing several  months. 

ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — Diphtheritic  alterations  on  the  tongue, 
pharynx,  gums,  and  in  the  stomach ;   catarrhal,  croupous,  diph- 

FIG.  241. 


Mild  case  of  hog  cholera,  large  intestine  of  a  hog. 
a,  croupous  deposits;  b,  diphtheritic  alterations  of  the  lymph  follicle?. 

theritic  and  hemorrhagic  inflammation  in  the  duodenum  and  ileum. 
The  chief  alterations,  however,  are  found  in  the  large  intestines. 


JLcute  case  of  hog  cholera,     a,  incipient  diphtheria  of  the  lymph  follicles;  b,  button- 
like  caseous  foci  with  walled  borders ;  c,  erosions  becoming  cicatriced. 

The  surface  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  cecum,  colon  and  rec- 
tum is  covered  with  a  croupous  deposit  (Fig.  241,  a),  or  undergoes 
extensive  diphtheritic  alteration.  The  diphtheritic  alteration  usually 


HOG   CHOLERA 


699 


FIG.  243. 


"begins  in  the  lymph  follicles  (Fig.  241,  b)  and  changes  them  together 
with  the  surrounding  tissue  into  button-like  caseous  foci  of  the  size 
of  peas  or  hazel  nuts  (Fig.  242,  b).  If  the  diphtheritic  foci  are 
sloughed  off,  irregular  ulcers  appear,  which  may  become  smoothly 
cicatrized  (Fig.  242,  c).  The  ileo-cecal  valve  is  enlarged  and  case- 
fied  in  a  quite  pathognostic  form.  The  lymph  glands  of  the 
digestive  apparatus  are  simultaneously  swollen.  The  tumefied 
laryngeal  and  mesenteric  glands 
may  exhibit  caseous  deposits  or 
may  be  totally  casefied.  Calci- 
fication is  not  observed  in  the 
caseous  products  of  hog  cholera. 
The  respiratory  organs  of 
hogs  affected  with  hog  cholera 
may  be  perfectly  healthy.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  pneumonia 
due  to  bacteria  of  swine  plague 
may  be  associated  with  hog 
cholera  as  a  complication;  the 
spleen  is  unaltered  and  the  liver 
slightly  clouded  upon  cross  sec- 
tion. The  flabby  kidneys  exhibit 
a  slightly-clouded  cortical  sub- 
stance. 


ETIOLOGY  OF  PNEUMONIC  AND 
NECROTIG  ALTERATIONS  IN  HOG 
CHOLERA. — Bang  demonstrated 
that  the  different  kinds  of  pneu- 
monia which  occur  in  the  chro- 
nic form  of  hog  cholera  are  not 
produced  by  the  hog  cholera 
bacillus,  but  by  the  organism 
of  swine  plague,  which  Bang 
called  the  vacuole  bacillus  and 


Hog  cholera.     Deep  necrotic  processes  fol- 
lowing secondary  localization  of  the 
necrosis  bacillus. 


which  occurs  also  in  the  nasal  mucus  and  in  the  lungs  of  healthy 
hogs.  It  was  also  demonstrated  by  Bang  that  in  case  of  chronic 
Log  cholera  the  so-called  necrosis  bacillus  constantly  occurs  in 
addition  to  the  hog  cholera  bacillus  and  the  vacuole  bacillus  (page 
680).  The  necrosis  bacillus  is  sometimes  found  in  the  intestinal 
contents  of  healthy  hogs  and  mav  produce  d^eo  necrosing  pro- 
cesses in  the  hog,  in  which  the  hog  cholera  bacillus  has  already 


700    !  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

caused  a  superficial  croupous  inflammation.     In  consequence  of  the  - 
caseation  of  the  mucosa  and  muscularis,  due  to  the  action  of  the 
necrosis  bacillus,  the  diseased  parts  of  the  intestine  are  modified  < 
into   rigid  tubes  which  do  not  collapse.     If  the  process  extends 
to  the  serosa,  we  have  a  fibrinous  or  fibrous  peritonitis  and,  during 
the  course  of  the  latter,  manifold  adhesions  between  the  folds  of 
the  intestines.     According  to  Bang,  the  necrosis  bacilli  also  cause 
the  necrotic  processes  which  are  observed  in  the  lungs. 

The  investigations  of  Bang  on  the  etiology  of  the  complications 
which  appear  with  hog  cholera  have  been  substantiated  by  the 
studies  of  Preisz,  Karliuski  and  the  author. 

In  isolated  cases  of  diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  in  hogs,  Kitt  found  the  necrosis  bacillus  in  unusual 
quantities  in  teased  preparations  and  in  sections,  and  he  is,  there- 
fore, of  the  opinion  that  diphtheritic  anomalies  in  the  digestive 
tract  of  hogs  are  produced  only  by  the  necrosis  bacillus  and  that 
tog  diseases  may  occur  in  Germany  in  a  sporadic  and  epizootic 
form  which  closely  resemble  the  American  disease  clinically  and 
anatomically,  but,  from  an  etiological  standpoint,  have  nothing  to  > 
do  with  the  latter. 

DIAGNOSIS  AND  DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — The  slaughter  find- 
ings in  animals  which  are  affected  with  hog  cholera  are,  as  a  rule, 
so  pronounced  and  characteristic  of  the  disease  that  the  recognition 
of  hog  cholera  in  ordinary  cases  should  present  no  difficulty  what- 
ever to  the  expert  entrusted  with  the  practice  of  meat  inspection. 
It  is  only  in  cases  with  a  peracute  course,  in  which  there  is  merely 
a  bloody  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  a  swelling  of 
the  lymphatic  glands  with  petechise  in  them  and  the  kidneys,  that 
the  disease  may  be  confused  with  swine  erysipelas.  Such  cases, 
however,  are  distinguished  from  erysipelas  by  the  fact  that  the 
spleen  is  not  swollen  and  the  kidneys  do  not  show  the  symptoms 
of  hemorrhagic  nephritis.  Moreover,  the  erysipelas  bacilli  are 
wanting  in  the  blood  and  parenchyma,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Log  cholera  bacilli  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  swollen  mesenteric 
glands,  by  a  teased  preparation  or  a  culture.  In  inoculation  experi- 
ments, it  should  be  remembered  that  the  hog  cholera  bacilli  are 
comparatively  of  slight  virulence  for  small  experimental  animals 
and  that,  therefore,  the  animals  may  die  of  intercurrent  diseases  if  - 
other  organisms  more  pathogenic  for  the  experimental  animal  con- 
cerned are  accidentally  present  in  the  organic  material  used  in, 
:makmg  the  inoculation. 


HOG   CHOLERA  701 

The  distinction  between  intestinal  diphtheria  of  hogs  (Kitt) 
due  merely  to  the  necrosis  bacilli  and  the  diphtheria  of  hog  cholera 
may  be  made  evident  only  by  means  of  a  thorough  bacteriological 
investigation,  especially  of  the  mesenteric  glands.  Since  during  the 
course  of  hog  cholera  caseous  alterations  arise  in  the  alimen- 
tary tract  and  its  lymphatic  glands,  there  may  be  a  confusion  of 
this  disease  with  alimentary  tuberculosis.  Hog  cholera,  however, 
is  distinguished  from  alimentary  tuberculosis  by  the  fact  that  it  is 
ushered  in  with  acute  alterations  of  the  mucous  membrane  and 
exhibits  only  in  rare  cases  pronounced  alterations  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  in  contrast  with  tuberculosis.  In  tuberculosis  of  hogs,  the* 
mucous  membrane,  even  in  the  acute  cases  of  the  alimentary  form^ 
are,  as  a  rule,  without  alterations,  while  the  corresponding  lymph, 
glands  are  always  specifically  altered  to  a  high  degree.  The> 
caseous  alterations  of  the  mucous  membranes  in  tuberculosis  are,, 
moreover,  not  caused  by  croup  or  diphtheria,  but  represent  ulcers, 
the  bases  of  which  consist  of  disintegrating  tubercles  (Fig.  213). 

A  further  distinction  between  hog  cholera  and  tuberculosis  is 
found  in  the  fact  that  in  cases  of  natural  infection,  the  former  pro- 
duces caseation  only  in  the  alimentary  tract,  while  tuberculosis 
through  generalization  of  the  process  may  cause  caseation  in  most 
of  the  internal  organs,  especially  in  the  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  bones, 
joints,  sheaths  of  the  tendons  and  the  lymphatic  glands  which 
belong  to  these  organs. 

Finally,  the  caseation  which  appears  in  the  lymphatic  glands 
of  the  digestive  tract  in  cases  of  hog  cholera  may  be  distinguished 
from  tuberculous  alterations  of  those  structures  by  observing  the 
following  criteria : 

(a)  Hog  cholera  produces  either  a  partial  or  total  caseation  of 
the  lymphatic  glands.  The  caseous  material  deposited  in  them  is 
grayish-yellow  and  in  cases  of  partial  caseation  is  readily  separable 
from  the  surrounding  tissue  of  lymphatic  glands.  Tuberculosis 
always  begins  with  partial  caseation  at  several  points ;  for  it  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  pre-existence  of  numerous  small  foci  or  tubercles. 

(6)  The  caseations  which  appear  in  the  lymphatic  glands  of 
the  digestive  organs  in  case  of  hog  cholera  do  not  become  calcified. 
In  cases  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lymphatic  glands  of  hogs,  on  the 
other  hand,  calcification  is  uniformly  associated  with  caseation. 

(c)  In  cases  of  partial  caseation  of  the  lymphatic  glands  as  a 
result  of  hog  cholera,  the  tissue  of  the  lymphatic  glands  which  lies 
in  contact  with  the  caseous  deposits  commonly  exhibits  no  gross 
alterations. 


702 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


Iii  tuberculosis,  as  shown  by  Johne,  there  are  always  small, 
•perfectly  transparent,  grayish  tubercles,  which  may  be  clouded 
in  the  center,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  caseous 
areas. 

These  macroscopic  criteria  are  more  important  in  the  differen- 
tiation of  hog  cholera  from  tuberculosis  than  those  which  may  be 
secured  by  bacteriological  investigations.  For  it  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  in  old  caseous  areas  the  bacteria  of  hog  cholera  as  well  as 
those  of  tuberculosis  frequently  can  not  be  demonstrated  by 
•  microscopic  investigation,  but  only  by  inoculation. 

Bang  and  Jensen  have   called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
•normal  condition  of  the  ileo-cecal  valve  may  lead  to  confusion  with 

hog  cholera.  In  the  ducts  of  the 
glands  of  the  ileo-cecal  valve,  yellow 
cloudy  plugs  are  frequently  observed 
which  on  superficial  examination 
might  be  mistaken  for  caseous  foci. 
These  plugs,  which  arise  by  retention 
of  the  secretion  of  the  glands,  may 
be  readily  pressed  out  from  the  ducts 
of  the  glands  without  losing  auy  of 
their  substance  (Fig.  244,  a).  Fur- 
thermore, the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  ileo-cecal  valve  itself  is  without 
any  alteration. 


FIG.  244. 


Ileo-cecal  valve  of  a  hog. 
seat  of  retention  plugs  which  may 
give  rise  to  confusion  with 
hog  cholera. 


JUDGMENT.  —  A  decree  of  the 
Boyal  Prussian  Ministers  for  Agri- 
culture and  Education,  of  July  9, 
1894,  declares  on  the  basis  of  the 
expressed  opinions  of  the  Technical 
Deputation  for  Veterinary  Service 

and  the  Scientific  Deputation  for  the  Medical  Service,  that  the 
meat  of  hogs  which  have  been  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter 
on  account  of  swine  plague  or  hog  cholera  is  not  injurious  to  human 
health.  The  decree  prescribes  the  following  procedure  for  the  meat 
in  question. 

"  The  meat,  however,  is  to  be  sold  under  declaration  and  in  a 
cooked  condition,  unless  it  is  eaten  on  the  premises  where  the 
disease  occurs.  The  affected  internal  organs,  together  with  their 
appendices,  are  to  be  buried  or  burned.  The  carcasses  are  to  be 
excluded  from  the  market  but  admitted  for  technical  utilization  in 


FOWL  CHOLERA.  703 

the  case  of  hogs  in  which  sequelae,  such  as  icterus  or  peritonitis, 
Jiave  developed."* 


APPENDIX. 
The  Most  Important  Infectious  Diseases  of  Fowls. 

In  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  diseases  of  the  larger 
domesticated  animals,  the  two  most  important  diseases  of  useful 
domesticated  fowls,  fowl  cholera  and  diphtheria  of  fowls,  may  be 
briefly  considered. 

(a)  Fowl  Cholera. 

OCCURRENCE. — Fowl  cholera  occurs  in  chickens,  geese,  ducks, 
pigeons,  turkeys  and  pheasants  and  causes  enormous  losses  during 
the  outbreaks.  The  disease  has  nothiug  in  common  with  cholera  in 
man  except  the  name. 

ETIOLOGY. — Fowl  cholera  is  produced  by  bacteria  which,  in 
respect  of  their  morphology,  cultural  and  pathogenic  properties  for 
experimental  animals,  agree  with  the  organisms  of  hemorrhagio 
septicemia  of  cattle,  swine  plague  and  rabbit  septicemia  (compare 
page  671). 

SYMPTOMS  AND  ANATOMICAL  FINDINGS. — The  disease  is  charac- 
terized by  its  rapid,  fatal  course.  The  birds  die  suddenly  with 
apoplectiforrn  symptoms,  or  show  signs  of  illness  for  several  hours 
or  three  days  at  most.  The  internal  temperature  is  considerably 
elevated.  Upon  a  post-mortem  examination  one  fiuds  a  hemorrhagic 
inflammation  of  the  small  intestine  and  a  chocolate  colored  intes- 
tinal content ;  occasionally,  also,  croupous  enteritis,  numerous 
hemorrhages  under  the  epicardium  and  a  congested  or  inflammatory 
condition  of  the  lung  tissue. 

Since  the  internal  organs  of  diseased  and  dead  fowls  are  care- 
fully removed  before  sale,  it  is  not  always  an  easy  matter  to 

*  By  promulgation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor,  September  8,  1898,  compul- 
sory notification  of  swine  plague,  hog  cholera  and  swine  erysipelas,  in  the  sense 
of  Section  9  of  the  Imperial  Animal  Plague  Law,  is  introduced  for  the  whole 
German  Empire  until  further  notice,  on  the  basis  of  Sec.  102  of  the  law. 


704 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 


demonstrate  the  presence  of  fowl  cholera  in  the  carcasses  brought 
to  market.  Nevertheless,  in  fowls  which  are  slaughtered  during  the 
agony  or  which  die  of  the  disease  cadaveric  spots  of  a  dark  blue 
color  are  commonly  found  on  the  inferior  surface  of  the  abdomen 
and  on  the  internal  surface  of  the  thigh.  The  skeletal  musculature 
may  appear  intact  in  cases  of  the  disease  with  an  acute  course.  As 
a  rule,  however,  it  is  rich  in  blood,  and,  under  certain  conditions, 
may  be  affected  with  cloudy  swelling  or  may  undergo  fatty  and  wax- 
like  degeneration. 

DIFFERENTIAL  DIAGNOSIS. — For  confirming  the  diagnosis  it  is, 
desirable  to  examine  a  drop  of  blood  from  the  interior  of  the  mus- 
culature for  the  presence  of  the  fowl  cholera  bacteria,  which  are  0.-> 
to  1  ja  in  length  (Fig.  245).  Furthermore,  Kitt  recommends,  as  a 

convenient  means  of  confirming  the 
diagnosis,  the  inoculation  of  a  pigeon 
by  introducing  a  drop  of  blood  into  the 
musculature  of  the  breast.  In  cases  of 
fowl  cholera,  the  animals  die  after 
twelve  or  at  most  forty-eight  hours. 
The  disease  may  be  transmitted  by 
feeding,  with  the  same  fatal  result. 


FIG.  245. 


Smear  preparation  from  the  car- 
diac blood  of  a  pigeon  infected 
with  fowl  cholera,  X  500  diam. 


JUDGMENT. — The  infectiousness  of 
fowl  cholera  is  of  a  limited  order.  It 
is  transmissible  to  fowls,  rabbits  and 
mice.  Guinea  pigs  die  after  inoculation 
only  in  exceptional  cases.  In  these 

animals  the  result  of  inoculation  is,  as  a  rule,  local,  as  well  as  in 
horses  and  sheep.  According  to  the  investigations  of  Perroncito, 
Marchiafava  and  Celli,  as  well  as  those  of  Kitt,  dogs  and  cats  may 
with  impunity  eat  large  quantities  of  the  raw  carcasses  of  fowls 
•which  have  died  of  cholera. 

The  behavior  of  man  toward  the  bacteria  of  fowl  cholera 
requires  further  elucidation  in  certain  respects.  Marchiafava  and 
Celli  assert  that  the  bacteria  in  question  may  produce  abscesses  in 
small  skin  wounds.  This,  however,  is  of  little  importance.  More- 
over, according  to  Ziirn,  one  person  was  made  seriously  ill  by  eat- 
ing the  meat  of  choleraic  chickens.  These  observations,  however, 
are  opposed  to  numerous  others,  according  to  which  even  the  con- 
sumption of  the  meat  of  fowls  dead  of  cholera  was  without  harm  to 
the  consumers. 


DIPHTHERIA   OF   FOWLS  705 

Perroncito  frequently  observed  servants  in  his  laboratory  eat- 
ing, in  a  cooked  condition,  tlie  chickens  which  had  died  of  the  dis- 
ease, and  without  experiencing  the  slightest  harm.  Likewise,  dis- 
eased chickens  were  eaten  by  the  farmers  without  bad  results, 
during  the  great  prevalence  of  the  disease  in  Casalgrassa  and  in  the 
Campagna  near  Koine.  According  to  Kitt,  the  same  statement  is 
true  cr  the  neighborhood  of  Munich. 

In  rendering  a  decision  concerning  the  admission  of  the  meat 
to  the  market,  it  is  an  important  consideration  that  the  disease  may 
be  disseminated  by  means  of  the  carcasses  of  dead  or  slaughtered 
chickens.*  The  fact  just  mentioned  is  sufficient  to  justify  the  exclu- 
sion from  the  market  of  fowls  affected  with  cholera.  Moreover, 
these  carcasses,  on  account  of  the  objective  alterations  of  their  sub- 
stance, frequently  exhibit  the  character  of  a  high  degree  of  unfitness 
for  food. 

The  sale  of  the  meat  of  fowls  which  are  slaughtered  at  the 
beginning  of  the  disease  may  be  unhesitatingly  permitted  after  pre- 
vious cooking ;  for  Kitt  found  that  the  bacteria  of  fowl  cholera  lose 
their  virulence  after  exposure  for  three-fourths  of  an  hour  to  a 
temperature  of  45°  to  50°  C. 


(b)    Diphtheria  of  Fowls. 

According  to  the  investigations  of  Friedberger  and  Frohner,  we- 
have  to  distinguish  two  forms  of  so-called  diphtheria  of  chickens  : 
one  form,  probably,  produced  by  bacteria  and  another  form  pro- 
duced by  protozoa.  The  probably  bacterial  form  of  roup  is,  accord- 
ing to  Friedberger  and  Frohner,  next  to  fowl  cholera,  the  most  fre- 
quent and  most  dangerous  plague  of  fowls.  It  attacks  chickens 
and  pigeons,  and  usually  younger  individuals  of  improved  races. 
The  essential  symptoms  of  this  form  of  aviau  diphtheria  are 
croupous,  diphtheritic  inflammation  upon  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  mouth  and  pharyngeal  cavity,  or  of  the  respiratory  passages 
(nasal  cavity,  larynx,  trachea),  of  the  eyes,  or  alimentary  tract.  The 
local  phenomena  are  introduced  by  inflammatory  reddening.  There- 
upon one  observes  "  ropy  "  and,  later,  caseous  deposits.  The  clini- 


*  Notification  is  required  for  fowl  cholera,  according  to  the  proclamation  of 
the  Imperial  Chancellor's  Office,  in  the  Grand  Duchies  of  Baden,  Hessen,  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin,  Saxe- Weimar  ;  in  the  Duchies  of  Anhalt,  Brunswick,  Gotha, 
Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Meiningen  ;  and  in  the  Principalities  of  Waldeck-Pyrmont 
and  Lippe-Detmold. 


>706  ,    INFECTIOUS   DISEASES 

•\  :  ' 

cal  symptoms  vary  according  as  there  is  exclusive  or  predominating 
-localization  of  the  inflammatory  phenomena. 

Upon  post-mortem  examination  one  finds,  in  addition  to  the  local 
alterations,  emaciation,  anemia,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  parenchyma 
and  hemorrhages  under  the  epicardium.  In  the  croupous  diph- 
theritic deposits  upon  the  mucous  membrane,  Loffler  demonstrated 
a  bacillus  which  was  pathogenic  for  mice,  and  which,  when  rein- 
oculated  into  two  pigeons,  produced  a  diphtheria  of  the  oral  mucous 
membrane. 

Protozoa  are  claimed  by  Bivolta  and  Silvestri  as  being  the 
cause  of  one  form  of  avian  diphtheria.  This  form,  according  to 
Friedberger  and  Fro'hner,  is  distinguished  from  the  presumably 
.bacillar  form  by  its  ready  transmissibility,  the  milder  course  of  the 
disease,  and  the  frequent  extension  of  the  process  from  the  oral 
mucous  membrane  upon  the  general  integument.  Upon  the  latter 
organ,  especially  on  the  featherless  parts  of  the  body,  from  miliary 
to  bean-sized  neomorphs  (epithelioma,  according  to  Bellinger) 
appear.  These  at  first  are  gray,  often  with  a  pearl-like  sheen,  and 
firm.  Later  they  are  covered  with  a  scab  and  become  more  elevated. 

In  the  proliferating  epithelial  cells  of  the  epithelioma,  highly 
refractive  homogeneous  bodies  appear,  which  stain  easily  with  picro- 
carmin,  and  are  thereby  differentiated  from  the  epithelial  cells, 
which  stain  brownish-red. 

JUDGMENT. — Practically  the  same  statement  holds  true  for  the 
bacterial  form  of  avian  diphtheria  as  was  made  concerning  the 
so-called  diphtheria  of  calves.  The  form  of  diphtheria  of  fowls  pro- 
duced by  protozoa  occupies  a  special  position  in  contrast  with  this 
disease,  for  it  is  a  local  disease.  The  general  symptoms  in  this 
form  are  due  simply  to  the  mechanical  hindrances  to  ingestion  and 
respiration  (compare  page  523). 

With  regard  to  the  bacterial  form  of  roup,  Friedberger  and 
Frohner  mention  a  fact  of  great  importance  in  the  judgment  of  the 
meat:  viz.,  that  they  themselves  examined  thousands  of  roupy 
chickens  and  pigeons  without  becoming  infected  in  a  single  case  or 
•without  having  observed  infection  in  other  persons.  This  fact  can 
be  considered  as  conclusive  evidence  of  the  non-transmissibility  of 
the  bacterial  form  of  avian  diphtheria  to  man.  Nevertheless,  the 
meat  of  chickens  and  pigeons  which  were  infected  with  bacterial 
diphtheria,  in  cases  where  a  disturbance  of  the  nutritive  condition 
is  present,  is  to  be  considered  as  at  least  spoiled,  if  not  highly- 
unfit  for  food. 


DISEASES   OF  FISH  707 

An  opinion  of  the  Eoyal  Prussian  Deputation  for  the  Medical 
"Service,  of  December,  1886,  recommends  the  prohibition  of  the  sale 
of  slaughtered  diphtheritic  birds  and  calves,  "  although  the  state- 
ments of  Dr.  Emmerich  (who  claimed  to  have  observed  the  trans- 
mission of  avian  diphtheria  to  man)  can  not  be  considered  as  scien- 
tific common  property."  Since  the  promulgation  of  this  opinion, 
however,  twelve  years  have  passed  without  bringing  any  support 
from  observations  or  experiments  to  the  recommended  procedure. 

OTHER  FOWL  PLAGUES. — Belfanti  and  Zenoni  described  a  plague 
of  fowls  which  caused  great  losses  in  Lombardy.  It  appeared  with 
localization  in  the  respiratory  passages  (pneumo-pleurisy,  pericar- 
ditis) or  in  the  alimentary  tract  (enteritis  with  splenic  tumor).  In 
both  cases  there  were  also  ecchymoses  on  the  pericardium.  Bel- 
fanti and  Zenoni  isolated  from  the  exudations  a  micro-organism 
which  appeared  in  the  form  of  oval  bacteria  and  long  bacilli. 

Recently  an  intestinal  plague  of  fowls  has  appeared  in  Ger- 
many, which  has  nothing  in  common  with  fowl  cholera,  from  an 
etiological  standpoint,  but  is  equally  as  destructive  as  the  latter. 
The  etiology  of  the  new  plague  is  still  doubtful. 

Gabritschewski  reported  concerning  a  spirochete  septicemia  of 
geese  which  appeared  in  an  epizootic  form.  The  disease  was 
ushered  in  with  fever  and  diarrhea,  and  resulted  in  death  in  80  per 
cent,  of  the  cases.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  pathological  symptoms, 
the  spirochetse  were  demonstrable  in  the  blood ;  later  only  in  the 
bone  marrow. 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  FISH.— According  to  Maurizio,  who  com- 
piled the  literature  relating  to  the  fungous  diseases  of  fish  and  spawnf 
Unger  first  described  a  fungous  disease  of  fish  which  was  probably 
caused  by  AcJilya  and  Saprolegnia.  A.  Sticker  reported  concerning 
fish  plagues  in  the  West  Indies.  Goep.pert  demonstrated  Leptomitus 
lacteus  as  the  cause  of  an  infection  of  a  stream  in  upper  Silesia. 
Huxley  and  Murray  described  a  disease  of  fish,  which,  during  the 
years  1877  to  1882,  became  distributed  throughout  a  number  of 
streams  of  England  and  Scotland.  Walentowicz  described  a  disease 
of  carp  in  Kaniow  and  Kaciborski  determined  the  pathogenic  fungi 
as  Achlya  nowicki  and  Saprolegnia  monoica.  Acliyla  prolifera  and 
Saprolegnia  fero  were  demonstrated  by  Blanc  and  Schnetzler  to  be 
the  cause  of  a  disease  of  pike  in  Lake  Geneva  in  1887.  This  fungus 
is  said  to  have  caused  a  fish  disease  in  the  State  of  New  Jersey 
(Gerard).  Maurizio  himself  frequently  observed  Leptomitus  lacteus 


708  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES 

on  fish  and  spawn.  Finally,  attention  is  called  to  a  bacterial  dis- 
ease of  fish  described  by  Emmerich  and  Weigel  which  consisted  of 
a  furunculosis  resulting  in  septico-pyemia.  Wyss  examined  fish 
which  were  dying  in  large  numbers  in  Lake  Zurich.  On  various 
parts  of  the  body  the  fish  exhibited  circumscribed,  pale-yellow 
spots,  varying  in  size  from  a  silver  quarter  to  a  silver  dollar.  The 
scales  were  wanting  on  the  spots  or  were  easily  rubbed  off.  In  the 
blood,  bile,  liver  and  intestinal  contents,  micro-organisms  were 
found  which  were  not  found  in  healthy  fish.  The  organisms  were 
easily  cultivated  by  adding  small  quantities  of  the  cultures  to  the 
water  in  which  fish  were  living  and  the  disease  was  easily  trans- 
mitted to  the  fish.  Fish  thus  affected  soon  died  with  all  the- 
pathological  symptoms  which  were  observed  in  cases  of  spontaneous 
infection.  The  micro-organism  isolated  from  the  diseased  fish  was 
transmissible  by  inoculation  to  rabbits,  guinea  pigs  and  mice. 
Fischer  and  Enoch  isolated  a  rod-shaped  micro-organism  from  the 
cardiac  blood  of  a  carp  which  had  died,  presumably  from  contami- 
nation of  the  water  and  which  was  conspicuous  on  account  of  the 
presence  of  numerous  external  hemorrhages.  The  micro-organism 
was  highly  pathogenic  for  cold  and  warm  blooded  animals  (in. 
corresponding  quantities  also  per  os).  The  rods  in  cultures  as  well 
as  in  the  animal  organism  produced  a  toxin  (albumose)  which 
caused  paresis  of  the  extremities,  hemorrhages  and  paralysis  of 
the  respiratory  and  vasomotor  centers.  The  toxin  was  destroyed 
by  boiling. 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  CKAYFISH—  Crayfish  Plague.  —  Hofer 
succeeded  in  cultivating  a  bacillus  from  the  muscle  meat  of  diseased 
crabs,  which  was  1  to  1.5  JJL  long,  .25  //  thick,  rounded  at  both  ends 
and  actively  motile.  The  bacillus  is  stained  by  Gram's  method, 
liquefies  gelatine  and  blood  serum,  and  in  gelatine  plate  cultures 
develops  a  conspicuous  odor  of  semen  and  a  honey-like  odor  on 
blood  serum.  This  micro-organism,  as  demonstrated  also  by  Weber, 
kills  crabs  upon  injection  even  in  quantities  of  1-1,000  of  a  Pfeiffer's 
oese,  with  symptoms  of  crab  plague  (casting  of  the  appendages  and 
the  appearance  of  spasms). 

Spot  Disease  of  Crayfish. — In  a  spot  disease  of  crayfish,  which  is~ 
characterized  by  the  appearance  of  black  spots  on  the  caripace, 
Happich  found  a  thread  fungus  (Oidiumastaci)  to  be  the  pathogenic* 
organism.  This  fungus  grows  on  the  ordinary  bacterial  nutrient, 
media,  and,  like  Oidium  lactis,  forms  a  snow-white  aerial  mycelium*. 


CONCLUDING  REMAKES  709 


Concluding  Remarks  on  Diseases  of  Food  Animals  Which 
Have  Not  Been  Considered. 

In  the  preceding  discussion,  cnly  the  more  important  diseases 
«of  food  animals  have  received  a  detailed  consideration.  Other  dis- 
eases, less  important  from  a  standpoint  of  meat  inspection,  may  be 
omitted,  especially  since  a  sanitary  police  judgment  with  regard  to 
them  is  not  a  difficult  matter,  according  to  the  analogy  of  the  groups 
of  diseases  to  which  they  belong  (organic  diseases,  blood  anomalies, 
zooparasitic  diseases,  intoxication  diseases  and  infectious  diseases). 
"With  regard  to  diseases  of  unknown  or  imperfectly  understood 
nature,  however,  compare  the  following  chapter  concerning 
*' Emergency  Slaughter  "  and  "  Meat  Poisoning."  * 


*Iu  connection  with  the  chapter  on  "  infectious  Diseases,"  it  should  also  b« 
quoted  that  a  decisive  significance  in  the  judgment  of  meat  was  formerly  attrib- 
uted to  fever  when  it  had  been  demonstrated  in  food  animals  before  slaughter. 
~This  standpoint,  as  is  apparent  from  the  discussions  in  Chapter  XII,  is  no  longer 
tenable.  It  is  not  the  fever  which  should  determine  the  judgment  on  the  meat, 
'but  the  disease  which  causes  the  fever,  since  fever  is  a  symptom  of  numerous 
Diseases,  which,  from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  are  to  be  judged  differently. 


XITT, 

EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  SERIOUS 
INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  AND  MEAT  POISONING 
— ACCIDENTS-DEFECTIVE  BLEEDING- 
NATURAL  DEATH. 


1. — General  Discussion  of  Emergency  Slaughter  on  Account 
of  Serious  Infectious  Diseases. 

The  most  important  and  most  difficult  part  of  the  duties  of 
meat  inspectors  is  the  rendering  of  opinions  on  emergency  slaugh- 
ter. It  is  the  most  important  part  for  the  reason  that  emergency- 
slaughter,  if  we  disregard  so-called  accidents,  is  concerned  exclu- 
sively with  seriously  diseased  animals,  which,  on  account  of 
the  nature  of  their  disease,  must,  in  the  large  proportion  of  cases,. 
be  excluded  from  the  market.  The  following  figures  furnish  an 
instructive  conception  of  the  extent  of  condemnation  in  emergency- 
slaughter  as  compared  with  ordinary  commercial  slaughtering: 

In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  in  the  year  1889,  205  large 
animals  were  condemned  among  129,619  slaughtered  in  the  ordinary 
way ;  while  923  out  of  6,139  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaugh- 
ter were  condemned,  or  100  times  as  large  a  percentage.  Moreover, 
127  small  animals  out  of  392,775  slaughtered  in  the  ordinary  manner 
were  excluded  from  the  market,  while  107  out  of  only  1,451  animal* 
subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  were  condemned,  or  about  24£ 
times  as  high  a  percentage. 

The  total  number  of  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  in  Germany 
is  estimated  by  Lydtin  at  160,000  per  annum,  or  1  per  cent,  of  the- 
total  number  of  animals. 

It  is  not,  however,  merely  the  considerable  value  which  we 
have  to  save  or  destroy  in  emergency  slaughter  that  makes  the  work 
of  expert  inspectors  so  important  in  such  cases,  but  the  hygienic- 
side  is  important  to  a  still  greater  degree.  "  The  experience  of  the- 
last  decade  in  the  line  of  epidemics  as  a  result  of  eating  the  meat  o£~ 

7JO 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION  711 

diseased  animals  has  shown  beyond  question  that  at  least  four- 
fifths  of  these  numerous  cases  of  diseases  are  connected  with 
so-called  emergency  slaughter."  This  fact,  to  which  attention  was 
called  by  Bellinger,  is,  more  than  anything  else,  calculated  to  set  in 
the  proper  light  the  great  importance  of  expert  inspection  in  casea 
of  emergency  slaughter. 

In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  from  1888  to  1891,  the  following 
numbers  of  animals,  according  to  Lydtin,  furnished  meat  which  was. 
injurious  to  health  : 

Per  thousand  Per  thousand 

cases  of  cases  of 

ordinary  slaughter  emergency  slaughter 

In  large  animals 1.6  cases.  128     cases. 


In  calves . .  -4 

In  sheep 

In  goats -8 

In  hogs .3 

In  horses. .  14.2 


4.9 
20.2 
72.5 
63.4 
44.4 


The  difficulties  in  rendering  an  opinion  in  emergency  slaughter 
are  based  on  the  fact  that  we  do  not,  by  any  means,  have  to  do 
always  with  typical  diseases,  but  in  many  cases  with  diseases  of 
doubtful  origin  (cryptogenetic  sepsis).  The  difficulty  in  diagnosing 
these  cases  has  already  been  referred  to  in  the  section  on  "  Septi- 
cemia  "  (page  569). 

JUDGMENT. — In  the  greater  number  of  diseases  which  give  occa- 
sion to  emergency  slaughter,  the  formulation  of  general  view  points 
for  rendering  judgment  is  not  possible,  except  to  a  limited  extent. 
However,  it  should  be  emphasized  that,  on  account  of  its  connec- 
tion with  cases  of  meat  poisoning,  the  meat  of  all  animals  subjected 
to  emergency  slaughter  is  to  be  considered  as  highly  suspicious, 
and  is  to  be  subjected  to  a  more  careful  inspection  than  the  meat 
of  animals  slaughtered  in  the  ordinary  manner.  Moreover,  the 
meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter,  on  account  of 
infectious  disease,  and  which  is  admitted  for  human  consumption, 
should  not  be  admitted  to  the  market  freely,  but  should  be  sold 
only  under  declaration.  Compulsory  declaration  is  indicated 
especially  for  the  reason  that  in  animals  subjected  to  emergency 
slaughter  on  account  of  infectious  disease,  bleeding  is,  as  a  rule, 
defective.  The  keeping  quality  of  the  meat,  as  stated  in  another 
place  (page  130),  is  thereby  affected.  It  is  also  a  fact,  learned 
from  experience,  that  the  meat  of  animals  subjected  to  emergency 
slaughter  readily  passes  into  decomposition.  This  bad  quality  of 


712  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

the  meat  from  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  must  be  made  known 
to  the  purchaser,  in  order  that  he  may  eat  it  in  as  fresh  a  condi- 
tion as  possible,  and  in  order  that  he  may  avoid  the  injurious 
effects  which  may  be  produced  by  eating  such  meat  after  it  has 
been  preserved  for  a  long  time,  or  made  up  into  sausage. 

The  materials  which  served  to  form  the  technical  basis  of  the 
draft  of  the  food  law  contained  the  following  statement  on  this 
point:  "It  can  not  be  considered  as  a  desirable  thing  to  prohibit 
absolutely  the  slaughtering  of  diseased  animals.  If,  according  to 
experience,  the  meat  of  these  animals  is  harmless,  slaughter  should 
be  permitted,  with  the  proviso,  however,  that  if  the  meat  has  suf- 
fered a  depreciation  of  its  nutritive  value  or  keeping  quality  in  con- 
sequence of  the  disease  of  the  animal  in  question,  this  fact  must  be 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  purchaser ;  that  is,  the  meat  can 
be  sold  only  as  inferior  or  diseased  meat.  Otherwise,  the  purchaser 
might  be  deceived,  or  might  injure  his  health.  The  latter  case 
might  occur  if  meat  without  good  keeping  qualities  should,  without 
knowledge  of  this  fact,  be  kept  by  the  purchaser  for  a  certain  period 
before  eating,  like  ordinary  wholesome  meat,  and  should  thereby 
become  spoiled." 

As  stated  by  Bellinger,  the  District  Veterinarian,  Dinter,  in 
Saxony  made  the  worthy  suggestion  that  legal  regulations  should 
require  that  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  should  not 
be  dealt  in  by  the  ordinary  butchers,  but  should  be  sold  in  the  com- 
munity in  question  under  police  control.  In  this  manner  deception 
of  the  consumers  by  the  meat  dealers  would  be  effectively  pre- 
vented. 

The  most  important  duty  of  inspectors  in  case  of  emergency 
slaughter  is  the  determination  of  animals  the  meat  of  which  must 
be  considered  as  dangerous  to  health,  and  which,  for  this  reason, 
must  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market.  For  the  proper  ful- 
filment of  this  duty,  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  meat 
poisoning  thus  far  observed  is  indispensable,  because  these  concrete 
cases  furnish  the  inspector  the  best  criteria  for  determining  the 
sanitary  police  method  of  procedure  in  cases  of  emergency  slaughter. 

2.— Meat  Poisoning. 

Cases  of  meat  poisoning  (sepsis  intestinalis,  according  to  Bol- 
linger ;  infectious  enteritis,  according  to  Gaffky)  have  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  medical  world  for  several  decades.  More  particu- 
larly, Bollinger  has  repeatedly  called  attention  to  the  great  impor- 


MEAT   POISONING  713 

iance  of  meat  poisoning  in  human  hygiene.  In  an  address  deliv- 
ered at  the  fourth  session  of  the  German  Society  for  Public 
Hygiene  in  Diisseldorf,  in  June,  1876,  Bollinger  first  emphasized  the 
iact  that  the  pyemiae  and  septicemise  of  our  food  animals  are  more 
important,  from  the  standpoint  of  human  health,  than  anthrax  and 
glanders,  since  the  former  are  much  more  frequent  than  the  latter 
and  since  the  toxins  of  pyemia  and  septicemia  are  not  destroyed 
by  cooking.  Four  years  later,  in  an  address  before  a  medical 
society  in  Munich,  Bollinger  stated  that  this  assertion  had  unfor- 
tunately been  only  too  well  confirmed,  for,  since  that  time,  eleven 
extensive  outbreaks  of  meat  poisoning  with  about  1,600  cases  had 
been  observed,  the  greater  part  of  which  were  of  septic  or  pyemic 
nature. 

In  the  latter  address,  Bollinger  collected  the  literature  relating 
to  cases  of  meat  poisoning  up  to  1880  and  reviewed  this  literature 
in  a  critical  manner.  Shortly  before  this  address,  Siedamgrotsky 
(Lectures  for  Veterinary  Surgeons,  third  series)  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  comparative  investigations  by  means  of  his  work  on  meat 
poisoning.  This  work  is  contained  in  Bollinger's  address,  so  that 
we  may  consider  the  latter  as  a  comprehensive  treatment  of  the 
question  up  to  the  year  1880. 

Bollinger  cites  the  following  cases  : 

1.  The  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Flunteru,  Switzerland, 
in  the  year  1867,  in  which  27  persons  became  ill  after  eating  veal. 
The  calf  in  question  was  five  days  old  and  had  "yellow  water"  in 
the  joints.     The  chief  symptoms  in  the  human  patients  were  vomi- 
tion  of  thin,  fluid,  green  masses,  watery  stools  and  great  depres- 
sion.    These  symptoms  were  frequently  preceded  by  chills ;  later 
the    temperature    became    normal    or    subnormal.      Furthermore, 
stupor  was   observed,  combined  with  delirium,  or   headache,  and 
vertigo   in  the   milder   cases.      Recovery  took   place   slowly   and 
required  from  two  to  four  weeks  in  twelve  individuals.    One  patient 
died,  a  man  52  years  of  age,  who  had  eaten  large  quantities  of  the 
improperly  cooked  and,  in  part,  almost  raw  liver.     A  post-mortem 
examination  of  this  man  disclosed  petechiae  under  the  skin  and 
tinder  the  epicardium,  in  the  kidneys,  intestines  and  lungs. 

Bollinger  assumes  that  the  calf  was  affected  with  congenital 
sepsis  or  pyemia.  According  to  the  experience  of  the  writer,  the 
symptoms  resemble  those  of  septic  calf  lameness,  which  may 
appear  within  a  few  days  after  birth. 

2.  Outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  L.  Bregenz,  in  1874,  after 
mating  the  meat  of  a  cow  which  had  been  subjected  to  emergency 


714  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

slaughter  five  days  after  parturition,  on  account  of  injuries  to  the- 
sexual  organs  and  retention  of  the  after-birth,  with  putrid  decom- 
position. After  eating  this  meat,  or  the  broth  made  from  it,  51 
persons  were  affected,  either  immediately,  or.  in  from  11  to  48 
hours.  Those  who  ate  the  liver  were  affected  most  violently. 
Watery  stools  of  a  green  color,  retching,  headache,  vertigo  and 
weakness  in  the  limbs  were  the  milder  symptoms.  In  severe  cases, 
vomiting,  coliky  pains,  foul-smelling  discharges,  inability  to  stand, 
a  burning  sensation  in  the  oral  cavity,  ringing  in  the  ears,  cholera- 
like  feeling,  flabby  skin  and  weak  pulse.  The  diarrhea  persisted 
for  fourteen  days ;  the  weakness  and  depression,  however,  persisted 
longer.  No  death. 

3.  Meat    poisoning  in   Griessbeckerzell   in  May,  1876.      The 
noxious  meat  came  from  a  cow  which  had  been  slaughtered  four- 
teen days  after  parturition  and  which  was  affected  with  prolapsus 
uteri   and   ichorous   metritis.     Twenty-two   persons  were   affected 
with  acute   cerebral   symptoms   and   other   symptoms   resembling 
those  of  cholera.     Slow  convalescence  (two  to  five  weeks).     Cooked 
meat  and  cooked  sausage  were  also  injurious.     A  twenty-year-old 
girl,  who  ate  of  the  dressed  meat  along  with  her  family,  remained 
well,  while  all  of  the  others  were  affected.     The  girl  had  drunk 
brandy  before  and  after  eating  the  poisonous  sausage. 

4.  Meat  poisoning  in  Sonthofen,  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  two- 
year-old  heifer  which  had  been  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter 
while   in   a   moribund  condition   on   account  of   puerperal  sepsis. 
Contrary  to  the  orders  of  a  veterinarian,  the  ill-smelling  meat  was 
sold  to  a  neighbor.     Among  the  ten  persons  who  ate  of  it,  seven 
became  ill.     Recovery  of  all  these  persons  after  four  days. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  unwholesome  meat  exhibited  a 
high  degree  of  decomposition  within  four  days. 

Bollinger  emphasizes  the  fact  that  in  the  cases  of  meat  poison- 
ing above  enumerated,  their  connection  with  the  diseases  of  food  ani- 
mals is  self-evident.*  This  can  not  be  claimed  for  other  cases  of 


*  The  observations  of  Gerlach  are  also  of  interest,  in  which  the  connection 
l>etween  the  diseases  of  food  animals  and  cases  of  meat  poisoning  is  obvious. 

A  fresh  milch  cow  received  a  severe  injury  of  the  udder  from  a  scythe  ;  the 
wound  assumed  a  gangrenous  character  and  the  animal  was  killed  after  being 
seriously  ill  for  two  days.  Although  Gerlach  forbade  the  consumption  of  the 
meat,  the  herder  removed  a  piece,  and  he  and  his  family  ate  it.  All  were 
affected  with  general  illness,  vomiting,  diarrhea  and  extensive  weakness. 

After  eating  the  meat  of  another  cow,  which  became  very  sick  after  parturi- 
tion and  which  had  been  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  36  hours  later,  46 
persons  became  ill ;  one  patient  died.  The  district  physician,  who  did  not  believe- 


MEAT   POISONING  715 

meat  poisoning.  In  the  cases  enumerated  below,  the  virulent  char- 
acter of  certain  viscera  was  so  apparent  that  it  was  necessary  to 
assume  a  local  affection  of  these  organs.  In  this  group  Bellinger 
includes  the  following  epidemics  : 

1.  Meat  poisoning  in  Lahr,  in  August,  1866.  The  cause  was 
the  meat  of  a  cow  which  had  eaten  but  little  for  several  weeks, 
passed  bloody  urine,  and  was  so  emaciated  and  weak  that  it  was 
necessary  to  haul  the  animal  in  a  wagon  to  the  place  of  slaughter. 
The  meat  of  the  cow  is  alleged  to  have  had  a  good  appearance 
and  to  have  possessed  no  disagreeable  odor.  Schwartenmagen  was 
prepared  from  the  meat  of  the  cow,  mixed  with  pork  which  was 
known  to  be  of  good  quality.  After  the  consumption  of  this  pre- 
paration, all  persons  who  had  eaten  of  it  were  affected,  about  70 
in  number,  including  also  those  who  had  eaten  only  a  few  ounces. 
The  innkeeper  who  prepared  the  schwartenmagen  and  ate  of  it, 
together  with  three  other  persons,  died.  The  fact  should  be 
emphasized  that  the  schwartenmagen  appeared  to  be  of  good 
quality  in  every  respect,  and  that  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of 
the  cow  in  all  other  methods  of  preparation  was  without  bad 
effects.  Pathological  symptoms:  Summer-cholera  with  nervous 
phenomena,  including  dilation  of  the  pupils,  with  diminished  sen- 
sibility of  the  iris  toward  light  in  severe  cases. 

Bollinger  concludes  that  the  schwartenmagen  acquired  its 
peculiar  harmful  property  from  the  kidneys,  which  were  probably 
utilized  in  the  preparation  of  this  material. 

2.  Meat  poisoning  in  Garmisch,  June,  1878.     Seventeen  per- 
sons became  ill  after  eating  liver  noodles  and  tripe  which,  contrary 
to  the   directions  of  the  meat  inspector,  had  been  prepared  from 
the  viscera  of  a  cow  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter.     The  cow 
had   been   affected   with   hepatic   degeneration  and  "  peritonitis" 
(according  to  Bollinger,  perhaps  ichorous  peritonitis).     After  about 
48  hours,  headache,  chills,  summer-cholera,  visual  disturbances,  etc. 

The  meat,  or  skeletal  musculature,  was  very  slightly  or  not  at 
all  toxic. 

3.  Meat  poisoning  in  St.  Georgen,  near  Friedrichshafen,  from 
the   consumption   of   the  meat  of   a  cow  subjected    to   emergency 
slaughter.     At  first  this  animal  had  a  defective  appetite,  followed 
by   a   pronounced   fluid,  ill-smelling   diarrhea.     Eighteen  persons 
were  affected.     The  effects  were  manifested  most  quickly  and  vio- 

in  any  connection  between  the  outbreak  of  poisoning  and  the  consumption  of 
the  meat,  ate  some  of  the  meat  himself  in  order  to  prove  the  accuracy  of  his  •. 
view.  He  became  dangerously  sick  as  a  result. 


716  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

lently  after  eating  leberspatzen.  Period  of  incubation,  two  to  three 
hours. 

In  conclusion,  Bollinger  describes  the  outbreak  of  meat  poison- 
iug  in  Nordhausen,  which  occurred  in  June,  1876,  as  a  result  of  eat- 
ing the  meat  of  a  cow  slaughtered  while  in  a  moribund  condition. 
In  all,  about  400  persons  were  affected,  one  of  whom  died. 

The  cow  is  said  to  have  been  sick  for  four  or  five  days  and 
finally  to  have  become  very  weak.  Yery  malodorous  feces  were 
passed.  Most  of  the  patients  ate  raw  sirloin  or  partly  fried  meat 
cakes.  The  one  patient  who  died  ate  only  raw  sirloin.  A  large 
number  of  the  persons  who  ate  the  meat  in  a  boiled  or  roasted 
condition  remained  healthy. 

The  outbreak  of  poisoning  in  Nordhausen  was  attributed  by 
the  district  physician,  Dr.  Gasenick,  and  by  Gerlach — by  the  latter, 
however,  with  reserve — to  anthrax,  an  assumption  which  Bollinger 
rightly  rejected.  The  case  of  meat  poisoning  in  Nordhausen  com- 
pletely agrees  with  regard  to  symptoms  with  other  cases  of  meat 
poisoning  produced  by  known  and  unknown  micro-organisms. 

An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Wurzen  (July,  1877)  greatly 
resembled  that  at  Nordhausen.  In  the  course  of  this  outbreak,  206 
persons  were  affected  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  cow  which  ten 
weeks  post  partum  became  affected  with  mammitis  and  paralysis 
-of  the  posterior  extremities,  accompanied  with  a  high  fever.  The 
animal  was  slaughtered  while  in  a  moribund  condition.  The  meat 
was  eaten  partly  raw,  partly  cooked  and  partly  as  sausage  or 
pickled  meat  during  the  four  days  following  slaughter.  Some  of 
the  meat  possessed  a  bad  odor,  was  of  a  grayish  color,  and  olea- 
ceous.  The  symptoms  in  some  cases  were  exceedingly  like  those 
of  cholera.  Six  deaths.  The  most  serious  cases  appeared  after 
mating  the  raw  meat.  "  The  degree  of  decomposition  corresponded 
with  the  acuteness  of  the  disease."  Bollinger  assumes  that  the 
•  original  septic  toxin  had  undergone  a  post-mortem  increase  of 
virulence. 

The  other  cases  of  meat  poisoning  described  by  Bollinger  in 
connection  with  the  two  last  named  epidemics  may  be  dismissed 
briefly.  These  are  the  outbreaks  which  occurred  in  Lockwitz  and 
Niedersedlitz  in  July,  1879.  Forty  persons  were  affected  after  eat- 
ing raw  minced  meat  from  a  cow  which  had  been  subjected  to 
emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  torsion  of  the  uterus ;  also  the 
case  of  meat  poisoning  in  Middleburg,  Holland,  in  March,  1874, 
during  which  349  persons  were  affected  and  six  died  as  a  result  of 
Beating  fresh  leberwurst  of  unknown  origin ;  the  case  of  meat  pois- 


MEAT   POISONING  71T 

ouing  in  Neubodenbach  from  eating  fresh  knoblauchwurst,  the 
cause  being  unexplained — Bellinger  suspected  pyemia  in  the 
;inimal — and  finally  the  poisoning  of  13  persons  on  an  estate  in 
Biesa,  in  June,  1879,  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  cow  which  had  been 
slaughtered  on  account  of  mammitis  and  emaciation. 

Reference  should  be  made  to  the  works  of  Bellinger  for  infor- 
mation concerning  the  much-disputed  cases  of  meat  poisoning  in 
Andelfingen  (1841),  Kloten  (1878),  Birmenstorf  (1879)  and  Wiirenlos 
(1880),  part  of  which  were  considered  to  be  typhoid  fever 
(Griesinger).  Bellinger,  in  agreement  with  Lebert,  Kohler,  Lieber- 
meister  and  Biermer,  with  regard  to  the  case  of  poisoning  in  Andel- 
fingen, combats  the  view  that  this  outbreak  was  due  to  typhoid 
fever.  Bollinger  argues  in  the  first  place  that  typhoid  fever  does, 
not  occur  in  domestic  animals,  and  in  the  second  place,  that,, 
especially  in  the  outbreak  in  Andelfingen,  dilation  of  the  pupils  and 
visual  disturbances  were  always  present,  symptoms  which  speak 
against  the  typhoid  nature  of  this  epidemic.  In  the  epidemic  at 
Audelfingen,  450  persons  became  ill  on  the  occasion  of  a  sangerfesfr 
and  ten  of  the  patients  died.  Veal  was  suspected  of  being  the 
cause.  Difficulties  in  swallowing  and  dilation  of  the  pupils  were 
noticeable  in  the  patients.  The  suspected  meat  had  apparently^ 
transmitted  its  toxicity  to  beef  while  stored  together.  The  toxin 
was  not  destroyed  by  cooking.  Bollinger  is  of  the  opinion  that  the 
virulence  of  the  toxin  was  increased  post  mortem  as  a  result  of 
packing  the  meat  together  while  still  warm. 

The  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Kloten  (June,  1878)  is  char- 
acterized by  Bellinger  as  the  most  interesting  of  all  cases  of  meat 
poisoning.  In  this  case,  also,  591  persons  attending  a  sangerfest, 
other  persons  who  ate  the  meat  from  the  same  abattoir,  and,  finally, 
a  still  larger  number  in  the  case  of  which  this  was  not  demonstrated 
—in  all,  657  persons— were  affected,  with  six  deaths.  According  to 
Bollinger,  this  outbreak  is  undoubtedly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  con- 
sumption of  the  meat  of  a  calf  one  week  old,  which  had  either  died 
or  was  slaughtered  during  the  death  agony.  Unquestionable 
symptoms  pointed  to  this  conclusion.  In  this  case  also  the  original 
virulent  veal  had  infected  other  meat,  viz.,  hams  which  had  been 
stored  together  with  the  former  in  a  wooden  vat.  Persons  who 
drank  plenty  of  wine  were  either  only  slightly  affected  or  remained 
unaffected.*  It  is  a  highly  interesting  fact,  and  one  not  observed  in 

*  In  other  cases  of  meat  poisoning,  it  has  been  observed  that  persons  wha 
have  consumed  large  quantities  of  alcoholic  drinks  after  eating  unwholesome 
meat  have  remained  we'l  (compare  page  714). 


718  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

any  other  than  a  case  of  poisoning  in  Kloten,  that  55  secondary  cases 
appeared  which  were  not  attributable  to  eating  the  meat,  but  to  a 
transmission  of  the  disease  by  the  affected  persons.  This  circum- 
stance confirmed  certain  observers  in  the  conclusion  that  the  cases 
were  typhoid  fever. 

In  the  outbreak  of  poisoning  in  Birmenstorf,  at  least  eight 
patients  died.  The  symptoms  resembled  those  of  typhoid  fever. 
The  cause  was  the  consumption  of  the  meat  of  a  calf  four  days  old 
which  was  affected  with  "yellow  water"  (polyarthritis  septica). 
Finally,  with  regard  to  Wiirenlos,  it  was  merely  demonstrated  that 
a  "large  number  of  persons"  became  ill  after  eating  unhealthy 
veal.  The  symptoms,  like  the  cases  just  mentioned,  resembled 
those  of  typhoid  fever. 

Bolliuger  concludes  his  valuable  treatise  with  a  statement  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  fact  "  that  the  pyemic  and  septicemic 
diseases  of  food  animals  bear  all  the  characters  of  dangerous  dis- 
eases, and,  accordingly,  require  very  different  treatment  from  a 
sanitary  police  and  prophylactic  standpoint  than  has  previously 
been  given  to  them,  to  the  injury  of  human  health." 

The  well-founded  warning  of  Bellinger,  however,  has  not 
received  the  consideration  which  it  deserves.  The  best  proof  of 
this  statement  is  the  fact  that  cases  of  meat  poisoning  are  still  com- 
paratively frequent  occurrences. 

The  writer  has  succeeded  in  compiling  the  statistics  of  85  out- 
breaks of  meat  poisoning  which  occurred  during  the  years  1880  to 
1900  with  more  than  4,000  cases,  the  larger  number  of  which 
occurred  in  Germany.  The  history  of  these  epidemics  is  also  very 
instructive  from  the  standpoint  of  etiology  and  prophylaxis.  It 
proves  anew  the  especially  dangerous  character  of  the  meat  of 
calves  affected  with  sepsis  in  association  with  umbilical  affection, 
and  also  of  cows  which  have  to  be  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter 
on  account  of  inflammatory  processes  after  parturition,  or  on  account 
of  peculiar  affections  of  the  intestines  and  udder.  Quite  special 
interest,  however,  attaches  to  the  history  of  the  cases  of  meat  pois- 
oning during  the  last  twenty  years,  for  the  reason  that  it  furnishes 
the  first  careful  investigations  concerning  the  cause  of  these 
epidemics. 

The  more  important  of  these  epidemics  are  briefly  described  in 
the  following  paragraphs  : 

1.  In  the  Saxon  district  Bautzen,  on  September  1,  1881,  a  cow 
died  of  septic  metritis.  The  throat  of  the  animal  was  subsequently 
cut  in  order  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  having  been  slaughtered. 


MEAT  POISONING  719 

After  eating  the  meat,  which  was  not  inspected,  more  than  120 
persons  became  ill,  but  recovered  quite  soon.  The  symptoms 
appeared,  as  a  rule,  within  two  or  three  days  after  eating  the  meat. 
(Konig.) 

2.  In  1881,  several  families  of  laborers  in  the  Saxon  district  of 
Zittau  became  ill  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  horse  which  apparently 
was  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  petechial  fever. 
The  children  were  most  violently  affected.     One  woman  who  laid 
the  meat  in  vinegar  before  cooking  was  not  affected.     No  deaths. 
(Grimm.) 

3.  In  Spreitenbach,  Switzerland,  in  1881,  30  persons  became  sick 
after   eating   the   meat   of   a   cow   which   had  been   subjected    to 
emergency  slaughter  after  parturition.     (Strebel.) 

4.  In  the  same  town,  4  persons  died  after  eating  the  meat  of  a 
diseased  cow  and  calf,  while  in  all  15  families  were  affected.     No 
further  details  concerning  the  disease  of  the  food  animals   were 
determined.     (Strebel.) 

5.  Meat  poisoning  in  Oberlangenhardzell  (Canton  of  Zurich). 
Toward  the  end  of  June,  1882,  two  families  of  four  persons  each 
became  affected  with  symptoms  of  violent  gastro-enteritis.     All  the 
patients  were  sick  for  from  two  to  three  weeks.    The  youngest  child 
of  one  family,  an  infant  two  years   old,  died  on  the  eighth  day  in 
convulsions.     The  official  investigations  showed  with  certainty  that 
the  cases  of  illness  in  both  families  were  attributable  to  eating  the 
meat  of  a  calf  which  had  evidently  died  of  a  disease. 

6.  The  Saxon  district  veterinarian,  Wilhelm,  reported  a  case  of 
meat  poisoning  which  occurred  in  the  year  1884  and  was  connected 
with  the  sale  of  the  meat  of  a  cow  which  had  been  subjected  to 
emergency  slaughter  two  days  after  a  difficult   parturition.      Ten 
persons  were  affected.     They  recovered,  however,  within  from  eight 
to  twenty-four  hours.     The  veterinarian  who  had  declared  the  meat 
to  be  edible  was  punished  for  criminal  cu-elessness. 

7.  Meat  poisoning  in  Lauterbach,  1884.     After  eating  the  meat 
of  a  cow  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter,  a  large  number  of  per- 
sons were   affected  and  three  died.     The   symptoms  consisted  of 
headache,   vertigo,    bodily   pains,   diarrhea,   and,   in    some    cases, 
vomiting.     It  was  shown  that  the  meat  and  also  the  meat  broth 
were  poisonous.     The  cow  is  alleged  to  have  been  affected  with  a 
dyseuterial    enteritis.     The  animal  had   suddenly   refused   to   eat, 
gave    no    more    milk   and    evacuated  "  slimy  intestinal  discharges 
devoid  of  vegetable  matter."     Six  days  later  it  became  necessary  to 
slaughter  the   cow.     It  was  alleged   that  after  slaughter  merely  a 


720  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

slight  erythrism  of  the  intestines  was  observed.     The  veterinarian 
who  made  the  inspection  was  tried,  but  not  convicted. 

8.  Meat  poisoning  in  Schonenberg,  Switzerland.   From  June  IT 
to  19,  1886,  about  fifty  persons   became  ill  after  eating  the  meat  of 
two  cows  which  were  slaughtered  on  the  14th  and  15th  of  that 
month  on  account  of  "  dysentery."     A  woman  in  poor  health  died 
from  the  effects  of  diarrhea. 

9.  Meat  poisoning  in  Ludwigshaf en-He rnshof.     From  April  17 
to  25,  1886,  90  persons  became  sick,  all  of  whom  had  purchased 
meat  sausages  from  the  same  butcher.     An  official    investigation, 
showed  that  this  butcher  had  during  the  night  slaughtered  a  cow 
which  had  been  treated  by  a  veterinarian  for  three  weeks  on  account 
of  retention  of  the  placenta  and  a  malodorous  discharge  from  the 
uterus.     The  veterinarian  who   inspected  the  meat  examined  the 
uterus  in  a  cursory  manner  exteriorly  and  gave  permission  for  the 
free  sale  of  the  meat. 

The  effects  of  eating  the  meat  began  to  appear  within  two  or 
three  hours,  and  in  no  case  later  than  eighteen  to  twenty  hours. 
Two  persons  died. 

10.  The  second  outbreak  of  meat   poisoning   in   Middleburg, 
Holland.     This  epidemic,  which  appeared  at  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember, 1887,  and  which  affected  286  persons,  was  also  attributed 
to  the  retention  of  the  placenta  and  a  septic  metritis  which  was  con- 
nected with  this  condition.     The  fetal  membranes  were  not  ejected 
until  the  ninth  day.     The  animal  was  then  butchered  while  in  a, 
moribund  condition.     The  meat  is  said  to  have  possessed  an  unusual 
odor  and  taste,  especially  manifest  during  cooking.     The  cooking, 
however,  did  not  destroy  the  toxin,  for  the  meat  broth  was  noxious. 
The  first  effects  of  eating  the  meat  appeared  after  a  period  varying; 
from  twelve  hours  to  one  or  two  days. 

11.  Kuhnert  in  Gumbinnen  made  a  report  concerning  the  sick- 
ness of  a  large  number  of  persons  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  cow 
which  could  not  expel  the  fetus  on  account  of  the  abnormal  position 
of  the-  latter,  and,  therefore,  had  to  be  slaughtered.      After  three 
days,  eight  persons  were  affected  and  a  few  days  later  twenty-six: 
others  were  affected  with  a  high  fever,  a  burning  sensation  in  the 
stomach,  vomition,  pains  in  the  extremities  and  diarrhea. 

12.  Meat  poisoning  in  Frankenhausen,  May,  1888,  with  fifty-nine 
cases  and  one  death.      The  cow  the  meat  of  which  was  the  cause  of 
these   cases  had    been   affected    with    persistent    diarrhea.      Oim 
patient,  who  died,  was  affected  within  one  hour  after  he  had  eaten 
800  grams  of  the  raw  meat.     The  cooked  meat  was  also  injurious.. 


MEAT   POISONING  721 

"When  the  cow  was  slaughtered,  merely  a  partial  reddening  of  the 
intestines  was  observed.  The  appearance  of  the  meat  is  said  to 
have  been  good  and  the  spleen,  liver  and  other  organs  not 
enlarged. 

13.  In  Eichenau,  Saxony,  in  May,  1889,  more  than  150  persons 
became  ill  after  eating  raw  bratwurst  and  raw  minced  beef  from  a 
cow  which  was  slaughtered  while  in  a  diseased  condition.     Upon 
cutting  up  the  cow,  only  a  slight  gastritis  was  observed,  and,  there- 
fore, no  scruples  were  entertained  against  admitting  the  meat  to 
market.     In  this  case  it  was  not  determined  to  what  extent  the  warm 
weather  of  the  month  of  May  favored  the  formation  of  toxins.     It  13 
worthy  of  mention,  however,  that  two  other  cattle  in  the  same  stable 
with  the  one  which  was  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  exhibited 
the  same  symptoms  of  "slight  gastritis"  and  died  of  the  disease. 

14.  Meat  poisoning  in   H ,  Saxony,  1889,  after  eating  the 

meat  of  a  cow  which  was  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  and 
which  was  said  to  have  shown  no  evidence  of  serious  disease,  but, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  one  witness,  exhibited  an  ill-smelling, 
fluid  evacuation  while  being  slaughtered.     Numerous   cases   after 
eating  the  raw  meat     The  owner  of  the  cow  also  became  ill. 

15.  Meat  poisoning  in  Darkehmen,  East  Prussia,  November, 
1889.     Number  of  cases,  thirty.     Cause,  a  beef  animal  slaughtered 
while  in  a  diseased  condition  and  not  inspected  by  a  veterinarian. 
It  is  a  remarkable  fact  in  connection  with  this  case  of  poisoning, 
that  only  the  consumption  of  the  meat  broth  was  injurious,  while 
the  meat,  either  in  a  cooked  or  roasted  condition,  did  not  cause  any 
bad  effects  (intoxication). 

16.  At  the  Tenth  International  Medical  Congress,  de  Vischer 
made  a  report  of  an  outbreak  of  poisoning  after  eating  the  meat  of 
a  calf  which  had  died  of  umbilical  arterio-phlebitis  (so-called  calf 
lameness).     The  bad  effects  were  noticed  in  thirty-one  persons  and 
resembled  typhoid  fever. 

17.  Meat  poisoning  in  Rohrsdorf,  in  October,  1885,  after  eating 
horse  meat,  horse  meat  sausage  and  cooked  horse  liver.     Nothing 
was  learned  concerning  the  condition  of  health  of  the  horse  from 
which  the  injurious  meat  originated.     One  horse  was  said  to  have 
been   affected   with   abscesses.     The   effects   of  eating    the    meat 
appeared  in  the  majority  of  cases  within  six   hours.     Numerous 
cases ;  one  death. 

18.  Meat  poisoning  in  Cotta,  Saxony,  in  June,  1889,  after  eating 
the  meat  of  a  cow  which  was  slaughtered  on  account  of  a  serious 
case  of  mammitis,  in  which  136  persons  were  affected,  four  of  whom 


722  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

died.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the  meat  was  eaten  in  a  raw  condi- 
tion. Roast  meat  and  meat  broth,  however,  produced  the  same 
effects.  The  butcher  and  his  assistant,  who  ate  only  a  mouthful  of 
appetitwiirstchen,  were  likewise  affected.  The  meat  is  said  to  have 
possessed  a  good  appearance  and  good  odor. 

19.  The  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Katrineholm,  Denmark, 
as  the  result  of  eating  the  meat  of  a  beef  animal  which  had  suffered 
from  "  milk  fever  "  and  had  to  be  slaughtered.     Of  the  115  guests 
who  sat  at  a  table  at  a  family  celebration,  one-half  were  affected, 
the  most  serious  cases  being  observed  in  those  who  had  eaten  f  reely 
of  the  meat  broth.     According  to  all  our  experience,  however,  this 
can  not  have  been  a  case. of  so-called  parturient  paresis,  but  only  an 
inflammatory   form   of  puerperal   fever    (septic    metritis    and    its 
sequelae). 

20.  Poisoning  from  eating  horse  meat  in  Altena,  November, 
1890.     Twenty  persons  bought  minced  meat  from  a  horse  butcher 
and  became  ill  about  twelve  hours  after  eating  it.     One  patient  died. 
The  horse  butcher  in  question  had  slaughtered  two  horses  a  few 
days  before,  one  of  them  having  been  found  down  in  the  stall  and 
unable  to  stand.     The  horse  perspired  excessively  and  showed  diffi- 
culty in  respiration,  but  no  loss  of  appetite. 

21.  Epidemic  of  meat  poisoning  in  Kirchlinde  and  Frohlinde, 
near  Dortmund,  in  the  summer  of  1891.     After  eating  the  meat  of  a 
cow  which  was  affected  with  a  disease  imperfectly  described  as 
"abdominal  inflammation,"  with  an  ill-smelling  exudation,  numer- 
ous persons  became  ill.     The  meat  had  been  brought  to  the  market 
contrary  to  the  orders  of  a  veterinarian. 

22.  Outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Piesenkam.     In  the  middle 
of  June,  1891,  a  number  of  persons  became  ill  after  eating  blood 
and  liver  sausages  from  a  cow  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter. 
One  man  died.     The  animal  was  slaughtered  under  the  supervision 
of  a  butcher  appointed  as  inspector.     This  butcher,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  cow  was  affected  with  gastritis,  enteritis  and  cystitis, 
declared  that  the  meat  was  edible,  and  he  himself  prepared  from 
the  intestines,  blood   and  meat   of   the    cow  the   sausages  which 
appeared  to  be'so  highly  toxic.     The  butcher  was  punished  by  three 
months'  imprisonment  for  failure  to  call  a  veterinarian  in  a  case  of 
evident  disease. 

23.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning,  the  etiology  of  which  was 
not  well  understood,  occurred  near  the  end  of  November,  1890,  in 
Friedberg,  in  Hessen.     The  whole  retinue  of  a  land  owner,  in  all, 
.21  persons,  suddenly  became  ill  after  eating  meat  preserved  in  brina 


MEAT  POISONING  723 

and  which  came  from  a  cow  which  had  been  slaughtered  ten  days 
before,  on  account  of  the  loss  of  a  hoof,  as  a  result  of  foot-and- 
mouth  disease.  Mixed  sausage  prepared  from  the  meat  of  this 
cow  and  the  meat  or  viscera  of  two  healthy  hogs  was  also  injuri- 
ous. The  fresh  meat  of  the  cow  was  eaten  in  large  quantities  in  a 
boiled  or  roasted  condition  without  any  bad  effects. 

24.  In  an  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Corres,  five  families 
became  ill  after  eating  the  meat  of  a  cow  which  had  been  sub- 
jected to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  the  sequelae  of  foot- 
and-mouth  disease.     At  first  the  cow  exhibited  suppuration  of  the 
matrix  and  coronary  band  of  the  hoof;  later,  emaciation  and  inabil- 
ity to  rise.     After  slaughter,  an  abscess  of  the  size  of  a  man's  fist 
was   found  near  the  hip  joint.     Furthermore,  all  the   consumers 
agreed  in  the  statement  that  the  bone  marrow  was  clouded  and 
fluid  and  readily  ran  out  of  the  marrow  cavities.     The  symptoms 
among  the  affected  persons  consisted  in  all  cases  of  violent  diar- 
rhea,  bodily    pains,    and,   in    some    cases,   included  vertigo    and 
fainting. 

The  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Corres  is  of  special  inter- 
est on  account  of  the  fact  that  it  can  be  attributed  with  certainty 
to  pyemia. 

25.  In  August,  1892,  in  Moorseele,  in  Belgium,  about  80  per- 
sons, after  eating  veal,  were  affected  with  violent  vomiting,  accom- 
panied with  diarrhea  and  dullness  of  the  sensorium.  The  injurious 
meat  was  shown  to  have  come  from  two  calves,  one  of  which  had 
died  and  the  other  had  been  slaughtered  while  in  a  diseased  con- 
dition.    According  to  the  statement  of  witnesses,  both  calves  had 
suffered  with  acute  diarrhea.     The  intestines  of  both  animals  are 
said  to  have  been  dark-red  in  color  and  the  livers  swollen,  while 
the  musculature  did  not  exhibit  any  great  variation  from  the  normal 
condition.     It  is  worthy  of  mention  that  the  meat  was  eaten  very 
soon,  either  on  the  same  evening  or  on  the  morning  after  the  death 
of  the  animals.     It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  meat  was 
eaten  in  a  well-boiled  or  well-roasted  condition,  as  is  the  custom 
with  Belgian  peasants,  to  whom  raw  meat  is  objectionable.     Several 
persons  remained  perfectly  well,  although  they  had-  eaten  the  meat 
which  caused  serious  illness  among  their  messmates.     The  period 
of  incubation  varied;  some  of  the  patients  exhibited  nausea  and 
diarrhea  within  three  hours  after  eating  the  meat;  in  the  majority, 
however,  the  symptoms  did  not  appear  until  after  24  hours.     One 
man  was  affected  after  an  unsually  long  period.     On  August  14  and 
15,  he  ate  meat  pies  made  of  the  poisonous  veal  and  felt  well  on  the 


724  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

16th  and  17th.    On  the  19th,  however,  he  had  to  call  medical  assist- 
ance.    He  died  on  the  same  day. 

26.  In  Breslau,  October  14-16,  1893,  86  persons  were  affected 
with  gastro-enteric  catarrh,  connected  in  some  cases  with  vertigo, 
fever,  herpes,  lassitude  and  slow  convalescence.     These  symptoms 
appeared  within   three   to  sixteen  hours  after  eating  raw  minced 
beef.     All  of  the  persons  who  had  eaten  the  meat,  however  small 
the  quantity,  became  ill.     In  general,  the  severity  of  the  symptoms 
corresponded  to  the  quantity  of  meat  which  was  eaten.     The  great- 
est quantity  which  was  eaten  by  a  vigorous  adult  male  was  125 
grams.     In  all  other  cases,  this  quantity  sufficed  for  six  persons. 
One  child,  who  had  merely  licked  the  plate,  was  affected  ;  no  death. 
The  period  of  convalescence  was,  however,  unusually  long,  in  some 
cases  more  than  six  months.     The  meat  appeared  to  be  of  a  fresh 
red  color,  did  not  smell  badly,  but  to  some  of  the  patients  had  a. 
disagreeable  taste.     It  was  shown  that  the  injurious  meat  came 
from  two  cows,  one   of  which  was  slaughtered  on   account  of  an 
injury   received   during   parturition,  and   the  other  on  account  of 
"acute  inflammation  of  the  liver  and  watery  infiltration  of  the  whole 
musculature." 

27.  Outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  the  district  of  Weissenfels. 
In  this  region  more  than  100  persons,  one  of  whom  died,  became  ill 
after  eating   meat.      The   meat,  which  was   eaten   in  the  form  of 
sausage  and  hash,  came  from  a  cow  which  had  to  be  slaughtered 
on  account  of  a  "hoof  affection"  as  a  sequela  of  foot-and-mouth 
disease.     The  symptoms  in  all  of  the  patients  were  those  of  acute 
gastro-enteritis.     Likewise,  in  one  fatal  case  there  were  alterations 
such  as  occur  in  acute  enteritis.     Hyperemia  of  the  brain  and  its 
meninges  was  also  observed. 

28.  In  Stollberg  a  butcher  slaughtered  a  calf  suffering  from 
diarrhea   and  already  in  a  moribund  condition,  and   brought   the 
meat  to  the  market.     A  large  number  of  persons  were  affected  by~ 
eating  this   meat.      One  seven-year-old  boy  died  after  eating  an 
especially  large  quantity. 

29.  In  1894,  in  Brugge,  Belgium,  more  than  70  persons  became 
ill  after  eating  meat  from  a  calf  which  apparently  had  died.     The 
symptoms  closely  resembled   those  of  cholera.      The  first  symp- 
toms consisted  of  spasms  and  vomiting.    Two  of  the  patients  died. 

30.  In  the   spring    of    1894,  in   Gersdorf,   an  epidemic  was 
observed  as  a  result  of  eating  meat.     The  symptoms  were  bodily 
pain,  diarrhea,  vomiting,  fever,  excessive  weakness  and  skin  erup- 
tions.   The  poisonous  meat  came  from  a  cow  whith  became  affected 


MEAT   POISONING  725 

with  peritonitis  after  parturition  and  for  this  reason  had  to  be 
slaughtered. 

31.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Bischofswerda.    On  May 
24-28,  1894,  more   than   100   persons   became   ill  in   this   locality 
after  eating  knackwnrst  and  mettwurst ;  in  a  few  cases,  also,  after 
eating  raw  minced  beef  and  cooked  beef.     The  general  similarity 
of  symptoms  (vomiting,  dysentery-like  diarrhea,  with  more  or  less 
acute  bodily  pains,  headache,  pains  in  the  extremities,  vertigo,  great 
weakness,  lassitude,   depression,  burning  thirst  and  fever   up   to 
40°  C.)  pointed  to  a  common  cause.     In  most  cases  the  effects  of 
eating  the  meat  appeared  within  from  9  to  20  hours,  persisted  2  to 
3  days,  rarely  longer,  and  all  cases  terminated  in  recovery.     The 
convalescent   patients    complained   of  a   long-persisting,  excessive 
weakness.     In  some  patients  it  is  said  that  during  the  course  of  the 
disease  an  eczema  appeared   on   the   lips  and  rapidly  healed  up. 
The  cause  of  this  epidemic  was  not  explained,  since  it  was  impos- 
sible to  determine  the  disease  with  which  the  suspected  beef  ani- 
mal was  affected. 

32.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Denis.     Kuborn  made  a 
report  concerning  an  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Denis,  during 
which  30  persons  were  affected  and  9  died.     The  meat  came  from  a 
cow  which  had  died  a  natural  death. 

33.  An  epidemic  of  meat  poisoning  in  Gaustadt.     In  the  insane 
-asylum  at  Gaustadt,  near  Christiania,  81  among  101  persons  who  had 

eaten  meat  at  the  same  time  were  affected  with  fever,  vomiting  and 
diarrhea.  In  a  number  of  cases  there  was  also  facial  herpes  or 
erythema  with  subsequent  desquamation.  Four  patients  died.  In 
these  latter,  it  was  possible  to  demonstrate  only  petechise  under  the 
serous  membranes  and  more  or  less  pronounced  symptoms  of  acute 
intestinal  catarrh,  together  with  small  infarcts  in  the  lungs.  In 
one  case,  in  which  the  disease  took  a  chronic  course,  there  were  also 
numerous  ulcers  in  the  colon. 

34.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  the  district  of  Kempen,  in 
Posen.     During  the  pentecost  of  1896,  in  four  localities  of  the.  dis- 
trict of  Kempen,  more   than  100  persons  became  ill  after  eating 
pork  sausage  and  meat  broth.     A  majority  of  the  patients  were 
-seriously  ill,  and  one  man  died.     The  investigation  of  the  outbreak 
failed  to  demonstrate  the  disease  affecting  the  animals  from  which 
the  meat  had  been  obtained. 

35.  Meat  poisoning  in   Daber.     In   this   locality   33   persons 
became  ill,  a  number  of  them  seriously  so,  after  eating  the  meat  of 
a  cow  which  had  been  slaughtered  on  account  of  diarrhea  and  great 


726  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

depression.  After  the  slaughter  it  was  found  that  the  animal  was 
suffering  from  enteritis.  The  butcher  who,  contrary  to  orders  of 

the  veterinarian,  J ,  by  whom  the  inspection  was  made,  sold  the 

meat  not  only  without  declaration,  but  as  "firm,  fat  steer  beef,"  was 
condemned  to  six  months'  imprisonment  on  account  of  a  violation 
of  the  food  law  and  deception.  The  veterinarian  was  also  tried,  but 
not  convicted. 

36.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  the  Canton  of  Thurgau. 
According  to  Silberschmidt,  many  persons  of  the  Canton  of  Thurgau 
in  the  spring  of  1896  became  ill  after  eating  cooked,  pickled  and 
smoked  pork.     The  meat  was  alleged  to  have  come  from  animals 
which  had  been  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  a 
reddening   of   the   skin  and   symptoms   of  gastro-enteric   catarrh. 
Seven  persons  who  ate  the  meat  were  affected  with  gastro-enteric 
catarrh  within  a  few  days,  and  a  four-year-old  child,  previously  in 
excellent  health,  died  after  two  days  with  symptoms  of  acute  diar- 
rhea and  convulsions. 

37.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Sielkeirn,  East  Prussia. 
In  June  13-16,  1896,  41  persons  in  Sielkeirn  were  affected,  15  of 
them  seriously,  with  symptoms  of  summer-cholera,  acute  bodily 
pains  and  excessive  weakness.     The  feces  were  malodorous  and,  in 
some  cases,  bloody.     The  symptoms  appeared  within  a  few  hours 
to  two  days  after  eating  the  meat.     Seven  families  who  ate  of  the 
meat  were  not  affected.     No  death.     All  the  patients  recovered  by 
June  22.     The  district  veterinarian,  Kriiger,  demonstrated  that  the 
epidemic  was  caused  by  the  meat  of  two  three-months-old  calves 
which  had  been  slaughtered  on  account  of  diarrhea  associated  with 
great  depression. 

38.  An  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Kalk,  near  Koln.     On 
July  19,  1897,  and  subsequently,  41  persons  in  Kalk  were  affected 
with  summer-cholera  associated  with  disturbances  of  the  genernl 
condition.     Two  died.     The  most  serious  cases  appeared  after  eat- 
ing minced  raw  meat.     A  small  mouthful  of  this  was  sufficient  to 
produce    more    or    less    serious    illness.      The    cooked    meat   was 

also   found  to  be  injurious.      The   butcher,  E ,   who   brought 

the  toxic  meat  to  market,  at  first  asserted  that  it  came   from   M 
healthy  cow  which  had  been  slaughtered  at  the   cattle  yards  of 

Koln.     Later,  however,  it  was  found  that  E had  substituted,. 

in  the  place  of  the  healthy  one,  another  cow  which  had  been  sub- 
jected to  emergency  slaughter  on  account  of  diarrhea  associated 
with  inappetency  and  serious  disturbances  of  the  general  condi- 
tion.    The  meat  of  this  cow  was  shown  to  have  caused  the  out* 


MEAT  POISONING  727 

T^reak   of   meat  poisoning  at  Kalk.     E -,  who  had  brought  the 

meat  to  market  without  a  previous  inspection  by  an  inspector,  was 
condemned  to  three  months'  imprisonment. 

39.  An   outbreak  of   meat   poisoning   in  Biilstringen.     In  an 
action  in  the  Criminal  Court  in  Magdeburg,  it  was  shown  that  in 
Biilstringen,  in  1898, 40  persons  became  affected  with  gastro-enteritis 
after  eating  the  meat  of  a  calf  which  had  been  subjected  to  emergency 
slaughter.    A  veterinary  inspection  of  the  condemned  pieces  of  meat 
showed  that  the  calf  had  been  affected  with  diarrhea  and  inflamma- 
tion of  the  joints. 

40.  An  outbreak   of  meat   poisoning  in  Sirault.     In  1898,  m 
Sirault,   about   100   persons  were   affected   with   vomiting,  gastric 
cramps,  colic,  diarrhea,  evacuation   of  green,  malodorous    stools. 
These  symptoms  appeared  after  eating  pork.    Simultaneously  there 
were  chills,  headache,  formication,  twitching  of  the  skin  and  great 
thirst.     Fever,  was  present  only  at  the  onset  of  the  disease.     In. 
some  patients  urticaria  and  labial  herpes  were  observed.     Improve- 
ment took  place  after  eight  days.    In  some  patients,  however,  the 
convalescent  period  was  prolonged  for  weeks.     In  three  cases  the 
disease  ran  a  fatal  course. 

The  above  are  the  more  important  epidemics  of  poisoning  as  a 
result  of  eating  meat,  which  have  been  reported  in  the  literature  of 
the  subject  in  the  last  twenty  years.  Doubtless,  however,  by  no 
means  all  cases,  even  when  they  affected  a  large  number  of  persons, 
have  come  to  public  notice.  The  majority  of  practicing  veterina- 
rians, like  the  Saxon  district  veterinarian,  Lehnert  (Jahresbericht, 
1884),  could  report  experiences  in  this  line.  Lehnert  states  that  he 
has  repeatedly  observed  cases  in  which  the  meat  of  cows  which 
have  been  affected  with  metritis  after  parturition  and  in  which  the 
placenta  had  been  entirely  or  partly  retained,  caused  symptoms  of 
poisoning  (vomiting  and  diarrhea)  after  the  meat  was  eaten.  In 
many  cases,  however,  the  illness  persisted  for  only  a  few  days. 

Bollinger  stated  in  a  lecture  which  he  delivered  at  a  meeting 
of  the  Society  for  Public  Sanitation  that  "  the  number  of  undeter- 
mined infections,  intestinal  infections,  the  cause  of  which  is  chiefly 
found  in  tlie  food,  is,  even  in  adult  persons,  much  larger  than  is 
commonly  assumed  ....  As  a  result  of  eating  meat  which  comes 
from  diseased,  especially  septic  food  animals,  pathological  condi- 
tions are  produced,  which,  with  regard  to  their  course  and  also  with 
regard  to  their  anatomical  alterations,  show  a  great  variation.  All 
transition  stages  exist  from  simple  digestive  disturbances,  gastric 
catarrh  and  summer-cholera,  to  serious  febrile  attacks,  which  at 


728  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

times  appear  under  the  form  of  the  so-called  pituitous  fever,  gastric 
fever,  ileo-typhoid  or  dysentery  ....  To  the  domain  of  meat 
poisoning  belong  probably  many  other  cases  of  sickness  which 
assume  the  form  of  petechial  typhoid  or  febrile  icterus  (Weil's  dis- 
ease) ....  It  has  been  demonstrated  by  experiments  on  animals 
(Kocher)  that  septic  and  bacterial  toxins  may  make  their  way  from 
the  alimentary  canal  into  the  body  and  cause  serious  inflammatory 
processes  (for  example,  infectious  inflammation  of  the  bone  marrow) 
without  leaving  any  trace  at  the  point  of  entrance." 

PROPHYLAXIS  OF  MEAT  POISONING. — With  regard  to  the  prophy- 
laxis of  meat  poisoning,  the  following  considerations  are  to  be  borne 
in  mind : 

1.  It  is  necessary  that  a  decision  by  a  government  veterinarian 
should  be  required  in  all  cases  of  emergency  slaughter  and  that 
empirical  meat  inspectors  who  err,  as  a  result  of  their  own  arbitrary 
decisons,  should  be  punished  severely. 

2.  The   veterinarian  should   always   perform    a    careful    and 
detailed  inspection  of  all  organs. 

3.  The  veterinarian  should  not  admit  the  meat  to  the  market 
unless  he  is  perfectly  satisfied  concerning  the  disease  of  the  animal 
and  when,  according  to  existing  knowledge  on  the  subject,  it  can  be 
considered  as  certain  that  the  consumption  of  the  meat  will  not 
cause  any  injury  to  health. 

4.  The  meat  of  all  animals  subject  to  emergency  slaughter,  with 
the  exception  of  those  which,  on  account  of  accidents,  are  slaugh- 
tered immediately  afterward,  is  to  be  sold  only  under  declaration 
and,  wherever  possible,  at  the  place  of  slaughter. 

It  is,  however,  a  duty  of  veterinary  science,  in  cooperation  with 
practical  veterinarians,  to  solve  the  numerous  problems  connected 
with  cases  of  meat  poisoning  which  still  require  an  explanation. 
We  must,  in  particular,  attempt  to  determine  all  diseases  in  which 
there  is  a  possibility  of  injury  to  health  from  eating  the  meat. 
These  problems,  even  to-day,  belong  to  the  more  obscure  parts  of 
pathology,  although  during  the  last  ten  years  much-  important 
material  has  been  collected  for  explaining  these  disputed  questions. 
Prom  the  history  of  cases  of  meat  poisoning,  we  know  that  certain 
diseases  of  female  breeding  animals,  as  well  as  of  new-born 
nnimals,  are  of  prime  importance  in  the  etiology  of  meat  poisoning. 
We  do  not  know  for  certain,  however,  why  meat  from  animals  suf- 
fering from  the  disease  in  question  is  not  ?T_»vays  injurious* 


MEAT   POISONING  729 

^Furthermore,  tlie  septic  and  pyemic  diseases  of  crjptogenetic 
character,  especially  those  mysterious  septic  diseases  of  the  intes- 
tines and  udder  in  cattle,  are  in  urgent  need  of  more  exact  etiologi- 
cal  investigations.  Beginnings  have  already  been  made  by  the 
work  of  Johne,  Gartner,  G;iffky  and  Paak,  Poels  and  Dhout,  Van 
Ermengem,  Fliigge,  Kansche,  Hoist,  Kuborn,  Silberschmidt,  Giin- 
ther,  especially  by  the  brilliant  investigations  of  Basenau,  which 
are  of  greatest  importance  in  rendering  a  decision  on  emergency 
slaughter. 

ETIOLOGY  OF  MEAT  POISONING. — The  first  bacteriological  inves- 
tigation on  the  subject  of  the  etiology  of  meat  poisoning  was  done  by 
Johne.  In  an  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Lauterbach,  he  found 
a  bacillus  in  the  injurious  meat  which  was  pathogenic  to  mice  and 
other  experimental  animals,  and  possessed 
morphological  characters  quite  similar  to  FlG-  246. 

those  of  Bacillus  anthracis.     Bostrbm  also  *\      ,         %  lt^ 

considered  the  micro-organism  in  question          «%    *9,**~£ll&    /, 
to  be  B.  anthracis.  71  *Vr  V^"    "v-*., 

In  the  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in          '*  '  ''    -  *  J      *~  / 
Prankenhausen   (page   720),  Gartner  de-          *£_,  >    I%    ' ,       v 
inonstrated   a  bacillus  in  the  meat  and        ^o  x    *  ^'r  ,;   ,"   •» 
inside  the  blood  vessels      It  was  motile,  -*•      *'  "•"  ^ 

easily  stainable,  but  took  the  stains  most  Bacillus  enteritidis  Gartner 
.  .  -  T  f  from  an  agar  culture  24 

intensely  at  one  pole,  the  remainder  of        hours  old.    x  500  diam. 

the  bacillus  being  only  slightly  stained. 

Dogs,  cats,  chickens  and  sparrows  proved  to  be  immune.  Mice, 
rabbits,  guinea  pigs  and  goats,  however,  were  affected  by  inocu- 
lation and  also  per  os.  B.  enteritidis,  as  Gartner  named  the 
organism,  produces  a  chemical  toxin  which  is  not  destroyed  by 
cooking.  This  explains  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  meat  poisoning 
in  Prankenhausen  persons  who  had  eaten  cooked  parts  of  the  meat 
were  also  affected.  Johue  demonstrated  B.  enteritidis  also  in  the 
meat  of  the  cow  which  caused  the  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at 
Cotta.  Strange  to  say,  however,  the  bacilli  in  this  outbreak 
were  found  only  in  the  connective  tissue  and  not  in  the  blood 
vessels.  Later,  Johne  isolated  the  same  micro-organism  from 
inettwurst  and  kuackwurst?  which  were  condemned  on  account  of 
their  connection  with  the  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Bisch- 
offswerda.  Mice  died  within  from  six  to  twelve  days  after  being 
fed  material  obtained  from  the  sausage,  and  the  bacteria  in  question 
were  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  spleen  and  in  small  numbers 


730  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

also  in  the  blood  and  transudations.  Karlinsky  states  that  ho 
found  B.  enteritidis  in  dried  mutton  which  had  proved  to  be- 
poisonous. 

In  the  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Rohrsdorf,  Gaffky  and 
Paak  made  cultures  of  pathogenic  micro-organism?  from  two  sau- 
sages which  were  sent  to  them.  These  organisms  were  called 
"sausage  bacillus."  The  latter  was  found  to  be  a  motile  rod  which 
did  not  stain  as  well  in  aqueous  staining  solutions  as  after  the  addi- 
tion of  anil  in  oil.  In  stab  cultures  the  sausage  bacillus  resemble* 
the  typhoid  bacillus.  It  is  a  facultative  anaerobe  and  is  killed  by 
flaming.  However,  it  possesses  the  property  of  producing  patho- 
genic effects  when  ingested  with  food.  Mice,  guinea  pigs  and  apes 
proved  most  susceptible  to  this  method  of  infection.  Gaffky  and 
Paak  were  unable  to  demonstrate  the  sausage  bacillus  in  samples, 
of  meat  sausage  from  any  other  source. 

In  the  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  at  Rotterdam,  Poels  and 
Dhont  found  short  and  extraordinarily  delicate  rods  on  the  surface 
of  the  meat  and  in  the  intermuscular  tissues.  These  organisms 
were  much  more  numerous  than  other  demonstrable  bacteria.  The 
Rotterdam  bacillus  is  slowly  motile,  produces  indol,  but  does  not 
coagulate  milk.  Intravenous  injection  of  the  bacillus  in  large  quan- 
tities kills  cattle  within  fourteen  hours,  and  the  bacilli  have  been 
found  in  all  organs,  blood  and  muscles.  When  inoculated  with 
small  doses  (J  cc.)  cattle  recovered  after  a  temporary  affection  and 
the  meat  of  a  beef  animal  slaughtered  four  days  after  such  inocula- 
tion was  eaten  by  the  personnel  of  the  Rotterdam  Cattle  Yards 
without  injurious  effect.  Another  experimental  beef  animal  was 
killed  twenty  minutes  after  the  inoculation  of  a  small  quantity  of 
the  pure  culture,  and  part  of  the  meat  was  preserved  at  20°  C.  and 
another  part  in  a  refrigerator.  Immediately  after  slaughtering  the 
"bacillus  was  found  in  the  spleen  and  liver,  as  well  as  in  the  blood 
vessels  in  small  quantities,  while  it  could  not  be  demonstrated  in 
the  muscles,  except  in  their  blood  vessels.  On  the  other  hand,  meat 
which  was  preserved  for  seventy-two  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
20°  C.  was  found  to  be  thoroughly  permeated  with  the  bacilli.*  At 
the  instigation  of  Poels  and  Dhont,  53  persons  ate  of  the  meat  which 
had  been  preserved  in  cold  storage,  15  of  them  were  affected  with 


*This  finding  is  of  importance  in  explaining  the  fact  that  meat  of  animals 
subjected  to  emergency  slaughter,  when  eaten  soon  after  slaughter,  is  often 
harmless  or  only  slightly  harmful,  while  that  eaten  later  may  develop  very  toxic 
properties,  as  a  result  of  the  multiplication  of  the  bacilli  which  has  taken  place 
in  the  meantime. 


MEAT   POISONING  731 

headache,  gastric  enteric  catarrh  and  bodily  pains.  The  symptoms 
appeared  within  from  twelve  to  eighteen  hours  after  eating  the 
meat.  Some  of  the  patients  were  affected  with  severe  diarrhea.* 

In  the  outbreak  of  meab  poisoning  at  Moorseele,  Van  Ermeugern 
demonstrated  bacilli,  which  he  called  the  Moorseele  bacillus,  in  the 
marrow  of  the  femur  of  two  calves  concerned  in  the  case  of  poison- 
ing. This  bacillus  was  0.6  to  1.5  /*  long,  somewhat  thick  but  often 
slender  at  both  ends.  It  is  commonly  grouped  together  in  pairs 
and  rarely  forms  chains  in  the  tissues.  It  is  surrounded  with  a 
glistening  zone.  The  rods  are  very  motile  and  possess  numerous 
(4  to  8)  long  flagella  which  are  easily  stained  with  Loffler's  flagel- 
lum  stain.  In  saccharine  media,  the  bacillus  of  Moorseele  produces 
gas  by  a  decomposition  of  the  sugar.  Neutral  milk  is  not  coagu- 
lated by  the  bacillus.  The  milk  becomes  clear  and  after  eight  to 
ten  days  is  almost  transparent.  It  becomes  slightly  brownish  at 
the  same  time  and  assumes  an  alkaline  reaction.  The  Moorseele 
bacillus  proved  to  be  pathogenic  for  calves,  apes,  dogs,  guinea  pigs, 
rabbits,  pigeons  and  mice  by  any  method  of  inoculation.  In  the 
majority  of  cases,  a  more  or  less  severe  enteritis  with  hemorrhages 
in  the  lungs,  liver  and  spleen  appears  after  inoculation,  and  in  this 
case  the  Moorseele  bacillus  could  always  be  demonstrated  in  the 
organs  and  blood.  The  bacillus  produces  a  toxalbumen  which  is 
not  destroyed  by  heating  to  a  temperature  of  100°  or  even  120°  0. 
Van  Ermerigem  found  a  great  similarity  between  his  bacillus  and 
B.  enteritidis  of  Gartner.  However,  the  two  micro-organisms  are  not 
identical.  The  difference  in  the  appearance  of  pure  cultures  and  iu 
their  behavior  toward  stains  argues  against  their  identity.  The 
bacillus  of  Moorseele  stains  homogeneously,  while  B.  enteritidis 
does  not. 

In  an  epidemic  of  meat  poisoning  in  Breslau,  Sanitarian  Fliigge 
fed  parts  of  the  poisonous  meat  to  mice.  The  animals  died  after 
two  days  with  symptoms  of  severe  diarrhea.  In  the  intestines  of 
the  animals  a  pure  culture  was  found  of  a  bacterium  resembling 
B.  coli.  From  the  intestinal  contents  and  the  internal  organs  of  the 
mice,  the  same  bacteria  were  isolated  which  had  been  found  in  the 
poisonous  meat.  Pure  cultures  of  the  bacteria  killed  mice  in  two 
to  three  days  with  the  same  symptoms.  The  bacterial  species  in 
question  multiplies  rapidly  in  the  organism,  but  ultimately  produces 
its  effect  by  means  of  a  toxin,  for  the  number  of  bacteria  is  not  suffi— 


*  The  repetition  of  this  experiment  on  man  does  not  recommend  itself,  since 
the  results  of  such  experiments  can  not  be  foreseen  with  certainty. 


'732  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

ciently  large  to  enable  them  to  operate  mechanically.  Kausche 
states  concerning  the  Breslau  bacillus  that  he  was  able  to  demon- 
strate it  in  streak  cultures  made  directly  from  the  meat  and  that  it 
forms  gas  in  saccharine  media  and  produces  a  toxin  which  is  not 
destroyed  by  boiling  the  pure  culture  for  two  minutes.  The  rods 
are  from  two  to  three  times  as  long  as  thick,  rounded  at  the  ends, 
stain  readily  with  the  ordinary  anilin  stains,  but  are  decolorized  by 
the  Gram  method.  They  are  actively  motile,  grow  on  gelatin  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  typhoid  bacillus.  Growth  is  very  luxuriant 
on  potatoes.  Indol  reaction  is  negative,  and  milk  is  not  coagu- 
lated. The  Breslau  bacillus  is  highly  pathogenic  for  mice  and 
pigeons,  less  so  for  rabbits.  Dogs  and  cats  are  refractory.  Cooked 
pigeon  and  rabbit  meat  killed  rats  and  mice  with  symptoms  of 
intoxication.  Bacteria  could  not  be  demonstrated  in  the  organisms 
of  these  experimental  animals.  Sterilized  bouillon  cultures  (boiled 
for  two  minutes)  also  proved  to  be  toxic  for  mice.  By  means  of  a 
tabular  comparison  of  the  organisms  thus  far  found  in  cases  of 
meat  poisoning,  Kansche  showed  that  the  Breslau  bacillus  is 
identical  with  the  Moorseele  bacillus  and  perhaps  also  with  the 
bacillus  of  Poels  and  Dhont,  but  that  it  was  distinct  from  the  other 
bacilli  (Gartner,  Karlinski,  Fischer,  Gaffky  and  Paak,  and  Basenau). 
Basenau  made  cultures  of  "  B.  bovis  morbificans"  from  the  meat  of  a 
cow  which  had  been  slaughtered  on  account  of  a  disease  occurring 
after  parturition.  This  organism  is  of  the  size  of  the  typhoid  bacil- 
lus (1  to  1.2  yu  long  and  .3  to  .5  ja  wide),  is  motile  and  grows  rapidly. 
It  is  a  facultative  anaerobe,  grows  in  and  upon  meat,  forms  no 
spores,  and  is  killed  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  for  one 
minute.  B.  bovis  morbificans  does  not  produce  toxins.  It  is  patho- 
genic for  mice,  white  rats,  guinea  pigs  and  calves,  whether  trans- 
mitted by  inoculation  or  per  os.  Later,  Basenau  demonstrated 
that  this  bacillus  forms  indol,  but  gives  no  nitroso-indol  reaction 
with  sulphuric  acid ;  that  it  ferments  grape  sugar,  but  not  milk  and 
cane  sugar;  produces  volatile  sulphur  compounds,  and  possesses 
considerable  reducing  power  toward  litmus.  It  lives  in  beef  broth 
for  three  years,  but  dies  after  four  days  in  meat  broth  containing 
an  excess  of  common  salt,  and  within  ten  days  on  agar  containing 
salt. 

In  an  epidemic  of  meat  poisoning  in  Gaustadt,  Hoist  isolated  a 
micro-organism  from  the  spleen  of  three  of  the  patients  which 
died,  and  from  the  intestinal  ulcers  of  one.  The  organism  was  con- 
sidered identical  with  the  Moorseele  bacillus.  The  Gaustadt  bacil- 
lus is  very  virulent  for  rabbits,  less  so  for  guinea  pigs,  mice  and 


MEAT   POISONING 

•pigeons.  It  kills  animals  by  any  means  of  transmission,  including; 
the  method  per  os.  The  bacillus  thrives  on  all  ordinary  media,, 
and  in  bouillon  forms  toxins  which  are  very  virulent  for  rabbits, 
when  injected  intravenously.  These  toxins  are  not  destroyed  bjr 
cooking.  An  evident  diminution  of  virulence  was  often  observed^ 
The  attenuated  bacillus,  however,  again  became  perfectly  virulent 
by  passage  through  pigeons. 

In  an  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  in  Denis,  Kuborn  deter- 
mined Stapliylococcus  pyogenes  flavus  as  the  cause  of  the  outbreak^ 
This  organism  was  demonstrated  also  in  five  samples  of  the  toxic> 
meat  of  the  cow.* 

Silberschmidt  investigated  the  sickness  which  was  observed  in* 
a  family  in  the  Canton  of  Thurgau  after  eating  the  meat  of  young, 
pigs.  The  suspected  meat  caused  no  pathological  symptoms  when 
fed  to  experimental  animals.  On  the  other  hand,  the  injection  of  a 
bouillon  culture  which  had  been  prepared  from  the  dejecta  of  one  of 
the  patients,  and  from  the  meat,  killed  guinea  pigs  in  nearly  all 
cases  in  which  inoculation  was  made  intraperitoneally.  In  the* 
dejecta  of  the  patients  and  in  the  meat  of  the  pig  a  short  rod  with, 
rounded  ends  was  found  with  4  or,  rarely,  8  flagella  of  considerable 
length  which  were  evenly  staiiiable,  but  which  were  decolorized  bjr 
Gram's  method.  The  bacillus  was  killed  when  heated  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  58°  C.  Ifc  did  not  liquefy  gelatin,  produced  much  gas  in 
grape  sugar  agar,  but  did  not  coagulate  milk.  The  odor  was, 
slightly  sweet  and  the  organism  is  thereby  distinguished  from  the> 
otherwise  similar  B.  coli  communist 

In  the  epidemic  of  meat  poisoning  in  Kempen,  an  examination 
of  the  spleen  and  liver  of  the  persons  who  died  after  eating  the> 
meat  showed  the  presence  of  a  micro-organism,  which  Giinther,  ort 
the  basis  of  his  investigations,  considered  identical  with  B.  enteri- 
tidis. 

Bacteria  which  are  similar  to  B.  enter  itidis  and  B.  coli  communi& 
were  also  demonstrated  to  be  the  cause  of  meat  poisoning  by  Hoef- 
nagel  (outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  on  an  estate  near  Rotterdam),. 
Froidbise  (two  outbreaks  of  meat  poisoning  in  Belgium  after  eating; 

*  Basenau  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  outbreak  of  meat  poison- 
ing in  Denis  was  the  only  instance  in  which  cocci  were  found  as  the  cause  of  dis- 
ease in  the  place  of  bacilli,  as  in  other  cases  of  meat  poisoning. 

f  The  outbreak  of  meat  poisoning  reported  by  Silberschmidt  proves  anew  that 
pickling  and  smoking  are  not  sufficient  to  kill  pathogenic  bacteria  in  meat.  This., 
fact  was  experimentally  demonstrated  by  Stadler  for  the  bacteria  which  are. 
found  in  cases  of  meat  poisoning.  Stadler  found  that  bacteria  are  not  killed  by^ 
ordinary  pickling,  if  they  were  present  in  the  muscles  intra  vitam. 


734  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

Insufficiently  cooked  sausages  of  good  appearance),  Hermann  (out- 
break of  meat  poisoning  at  Sirault),  and  Nobele  (outbreak  of  meat 
poisoning  in  Flanders).  Hermann  demonstrated  that  the  serum  of 
men  and  animals  which  had  withstood  an  invasion  of  the  bacillus 
which  causes  meat  poisoning  possesses  an  agglutinating  property  in 
dilutions  varying  from  1 :  6  to  1 : 400,  and  Nobele  showed  that  the 
serum  of  human  beings  who  had  recovered  from  a  case  of  meat 
poisoning  in  Flanders  possessed  agglutinating  properties,  not  only 
toward  the  bacilli  which  were  obtained  from  these  cases  of  meat 
poisoning,  but  also  toward  the  organisms  found  in  the  outbreaks  at 
Moorseele,  Geneva,  Calmpthout  and  Sirault,  even  in  dilutions  of 
1:200. 

Finally,  Basenau  made  a  bacteriological  investigation  of  six 
cases  of  a  disease  in  slaughtered  animals  and  thereby  obtained  a 
confirmation  of  his  previously-expressed  opinion  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
pathogenic  bacteria  which  penetrate  into  the  meat  of  animals  intra 
vitam  are  bacilli.  Basenau  also  demonstrated  that  some  of  these 
bacilli,  which  he  called  "  meat  bacilli "  (more  properly,  meat  poison- 
ing bacilli),  form  toxins»which  are  not  destroyed  by  cooking,  while 
in  others,  as  shown  by  Gartner  and  Yan  Ermengem,  this  is  not  the 
case. 

All  the  bacilli  thus  far  found  in  cases  of  meat  poisoning  show  a 
great  morphological  resemblance  to  B.  coli  communis,  but  differ  from 
this  organism  in  their  biological  and  pathological  characters.  Base- 
nau states,  therefore,  that  two  views  may  be  held  :  either  all  of  the 
bacteria  in  question  arise  from  one  and  the  same  biologically 
and  pathologically  variable  mother  species,  or  we  have  to  deal  with 
distinct  races  which  preserve  their  characters  within  narrow  limits. 
Moreover,  from  the  above-discussed  bacteriological  studies  on  the 
problem  of  meat  inspection,  Basenau  draws  the  following  conclu- 
sion :  "  In  all  cases  of  judgment  of  the  meat  of  diseased  animals, 
except  in  cases  in  which  the  meat  must  be  condemned  without  any 
hesitation,  on  the  basis  of  a  microscopic  examination  of  the  animal 
carcass — or  with  the  aid  of  the  known  pathological  symptoms — a 
proper  bacteriological  investigation  will  lead  in  the  best  and  most 
certain  manner  to  a  result  which  will  satisfy  all  concerned." 

Basenau  rightly  holds  the  opinion  that  meat  containing  only 
bacteria  which  die  at  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  and  a  toxin  which  is 
destroyed  at  100°  C.  may  be  admitted'to  the  market  without  hesi- 
tation, after  a  previous  treatment  in  a  steam  disinfector. 

Aside  from  the  bacteriology  of  cases  of  meat  inspection,  the 
clinical  and  pathologico-anatomical  characters  which  are  common  to 


MEAT   POISONING  735 

septic  diseases  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  prophylaxis  of 
meat  poisoning.  The  most  conspicuous  clinical  characters  are  a 
serious  disturbance  of  the  general  condition  and  the  great  depres- 
sion of  the  animals,  which  is  often  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  local 
diseases.  From  a  pathologico-anatomical  standpoint,  lesions  of 
certain  viscera  (cloudy  swelling  and  fatty  metamorphosis  of  the 
liver,  "heart  and  kidneys),  associated  with  hemorrhages  under  the 
serous  membranes,  as  well  as  swelling  of  all  lymphatic  glands,  fur- 
nish the  most  valuable  criteria  to  the  veterinary  inspector  for 
rendering  a  judgment  in  critical  cases. 

It  is  precisely  because  this  decision  is  so  difficult  that  we  must 
consider  the  duty  which  has  devolved  upon  us  as  highly  thank- 
worthy. To  withhold  from  the  market  all  the  meat  in  cases  of 
emergency  slaughter  would  mean  an  unjustifiable  waste  of  national 
resources  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  too  great  leniency  in  judgment 
would  injure  the  health  and  endanger  the  lives  of  hundreds  of 
human  beings.  By  a  proper  performance  of  our  duty  we  reach  the 
desired  goal,  namely,  the  withholding  from  consumption  of  only 
such  animals  subjected  to  emergency  slaughter  as  is  absolutely 
necessary.  At  the  same  time,  however,  we  extricate  the  veterinarian 
from  an  embarrassing  position  which  can  be  appreciated  only  by 
those  who  have  passed  sleepless  nights  after  rendering  opinions  in 
cases  of  emergency  slaughter,  although  experiencing  no  compunc- 
tions of  conscience. 

By  the  use  of  the  above  mentioned  criteria,  the  expert  will  not, 
as  a  rule,  experience  especial  difficulty  in  rendering  judgment  on 
meat  from  cases  of  emergency  slaughter.  In  doubtful  cases  he 
may  have  resort  to  the  bacteriological  test  mentioned  by  Basenau, 
for  securing  a  certain  criterion.  Cases  of  meat  poisoning  will 
probably  not  entirely  disappear.  It  may  be  assumed,  however,  that 
they  will  become  very  rare.  In  spite  of  the  greatest  conscientious- 
ness, errors  in  judgment  will  still  occur,  since  there  are  limits  to 
human  knowledge  and  power,  but,  ultra  posse  nemo  tenetur. 

With  regard  to  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  in  cases  of 
emergency  slaughter,  a  circular  letter  of  the  Imperial  Commission 
for  Veterinary  Service  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  states  that  inspec- 
tors should  not  render  judgment  according  to  the  appearance  of 
the  meat,  since  even  when  possessed  of  decidedly  harmful  pro- 
perties, it  may  appear  perfectly  normal.  Soon  after  slaughter,  but 
with  a  thorough  dissection,  a  careful  investigation  of  sill  organs 
should  be  undertaken.  As  diseases  which  have  frequently  led  to 
meat  poisoning,  the  following  are  mentioned :  Inflammation  of  the 


736  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

sexual  passages  connected  with  parturition  (puerperal ;  especially 
inflammations  which  occur  in  consequence  of  lesions  or  retention  of 
the  embryonic  membranes),  parenchymatous  inflammations  of  the 
udder  with  serious  febrile  conditions ;  febrile  gastro-enteric 
catarrhs,  which,  in  and  of  themselves,  are  not  very  serious,  but  in 
which  the  tendency  to  hemorrhages  and  blood  effusions,  the 
redness  of  the  serous  covering  and  mucous  membrane  of  the  intes- 
tines, swelling  of  the  lymphatic  follicles  in  the  latter,  the  swelling; 
of  the  mesenteric  glands  and  parenchymatous  degeneration  (cloudy 
swelling)  of  the  kidneys,  liver  and  cardiac  muscle,  however  slight 
these  processes  may  be,  indicate  an  absorption  of  harmful  sub- 
stances from  the  intestine  into  the  blood ;  and,  finally,  peritonitis- 
and  pleuritis,  as  a  result  of  perforation  of  the  wall  of  the  stomach 
or  intestines,  as  well  as  cases  of  traumatic  pericarditis  in  which  the 
exudation  in  the  pericardium  possesses  a  conspicuously  vile  odor. 
Thus,  experience  has  shown  that  an  intoxication  of  the  blood  may 
easily  take  place  from  the  serous  sacs  by  the  absorption  of  the 
organic  toxins  which  are  formed  in  consequence  of  the  ichorous- 
(septic)  inflammation.  Moreover,  attention  is  called  to  the  rapid 
decomposition  of  carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  septic  diseases. 
These  processes  may  be  readily  recognized  by  the  change  in  the 
chemical  reaction  of  the  meat.  If  the  meat  of  animals  slaughtered 
on  account  of  disease  shows  an  alkaline  reaction  within  twenty-four 
hours  after  death,  the  meat  is  to  be  considered,  in  doubtful  cases, 
as  unqualifiedly  foul,  and,  therefore,  unfit  for  food.  Likewise,  in 
doubtful  cases,  the  unfitness  for  food  of  the  meat  of  animals  slaugh- 
tered on  account  of  disease  is  unquestionable,  if,  within  forty-eight 
aours  after  death,  the  muscle  fibers  show  under  the  microscope  a 
loss  of  their  characteristic  cross  striation,  a  granular  cloudiness  and 
a  disintegration  into  fragments. 

If,  even  after  all  these  view  points  are  considered,  doubt  arise* 
concerning  the  fitness  of  the  meat  for  food,  it  appears  desirable  that 
a  decision  in  the  matter  should  not  be  reached  in  summer  before 
twenty-four  hours  and  in  winter  not  before  forty-eight  hours  after 
slaughter.  Experience  teaches  that  within  this  period  in  cases  of 
septic  and  toxic  poisoning,  such  conspicuous  abnormal  alterations 
of  the  meat  appear  with  respect  to  its  color  and  odor  as  to  furnish 
sufficient  criteria  for  judging  the  character  of  the  meat  in  doubtful 
cases. 

KEOENT  EXPERIENCE  CONCERNING  THE  SLAUGHTER  FINDINGS  INT 
CASES  or  SEPTICEMIA  AND  PYEMIA  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS.— Hartenstein. 


MEAT   POISONING  737 

as  a  result  of  his  experience,  lays  great  stress  on  the  reaction  of  the 
musculature  in  judging  cases  of  emergency  slaughter.  He  rightly 
asserts  that  the  meat  in  emergency  slaughter  maybe  unhesitatingly 
declared  fit  for  food  if  the  musculature  shows  an  acid,  or  at  least, 
not  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  if  the  heart,  intestines  and  liver  are 
normal.  Moreover,  with  reference  to  the  differential  diagnosis  of 
osteomyelitis,  Hartenstein  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  soften- 
ing and  liquefaction  of  the  bone  marrow  may  also  be  observed  in 
many  harmless  diseases,  in  which,  however,  the  marrow  does  not 
appear  as  if  clouded  with  pus,  but  like  yellow  vaselin  or  Provence 
oil.  Finally,  Hartenstein  states  that  he  has  frequently  found  a 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  in  cases  in  which  the  clinical  symp- 
toms did  not  lead  to  a  suspicion  of  sepsis,  and  that,  therefore, 
importance  is  to  be  ascribed  to  this  hepatic  alteration  only  in 
cases  in  which  the  other  anatomical  characters  of  sepsis  are  also 
present. 

Augst  made  an  important  observation,  that  in  obstruction  of  the 
esophagus,  traumatic  pericarditis,  acute  pneumonia,  and,  in  general, 
in  all  diseases  which  are  ushered  in  with  dyspnea,  the  musculature 
does  not  show  its  normal  acid  reaction  until  twenty-four  hours  or 
more  after  slaughter,  but  has  an  alkaline  reaction  up  to  that  time. 
Edelmann  and  Noack  made  an  extensive  investigation  on  the  occur- 
rence of  alkaline  reaction  in  the  meat  of  freshly  slaughtered  animals. 
An  alkaline  reaction  of  the  musculature  was  found  in  147,  or  10  per 
cent.,  of  1,474  hogs  ;  4,  or  4.5  per  cent.,  of  89  cattle ;  5,  or  8  per 
cent.,  of  62  sheep  ;  and  5,  or  2  per  cent.,  of  251  calves. 

Iii  no  case  did  septicemia  or  pyemia  exist.  In  the  majority  of 
cases,  the  alkaline  condition  persisted  for  days,  or  until  decomposi- 
tion set  in.  The  appearance  of  an  acid  reaction  in  the  meat  of 
normal  slaughtered  cattle  and  hogs  frequently  did  not  occur  until 
after  from  three  to  six  hours.  According  to  Edelmann  and  Noack, 
an  abnormal  reaction  in  meat  is  due  to  a  disturbance  of  the  chemism 
of  the  musculature,  in  which  asphyxiating  conditions,  heart  failure, 
insufficient  oxidation  of  the  blood,  etc.,  play  an  important  role. 
Hartenstein  made  a  report  on  a  cow  which  was  slaughtered  on 
account  of  the  appearance  of  tetanus  a  short  time  after  parturition, 
which  showed  a  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver,  and  an  alkaline 
reaction  of  the  meat  from  the  first  to  the  seventh  day.  On  the 
seventeenth  day  the  meat  was  sold  on  a  freibankiu  a  raw  condition. 
Furthermore,  Hartenstein  found  an  alkaline  reaction  of  the  meat  in 
a  cow  which  was  slaughtered  on  account  of  tympanites  and  in 
another  which  was  slaughtered  on  account  of  malignant  catarrhal 


733  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

fever.  Since  no  further  suspicious  symptoms  were  present,  the 
meat  in  both  cases  was  sold  on  a  freibauk. 

Moreover,  according  to  Augst,  all  of  the  lymphatic  glands  are 
swollen  in  cases  of  sepsis  and  under  certain  conditions  permeated 
with  hemorrhages.  Naturally  the  lymphatic  glands  in  the  region. 
in  which  inflammatory  processes  take  place  (as,  for  example,  the 
bronchial  glands  in  pneumonia,  the  mesenteric«glands  in  intestinal 
inflammations,  etc.)  do  not  come  into  consideration  in  this  connec- 
tion. Moreover,  septic  alterations  of  the  lymphatic  glands  should 
not  be  confused  with  the  red  coloration  of  the  bronchial  glands  in 
cases  of  blood  aspiration,  the  dark  brownish-red  coloration  of  the 
borders  of  the  corporeal  lymphatic  glands  in  cows,  and  the  red  col- 
oration of  certain  follicles  and  accessory  lymphatic  glands  which 
occur  so  frequently  in  food  animals.  AC- 
FIG.  247.  cording  to  Augst,  the  lymphatic  glands  may 
be  altered  in  the  above  described  manner, 
while  other  symptoms  of  sepsis  are  wanting 
immediately  after  slaughter.  However,  he 
never  observed  swelling  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  without  a  degeneration  of  the  organic 
parenchyma  in  cases  of  sepsis.  Both  abnor- 
mal conditions  exist  together.  Moreover,  the 

Bacteria  of  calf  dysentery  facfc  should  be  emphasized  that  in  all  cases 
from  a  smear  preparation  „  ..  .  r.  .  .  _ 

,from  the  crural  vein  of  a  of  sepsis  all  of  the  corporeal  lymphatic 
calf  slaughtered  in  the  gianjs  are  swollen,  and  that,  therefore,  no 
crisis  or  aysenteiy.  x  ouu  .  •  i  i  JII-IIJT  ^ 

diameters.  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the  enlarge- 

ment of  a  single  lymphatic  gland. 

Augst  tests  the  reaction  of  the  musculature  by  making  a  deep 
incision  into  the  musculature  of  the  thigh  and  pressing  a  piece  of 
litmus  paper  moistened  with  water  against  the  cut  surface  by  means 
of  a  knife.  This  should  not  be  done  with  the  finger,  since  the  finger 
tips  frequently  have  an  acid  reaction.  After  a  period  of  ten  minutes 
the  paper  is  removed  from  the  muscle  and  laid  upon  a  white  sub- 
stratum and  compared  with  a  moistened  sample  of  the  original 
litmus  paper.  Edelmann  and  Noack  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  reaction  of  the  musculature  may  be  different  in  different 
parts  of  the  body,  and  that,  therefore,  in  doubtful  cases  a  test  of  the 
reaction  must  be  made  with  different  muscle  parts  somewhat  dis- 
tant from  one  another. 

Angst  recommends  caution  in  making  a  microscopic  examina- 
tion of  meat,  for  he  was  able  to  demonstrate  granular  cloudiness 
and  loss  of  the  transverse  striation  even  in  perfectly  healthy  meat. 


MEAT  POISONING  739 

Finally,  in  the  meat  of  animals  which  Augst  did  not  observe 
during  life,  he  always  applies  a  cooking  test  for  determining  the 
abnormal  odor.  For  this  purpose  one-fourth  to  one-half  a  pound  of 
chopped  meat  is  boiled  with  a  little  water  in  a  closed  vessel  for 
one-fourth  hour.  The  cover  of  the  vessel  is  then  lifted  and  the  odors 
tested. 

Augst  makes  the  microscopical  examination  and  the  cooking 
test  at  home.  If,  despite  this  careful  preliminary  examination, 
some  doubt  still  remains,  he  makes  another  examination  of  the  meat 
after  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours,  in  accordance  with  the  Saxon 
circular  letter  (test  of  the  reaction,  microscopical  examination  and 
cooking  test). 

BACTERIOLOGICAL  INVESTIGATION  OF  MEAT  IN  CASES  OP  EMER- 
GENCY SLAUGHTER. — In  cases  suited  to  this  purpose  (page  734), 
Basenau  proposed  the  following  bacteriological  test  of  the  meat : 
"It  is  desirable  that  the  investigation  be  undertaken  twenty-four 
hours  after  ordinary  or  emergency  slaughter,  for  the  reason  that  the 
bacteria  of  meat  poisoning  multiply  even  at  low  temperatures  and 
the  large  numbers  which  are  thus  obtained  facilitate  investigation. 
In  this  connection  it  is  naturally  supposed  that  after  slaughter  the 
stomach,  intestines,  etc.,  are  removed  in  the  usual  manner.  We 
thus  exclude  the  possibility  that  bacteria  which  may  be  found  in 
the  interior  of  the  meat  have  made  their  way  thither  as  a  result  of 
post  mortem  invasion  from  the  intestines.  For,  according  to  mani- 
fold experience,  no  micro-organisms  are  found  in  the  meat  of 
healthy  animals  even  when  examined  a  long  time  after  slaughter. 
Streak  cultures  and  gelatin  plate*  cultures  are  then  to  be  prepared 
from  the  inside  of  a  piece  of  meat  which  contains  much  loose  con- 
nective tissue.f  Gelatin  plates  are  quite  satisfactory  for  this  pur- 
pose, provided  one  uses  Forster's  gelatin  with  a  high  liquefaction 
point.  Simultaneously,  two  mice  should  be  fed  with  pieces  of  raw 
meat  and  two  others  with  pieces  of  meat  which  have  been  subjected 
for  one  hour  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  J 


*  The  preparation  of  gelatin  plates  may  offer  considerable  difficulty  in  the 
practice  of  meat  inspection,  especially  in  the  country.  It  is,  however,  not  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  use  them.  The  determination  of  bacteria  in  meat  may  be 
made  wiih  sufficient  certainty  by  streak  preparations  on  slant  agar.  Agar  tubes 
may  be  readily  transported  in  a  sterile  condition,  while  gelatin  plates  can  not. 
For  this  reason,  I  recommend  streak  cultures  on  slant  agar,  in  place  of  the  plate 
method  described  by  Basenau  for  the  demonstration  of  bacteria  in  meat. 

f  Poels  anl  Dhont  have  shown  that  "  meat  bacilli "  multiply  most  rapidly  in. 
muscles  which  exliibit  a  loose  inter  muscular  connective  tissue. 


7*0  EMERGENCY   SLAUGHTER 

"  If  micio-organisms  are  not  found  in  the  preparations  and  if 
110  colonies  develop  in  the  plates  within  twenty-four  hours,  the 
meat  can  be  discharged  without  further  investigation. 

"  If  the  presence  of  bacteria  is  demonstrated  in  the  streak  cul- 
tures or  plates,  the  meat  should  be  preserved  temporarily  in  a  suit- 
able manner  and  the  result  of  the  animal  experiment,  which  should 
be  manifest  in  most  cases  within  at  most  three  days,  if  the  result  is- 
positive,  will  assist  in  rendering  the  final  judgment.  If  the  mice 
which  are  fed  with  the  raw  meat  die,  while  those  which  are  fed  with 
meat  cooked  for  one  hour  do  not  die,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
poisonous  property  is  removed  by  cooking.  According  to  previous 
experience,  the  meat  may  then  be  admitted  to  the  market  without 
any  danger  to  human  health,  after  a  previous  sterilization  in  a- 
steam  apparatus.  If  no  apparatus  for  sterilization  is  available,  then 
the  simple  demonstration  of  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  bac- 
teria in  the  meat  is  sufficient  to  justify  condenmaton.  If  the  ani- 
mals fed  on  the  pieces  of  boiled  meat  also  die,  the  meat  is  to  be 
excluded  from  the  market,  or  at  least  admitted  only  for  technical 
purposes.  This  procedure  would  be  in  the  spirit  of  the  recom- 
mendations cf  Gerlach,  who,  several  decades  ago,  stated  that  the 
aim  -  of  meat  inspection  should  be  to  protect  the  health  of  the 
consumers  and  at  the  same  time  to  utilize  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  abnormal  food  animals." 

While,  up  to  the  present  time,  no  case  of  meat  poisoning  has- 
occurred  where  meat  has  been  inspected  in  a  regular  manner,  never- 
theless, the  investigation  suggested  by  Basenau  is  an  important 
step  in  advance  in  the  problem  of  rendering  judgment  on  the  meat 
in  cases  of  emergency  slaughter.  For,  according  to  the  method  of 
Basenau,  it  becomes  possible  to  admit  meat  to  the  market  in  cases 
in  which,  up  to  the  present  time,  the  meat  must  have  been  excluded 
from  consumption  on  account  of  a  presumption  of  its  injurious 
character. 

TECHNIQUE  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATION  OF  BACTERIA  IN  THE  INTERIOR 
OF  MEAT. — For  the  demonstration  of  bacteria  in  the  interior  of 
meat,  a  piece  of  meat  is  singed  with  a  broad  knife  heated  almost  to 
a  glowing  temperature ;  a  deep  vertical  incision  is  then  made  into 
the  meat  with  the  sterilized  knife.  By  means  of  a  third  and  fourth 
.sterile  knives,  horizontal  sections  are  made  and  out  of  the  piece- 

|  Mice  are  particularly  well  adapted  for  feeding  experiments  with  suspected' 
meat.  In  all  experimental  investigations  thus  far  made  in  cases  of  meat  pois- 
oning, they  have  proved  to  be  uniformly  susceptible  to  a  high  degree  (Basenau)  _ 


SO-CALLED   ACCIDENTS  741. 

-thus  separated  the  material  is  taken  for  investigation  by  means 
of  a  platinum  loop  (Forster).  The  contamination  of  the  interior 
portions  of  the  meat  is  thus  most  effectively  prevented,  since, 
according  to  the  investigations  of  Gartner  and  Forster,  the  meat  of 
healthy  animals  contains  bacteria  only  to  a  depth  of  one  centi- 
meter, even  after  a  period  of  ten  days.  In  a  piece  of  meat  which 
had  been  preserved  in  ice  for  fourteen  days,  Forster  found  millions 
of  bacteria  en  the  surface  in  one  milligram  of  substance,  but  no 
bacteria,  on  the  other  hand,  two  millimeters  under  the  surface.* 

3.— So-called  Accidents. 

Slaughter  as  a  result  of  so-called  accidents  is  to  be  judged 
<quite  differently  from  the  above  described  cases  of  emergency 
slaughter  on  account  of  serious  infectious  diseases.  As  accidents, 
we  may  enumerate  bone  fractures,  serious  penetrating  wounds  of 
ihe  thorax  or  abdomen,  sudden  prolapsus  uteri,  insuperable 
obstacles  to  parturition,  injuries  to  the  sexual  passages,  as  well  as 
the  frequent  cases  of  bloating  after  over-feeding  with  fodder  which 
is  readily  fermented,  and  obstructions  in  the  esophagus  due  to  for- 
eign bodies,  such  as  pieces  of  turnip,  apples  or  potatoes. 

In  all  these  diseases,  we  have  to  do  merely  with  the  effect  of 
purely  mechanical  causes  which  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  ani- 
mals in  question,  or  might  endanger  their  life,  and  which,  for  these 
reasons,  quite  frequently  necessitate  immediate  slaughter. 

If,  in  accidental  cases  of  this  sort,  the  animal  is  slaughtered 
immediately  after  the  accident  takes  place,  there  is  evidently  no 
reason  for  excluding  the  meat  from  the  market.  It  is  suitable  for 
food,  with  the  exception  of  those  parts  in  which  the  lesions  occur. 

A  wound  infection  may  develop  later  as  a  result  of  the  lesion. 
On  account  of  this  possibility,  the  inspector  should  undertake  a 
careful  intravital  and  post-mortem  examination  in  all  cases  in  which 
slaughter  is  postponed,  in  order  to  determine  whether  wound  infec- 
tion has  taken  place,  and  should  determine  upon  the  course  of 
procedure  according  to  this  examination  (see  "  Septicemia  "  and 

*  In  the  viscera,  especially  in  the  liver,  as  shown  by  Presuhn,  the  conditions 
are  quite  different.  Even  within  24  hours,  numerous  colonies  of  the  coli  and 
proteus  bacilli  develop  in  samples  taken  from  beneath  the  surface,  and  inocula- 
tion experiments  in  mice  caused  the  death  of  these  animals  within  one  day.  In 
the  blood  of  the  inoculated  mice,  rods  of  the  ccli  group  were  demonstrated. 
These  abnormal  results  are,  however,  to  be  attributed  to  contamination  of  the 
organs  in  slaughtering  (laying  in  water  and  washing). 


742  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

"Meat  Poisoning").  If  wound  infection  lias  not  taken  placr*,  the> 
judgment  of  the  meat  with  reference  to  its  admission  as  marketable 
or  inferior  food  material  should  be  determined  largely  according  to 
the  completeness  of  bleeding. 

The  regulation  regarding  meat  inspection  in  Baden  requires 
compulsory  declaration  for  meat  in  all  cases  where  animals  were 
not  slaughtered  immediately  after  the  accident,  but  only  after  a 
period  of  from  six  to  twelve  hours. 

Lydtin  states  that  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  been 
affected  with  tympanites  often  possesses  a  conspicuous  red  color 
and  a  slightly  sweetish  odor,  which  appears  also  in  the  cooked 
meat.  In  such  cases  the  meat  is  no  longer  of  prime  market 
quality. 

It  is  claimed  by  butchers  that  the  meat  of  animals  which  have 
been  slaughtered  on  account  of  insuperable  obstacles  to  parturition 
is  characterized  by  a  poor  keeping  quality.  This  fact  likewise 
appears  to  justify  compulsory  declaration. 

4.— Defective  Bleeding. 

In  many  reports  concerning  the  practice  of  meat  inspection,  we 
find  among  the  reasons  for  condemnation  of  meat,  the  phrases 
"  defective  bleeding  "  or  "  agony."  These  terms  are  used  in  place 
of  the  expression  "  stuck  too  late,"  which  was  previously  in  vogue. 
None  of  these  phrases  is  correct,  for  the  reason  that  they  indicate 
only  one  non-essential  symptom.  A  statement  of  the  reason  of 
defective  bleeding  is  much  more  important,  since  the  judgment 
must  depend  thereon. 

Defective  bleeding  may  occur  in  diseased  animals,  if  the  heart 
action  is  already  partly  paralyzed,  and  also  in  healthy  animals,  when 
killed  during  violent  exertion  or  immediately  thereafter;  as,  for 
example,  in  animals  which  are  purposely  harrassed  or  driven  long 
distances  on  the  hoof. 

For  recognition  of  defective  bleeding,  see  page  132. 

JUDGMENT.— Defective  bleeding,  as  such,  requires  a  sanitary 
police  judgment  oply  in  animals  which  were  slaughtered  during 
great  exertion  or  immediately  thereafter,  and  which,  therefore,  did 
not  bleed  freely.  In  such  cases  ih&  meat  assumes  an  inferior  qual- 
ity as  a  food  material,  on  account  of  the  abnormal  color  due  to  the 
high  blood  content  and  on  account  of  its  well-known  poor  keeping 
quality.  In  order  to  prevent  such  occurrences,  butchers,  of  their 


NATURAL  DEATH  743 

own  initiative,  avoid  slaughtering  animals  immediately  rJter 
exhausting  drives.  Moreover,  in  many  cities  there  are  official  regu- 
lations concerning  this  matter  (compare  page  127). 

The  meat  of  animals  which  show  defective  bleeding  on  account 
of  diseases  is  to  be  judged  differently,  according  to  the  nature  of 
these  diseases. 

5.— Natural  Death. 

Among  the  domesticated  animals  most  frequently  used  for 
food,  cattle,  sheep,  hogs  and  goats,  natural  death  does  n^t  happen 
with  great  frequency.  The  majority  of  these  animals,  when  threat- 
ened with  some  fatal  affection,  are  killed  before  natural  death  has 
taken  place,  in  order  to  be  able  to  utilize  their  meat  as  human  food 
in  all  possible  cases. 

DIAGNOSIS  OP  NATURAL  DEATH.— Animals  which  have  died  a 
natural  death  are  characterized  by  the  high  blood  content  of  all 
parts,  especially  of  the  viscera  (liver) ;  by  the  hypostasis  in  the 
inferior  parts  ;  fulness  of  the  hypodermal  veins  ;  the  moist  character 
of  the  subcutis  and  musculature ;  absence  of  a  slaughter  or  shot 
wxxind;  a-»dthe  rapid  appearance  of  decomposition  which  begins 
simultaneously  upon  the  surface  and  in  the  interior  of  the  meat  and 
viscera. 

JUDGMENT. — As  in  the  case  of  emergency  slaughter,  so  also  in 
the  case  of  dead  animals,  a  general  judgment  of  the  meat  is  impos- 
sible, for  the  reason  that  diseases  of  the  most  various  kinds  may 
cause  natural  death,  and  judgment  must  depend  upon  the  diseases 
which  cause  death  in  each  ease.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  usually 
infectious  diseases  and  septicemia  which  cause  the  sudden  death  of 
animals,  but  not  all  of  these  diseases  render  the  meat  dangerous. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  meat  of  hogs  which  have  died  of  swine  ery- 
sipelas is  not,  in  and  of  itself,  injurious  to  health  (page  689). 
These  considerations  are  important  only  in  court,  but  here  their 
importance  is  great;  for,  in  order  to  fulfil  the  condition  of  fact  of 
Section  12  of  the  Food  Law,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  demonstrate  thai 
the  meat  came  from  a  dead  animal,  since  the  injurious  character 
must  be  an  objective  property  inherent  in  the  meat. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  meat  of  animals 
which  have  died  a  natural  death  may,  in  consequence  of  its  great 
blood  content  and  the  greater  or  less  length  of  time  during  which 


,44:  EMERGENCY  SLAUGHTER 

the  viscera,  especially  the  abdominal  viscera,  are  left  in  the  body, 
rapidly  undergo  decomposition  after  death,  often  within  24  hours. 
Decomposing  meat,  however,  is  dangerous  to  health  (page  757). 
For  the  rest,  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  died  a  natural  death 
in  consequence  of  disease  is  of  such  a  highly  unfit  character  for 
food  that  it  loses  absolutely  the  quality  of  human  food  material,  for 
civilized  races  have  an  insuperable  aversion  toward  eating  carrion, 
quite  aside  from  the  pronounced  abnormal  character  which  the  meat 
of  the  dead  animals  exhibits  (dark-red  color,  rapid  decomposition, 
«tc.).  It  is  only  exceptionally  that  we  find  among  us  people  who 
buy  and  eat  the  meat  of  animals  which  have  died  a  natural  death, 
with  full  knowledge  of  the  facts.  The  gypsies  have  no  such 
scruples.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  gypsies  eveil  disinter  and 
eat  the  carcasses  of  animals  which  have  died  a  natural  death  or 
which,  according  to  their  expression,  have  been  "slaughtered  by 
God." 

If  an  animal  has  died,  not  on  account  of  disease,  but  on 
account  of  chemical  or  physical  agencies,  the  judgment  to  be  ren- 
dered will  be  different.  Such  cases  occur  in  animals  which  have 
died  as  a  result  of  poisoning,  lightning,  fracture  of  a  cranial  bone, 
or  of  the  first  cervical  vertebra,  puncturing  wounds  of  the  heart, 
insufficiency  of  the  cardiac  valves,  cardiac  paralysis  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  echinococci  in  the  myocardium  and  air  emboli  in 
cases  of  operations,  suffocation  as  a  result  of  strangulation  or 
tympanites,  and  internal  hemorrhages  in  consequence  of  rupture 
of  the  spleen  and  liver  from  trauma,  etc. 

The  meat  of  these  animals,  except  in  cases  of  death  from  rup- 
ture of  the  spleen  and  liver,  possesses  its  full  content  of  blood  and 
its  appearance  is  thereby  altered.  It  has  poor  keeping  qualities. 
For  the  rest,  however,  it  comes  from  animals  which  are  in  perfect 
health  before  death.  No  objection  can  be  raised  against  the 
admission  of  such  meat  to  tlie  market  as  an  inferior  food  material, 
provided  the  viscera  are  removed  immediately  after  death  and  the 
features  which  stamp  the  animal  as  carrion  are  thereby  eliminated. 


XIY. 
POST-MORTEM   ALTERATIONS  IN  MEAT, 


From  the  moment  of  slaughter  to  the  time  of  its  preparation 
for  the  table,  meat  may  undergo  a  great  variety  of  alterations. 

CONTAMINATION  DURING  SLAUGHTER. — Meat  may  become  con- 
taminated as  a  result  of  careless  handling,  or  with  bile  or  the 
intestinal  contents  during  the  act  of  slaughter.  Moreover,  it  quite 
often  happens  that  in  excising  abscesses  the  surrounding  tissue 
becomes  contaminated  with  pus.* 

ACID  FERMENTATION. — In  another  place,  attention  has  been 
called  to  the  fact  that  an  acid  fermentation  regularly  develops  post 
mortem  in  the  musculature  and  liver.  With  regard  to  the  nature 
of  this  acid  fermentation,  we  have  the  important  results  obtained 
by  the  investigation  of  W.  Eber. 

In  the  first  place,  he  distinguishes  normal,  simple  acid  fermen- 
tation and  abnormal,  stinking  acid  fermentation.  As  is  well  known, 
simple  acid  fermentation  occurs  in  meat  at  the  time  of  the  appear- 
ance of,  rigor  mortis.  According  to  Eber,  the  disappearance  of 
rigor  mortis  is  ushered  in  with  processes  which,  according  to  the 
prevailing  idea  of  the  matter,  are  of  an  acid  nature.  Under  the 
influence  of  this  acid  fermentation  the  meat  acquires  a  peculiar 
agreeable  flavor  (ripening).  Later  (after  three  weeks  or  longer) 
traces  of  H2S  appear  (hautgout).  Ripening  of  the  meat  is 
observed  in  whole  quarters  or  in  other  large  pieces  with  a  dry  sur- 
face, since  the  process  in  question  presupposes  a  large  water  con- 


*  Such  contamination  is  to  be  avoided  wherever  possible.  However,  if  it  has 
occurred,  the  soiled  layer  of  meat  should  be  removed  with  a  knife.  In  cases 
where  the  meat  is  contaminated  with  the  contents  of  the  intestines  or  abscess, 
washing  is  not  sufficient  to  restore  its  normal  character,  since  the  bacteria  whicli 
have  found  their  way  to  the  meat  are  not  thereby  removed,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  find  their  favorable  conditions  for  multiplication  on  the  artificially  moist- 
ened meat. 

745 


746  POST-MOKTEM  ALTEKATIONS 

tent  and  exclusion  of  the  air.     In  small,  superficially  moist  pieces 
of  meat,  decomposition  sets  in  after  a  short  time. 

ACID  FERMENTATION  IN  GAME.— Decomposition  processes  in  tha 
meat  of  game  run  exactly  the  same  course  as  in  the  meat  of  domes- 
tic food  animals.  Acid  fermentation  in  the  meat  of  wild  game  is 
favored  by  the  fact  that  this  meat,  in  spite  of  its  high  blood  content, 
decomposes  much  mare  slowly  than  the  meat  of  domestic  food 
animals.  In  this  respect  the  horse  stands  next  to  wild  game.  More- 
over, the  meat  of  young  animals  resists  the  process  of  decomposi- 
tion longer  than  that  of  older  animals.  As  a  rule,  it  is  only  on  the 
surface  and  after  a  long  transportation  by  rail  and  under  high  tem- 
peratures that  we  observe  typical  superficial  decomposition,  which 
does  not  penetrate  deeply,  and,  according  to  Eber,  may  be  com- 
pletely removed  by  washing  with  water  containing  acetic  acid. 

Acid  fermentation  may  be  studied  under  especially  favorable 
conditions  im  the  liver.  When  just  exeuterated,  the  liver  has  an 
alkaline  reaction.  After  twenty-four  hours,  however,  when  pre- 
served in  the  usual  manner,' the  reaction  is  slightly  acid.  After  two 
to  three  days,  small  decidedly  acid  foci  of  an  Isabel-yellow  color 
appear  in  the  parenchyma.  The  foci  increase  in  size  and  after  from 
eight  to  fourteen  days  the  dark  brown  liver  is  altered  so  as  to 
appear  of  an  Isabel-yellow  color.  Eber  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
acid  livers  are  neither  injurious  nor  spoiled  in  the  sense  of  the  food 
law,  and  that  they  are  nothing  more  than  ripened  livers. 

The  acid  fermentation  denominated  by  Eber  as  stinking,  differs 
essentially  from  that  just  described.  This  is  observed  in  the  meat 
of  game  which  has  been  stored  while  in  a  warm  condition  or  which 
has  been  "  heated."  In  such  cases  the  hair  is  readily  d.etached,  the 
sulocutis  shows  a  green  color,  the  musculature  is  copper-red,  while 
its  cut  surfaces  are  grayish  or  dark-green.  The  odor  of  freshly  cut 
surfaces  is  peculiarly  disagreeable,  resembling  that  of  decomposi- 
tion, and  is  accentuated  by  the  addition  of  acid.  The  reaction  is 
acid.  Ammonia  is  absent.  On  the  other  hand,  H2S  may  £>e 
demonstrated  in  large  quantities.  According  to  Eber,  "heated" 
wild  game  is  to  be  considered  as  unsuitable  for  food  in  the  most 
general  sense  on  account  of  its  pronounced  variation  from  the 
normal.  It  appears,  however,  not  to  possess  dangerous  properties 
(Peters). 

In  addition  to  wild  game,  stinking  acid  fermentation  occurs  in 
slaughtered  domesticated  animals  when  the  mea't,  whiie  still  warm, 
is  stored. in  large  pieces  and  in  closed  receptacles,  or,  in  general, 


ABSORPTION   OF   ODORS  747 

AY  lien  it  is  subjected  to  conditions  under  which  it  cannot  cool.   This 
alteration  is  characterized  by  the  term  "  suffocated." 

ABSORPTION  OF  ODORS. — When  improperly  handled,  meat  may 
undergo  post  mortem  alterations  in  its  odor.  Attention  has  already 
been  called  to  the  fact  that  not  only  living  animal  bodies,  but  also 
warm  and  cold  tissues,  possess  the  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining 
odors.  We  have  numerous  unexceptionable  proofs  of  this  fact.  It 
is  well  known  that  meat  absorbs  the  combustion  products  of  tobacco 
smoke.  Moreover,  Dinter  reported  that  the  meat  of  a  hog  which 
had  been  carried  for  several  days  in  a  freshly-cleaned  car,  disin- 
fected with  carbolic  acid,  developed  a  highly  disagreeable  odor  when 
boiled  or  roasted.  In  the  year  1889,  the  meat  of  eight  hogs  was 
returned  to  a  dealer  in  Berlin  for  the  reason  that  it  possessed  a 
pronounced  flavor  of  chlorin.  The  meat  had  hung  near  rooms  which 
had  recently  been  paiuted  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  milk  of 
chlorid  of  lime.  Such  cases  have  since  been  observed  in  large 
numbers.*  They  serve  as  an  urgent  warning  against  transporting 
animals  in  odorous  cars,  and  against  the  utilization  of  odorous  dis- 
infectants in  abattoirs.  Moreover,  the  observations  mentioned 
above  show  that  in  the  construction  of  cold  storage  plants  all  odor- 
ous materials  must  be  rigidly  excluded. 

ADMIXTURE  OF  HARMFUL  METALS.— Furthermore,  during  the 
preparation  and  preservation  of  meat,  it  may  absorb  injurious^ 
metals.  Thus,  Masse  reports  a  case  of  poisoning  as  a  result  of  eat- 
ing meat  which  was  roasted  on  a  spit  over  coals  of  dry  wood  which 
had  been  painted  with  white  lead.  Cases  of  chronic  lead  poisoning 
attributable  to  pieces  of  lead  which  had  been  loosened  from  impro- 
perly constructed  mincing  machines  have  been  reported  also  from 
England.  Finally,  Ungar  and  Bodlander  demonstrated  that  when 
conserves  are  packed  in  cans,  there  is  always  danger  of  the  absorp- 
tion of  enough  tin  to  be  dangerous  to  health. 

CONTAMINATION  FROM  INSECTS. — The  occurrence  of  dipterous 
larvae  on  meat  in  cases  where  it  is  carelessly  handled  during  summer, 
and  the  occurrence  of  meal  mites  in  hams  may  be  mentioned 
incidentally.  Sticker  has  called  attention  to  the  occurrence  of  the 
latter.  According  to  Schmitz  and  Janssen,  this  is  explained  by  the 


*  Israelitic  dealers  usually  place  leeks  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  exenterated 
fowls  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  meat  keep  longer.  The  meat  thereby 
acquires  tbue  pronounced  odor  of  leek. 


748  POST-MORTEM   ALTERATIONS 

fact  that  in  certain  regions,  such  as  on  the  lower  Rhine,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  preserve  hams  in  meal  or  bran. 

Does  the  presence  of  dipterous  larvae  on  meat  indicate  long 
standing  decomposition?  To  this  question,  which  is  frequently 
proposed  to  meat  inspectors  for  consideration,  the  following  answer 
may  be  made :  Among  the  flies,  the  larvae  of  which  develop  in 
animal  materials,  the  house  fly  (Musca  domestica),  the  blow  fly  (M. 
vomitoria)  and  the  flesh  fly  (Sarcophaga  carnaria)  may  be  mentioned. 
The  first  two  mentioned  flies  deposit  their  eggs  in  fresh  and 
decomposing  materials  of  animal  origin  and  the  larvae  hatch  within 
twenty-four  hours,  while  the  flesh  fly  deposits  living  larvae  in 
decomposing  material.  It,  therefore,  appears  that  the  mere  demon- 
stration of  dipterous  larvae  is  no  proof  that  the  material  has  been 
long  in  the  process  of  decomposition.  The  length  of  the  larvae, 
which  on  the  first  day  is  1  mm.  and  within  ten  days  reaches  10  mm., 
may  give  an  approximate  indication  of  the  length  of  the  period  of 
decomposition. 

LOCALIZATION  OF  MICRO-ORGANISMS. — By  far  the  most  important 
post  mortem  alterations  are  produced  by  the  localization  of  micro- 
organisms on  meat.  As  a  result  of  its  peculiar  chemical  composi- 
tion, meat  furnishes  an  unusually  favorable  medium  for  fungi  of  all 
kinds.  As  mentioned  on  page  198,  Bocklart  reported  that  about 
thirty  of  the  species  of  bacteria  which  he  tested  commonly  develop 
luxuriantly  in  meat  broth.*  The  localization  of  fungi  on  meat  is 
most  likely  to  occur  in  cases  where  it  possesses  a  high  moisture  con- 
tent as  a  result  of  improper  preservation. 

Among  the  alterations  of  the  last  named  sort  belong  moldiness 
of  the  surface  of  meat,  as  well  as  red  and  blue  coloration  due  to  the 
localization  of  Bacillus  prodigiosus  and  B.  cl/anogenes:  These  altera- 
tions, however;  for  practical  purposes,  are  of  slight  importance, 
since  they  usually  cause  no  injury  to  health,  in  and  of  themselves,t 
and  since  the  growths  in  question  take  place  simply  on  the  surface 


*  Since  the  pathogenic  organisms  of  human  infectious  diseases  also  thrive 
•well  on  meat,  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  precaution  that  persons  who  are  suffer- 
ing, from  infectious  diseases  (typhoid,  cholera,  scarlet  fever,  infectious  skin 
eruptions,  etc.),  or  who  have  not  completely  recovered  from  such  diseases,  are 
prevented  from  coming  in  contact  with  meat. 

f  In  contrast  with  the  red  colored  meat  of  food  animals,  red  colored  sardines 
have  been  demonstrated  to  be  injurious.  Loir  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  red  col- 
oration of  sardines  is  caused  by  a  toxic  variety  of  B.  prodigiosus  which  settles 
upon  the  sardines  in  large  quantities  before  the  latter  are  preserved  in  boiling  oil 


PHOSPHORESCENT   MEAT  749- 

and  may  easily  be  removed  by  cutting  away  the  superficial  layers  of 
meat. 

The  localization  of  photogenic  bacteria  on  meat  is  oi  more  impor- 
tance, and  the  decomposition  of  meat  by  putrefactive  bacteria  is  of 
quite  especial  importance.  These  two  alterations  require,  there- 
fore, a  more  detailed  discussion. 

GRAY  COLORATION  OF  SAUSAGES. — In  sausages  intended  for  long 
keeping  a  gray  coloration  frequently  appears  on  the  peripheral 
portions,  without  the  slightest  change  in  odor  or  taste  of  the  other 
parts  of  the  sausage.  The  cause  of  this  striking  phenomenon  is  not 
understood.  Falk  and  Oppermann  suspected  that  Bacillus  mesenteri- 
cust  which  had  been  noted  by  Serafini  as  a  regular  occurrence  on 
sausages,  was  the  cause  of  the  alteration  in  the  color  of  these  sau- 
sages. Meyer  attributes  the  gray  coloration  of  sausnges  to  a  loss  of 
salt  as  a  result  of  cndosmotic  processes.  He  found  as  much  as  3 
per  cent,  less  salt  in  the  periphery  of  gray  sausages  than  in  the 
interior,  while  in  red  sausages  the  difference  amounted  to  only  1 
per  cent.  According  to  Glage,  volatile  sulphur  compounds  are  con- 
cerned in  the  gray  coloration  of  sausages  (sulphuretted  hydrogen 
and  mercaptan).  These  are  given  off,  as  shown  by  Glage,  not  only 
from  fresh  but  also  from  conserved  meat,  and  the  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  may  change  the  red  coloring  material  of  the  muscle  in 
sausages  to  a  gray  color.  The  "  latent  green  colorations  "  (Glage) 
in  poorly  salted  hams  and  pieces  of  pickled  meat,  and  which  appear 
only  after  exposure  to  oxygen,  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  action  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

DECOMPOSITION  OF  FAT. — In  addition  to  moldiness  and  alteration 
as  a  result  of  chromogenic  bacteria,  fat  exhibits  a  specific  alteration 
(rancidity).  Formerly  this  alteration  was  ascribed  to  the  appear- 
ance of  free  fatty  acids  and  the  degree  of  rancidity  was  estimated 
according  to  the  percentage  of  fatty  acids  present.  Scala,  however, 
found,  as  a  cause  of  the  rancidity,  an  aldehyde,  the  presence  of 
which  may  be  demonstrated  by  collecting  the  distillate  obtained 
by  means  of  steam  in  a  hydrochloric  rnetaphenylen-diamin  solution. 
The  degree  of  rancidity  may  be  determined  colorimetrically  by  the 
yellow  coloration  of  the  reagent. 

1.— Phosphorescent  Meat. 

RECORD  OF  CASES. — The  literature  contains  a  large  number  ol 
observations  concerning  meat  which  possessed  the  striking  property 


750  POST  MORTEM  ALTERATIONS 

of  emitting  light.  Fabricius  ab  Aquapendente,  in  the  year  1592, 
reported  that  in  Rome  a  portion  of  a  slaughtered  lamb  which  had 
been  preserved  in  the  raw  state,  became  phosphorescent.  In  the 
year  1780,  according  to  another  report  of  a  meat  dealer  in  Orleans, 
the  whole  meat  supply  became  phosphorescent.  The  physiologist, 
E.  von  Briicke,  reported  that  in  Vienna  at  the  beginning  of  the  50's, 
a  large  number  of  sausages  were  observed  in  a  phosporescent  state. 
Nuesch  in  Basel  in  1877  observed  that  pork  which  was  kept  in  a 
receptacle  in  a  pantry  emitted  a  green  light  of  such  intensity  that 
people  were  able  to  recognize  each  other  by  it  and  to  read  the  time 
on  their  watches.  Recently  many  reports  have  been  published  con- 
cerning similar  cases.  Phosphorescence  in  meat  in  cold  storage 
plants  of  certain  public  abattoirs  has  proved  to  be  a  great  calamity. 

From  the  reported  cases  the  following  may  be  mentioned: 
Two  women  purchased  a  pound  each  of  pork  and  beef  and  pre- 
served it  in  a  damp  room.  When  examined  by  daylight,  both 
kinds  of  meat  presented  "  unobjectionable,  fine,  appearing,  fresh 
and  perfectly  wholesome"  products.  "When  examined  in  the  dark, 
it  appeared  that  the  pieces  of  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  pork  and  the 
surrounding  tissue  emitted  as  bright  a  light  as  white-hot  iron.  The 
paper  on  which  the  meat  had  lain  remained  phosphorescent  for 
gome  time,  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  (Gottes winter). 

Beef  sausages  were  kept  in  a  porcelain  dish  in  an  unused  oven 
with  an  open  door  and  after  a  period  of  four  days  showed  a  pro- 
nounced phosphorescence.  They  shone  brightly  in  a  dark  room 
and  a  number  of  intensive,  bluish-white,  shining,  pearl-like  foci 
were  observed  in  them.  The  sausages  were  still  quite  fresh, 
gmelled  like  fresh  meat,  and  were  eaten  in  large  quantities  without 
any  ill  effects,  by  the  butcher  who  gladly  took  them  back  in  order 
to  prevent  any  legal  proceedings. 

ETIOLOGY. — In  1877,  Nuesch  demonstrated  phosphorescent 
bacteria  in  phosphorescent  meat.  Similar  organisms  were  found 
by  Pniiger  in  fish  meat,  the  phosphorescent  property  of  which  has 
long  been  known.  In  1879,  Baucel  and  Husson  demonstrated  that 
the  phosphorescence  of  lobster  meat  is  always  to  be  attributed  to 
the  action  of  bacteria.  It  is  well  known  that  the  phosphorescence 
of  the  sea  is  caused  by  bacteria. 

The  following  species  of  phosphorescent  bacteria  occur  in  sea 
water  :  Photobacterium  pfluegeri  and  P.  pliospliorescens  (on  salt-water 
fish  in  general),  Photobacterium  fiidieri  and  P.  lalficum  (Baltic  Sea). 
Finallv,  P.  indicum,  in  the  "West  Indian  Ocean  (Carribean  Sea)  and 


DECOMPOSING  MEAT  751 

P.  luminosum  (North  Sea).  F.  Ludwig  demonstrated  that  P.  pflue- 
geri,  which,  according  to  him,  caused  the  phosphorescence  of  the 
meat  of  haddock,  may  be  transmitted  to  beef,  pork  and  veal. 
In  the  case  which  was  reported  by  Nuesch,  infection  of  the  meat 
took  place  from  the  rotten  timber  in  the  ceiling  of  the  pantry  which 
undoubtedly  was  the  source  of  phosphorescent  bacteria.  Phospho- 
rescence disappears  with  the  appearance  of  decomposition. 

For  destroying  the  phosphorescence,  it  is  recommended  that 
infected  substances  and  the  rooms  be  treated  with  acetic  or  salicylic 
acid. 

JUDGMENT. — Phosphorescent  meat  is  not  dangerous  to  human 
health.  On  account  of  its  objective  variation  from  the  normal 
condition,  it  is  a  spoiled  (inferior)  food  material. 

2. — Decomposing  Meat. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. — The  bacteria  of  decomposition  thrive  on 
meat,  perhaps  the  best  of  all  bacteria.  If  care  is  exercised  in  the 
treatment  of  meat  (allowing  it  to  cool  in  well-ventilated  rooms 
and  preserving  it  in  cold  storage),  we  are  in  a  position  to  check 
the  development  of  putrefactive  bacteria,  which  are  present  every- 
where, and  to  maintain  the  meat  in  a  fresh  and  unaltered  condition 
for  a  certain  length  of  time.  With  careless  treatment,  on  the  other 
hand,  especially  if  freshly  slaughtered  pieces  of  meat  are  heaped 
together  while  still  warm  and  if  they  are  placed  in  poorly  venti- 
lated rooms  with  a  high  temperature,  the  meat  under  such  "hygie- 
nic mistreatment"  becomes  simply  a  nutrient  medium  for  putre- 
factive bacteria. 

It  should  be  observed  that  the  harmful  effects  of  improper 
preservation  are  not  confined  to  fresh  meat  alone,  but  also  to 
cooked  and  roasted  meat.  As  emphasized  by  Schmidt-Miilheim, 
the  common  practice  of  heaping  up  hot  sausages  and  pieces  of 
roast  beef  in  layers  in  closed  receptacles  for  use  in  festivities, 
must,  from  a  bacteriological  standpoint,  be  considered  as  a  very 
dangerous  method  of  preserving  meat. 

The  property  of  meat  as  a  specially  favorable  medium  for  the 
development  of  decomposition  plays  a  large  national  economic  and 
hygienic  role.  Yon  Hofmann,  in  Leipsic,  estimates  the  loss  of 
perishable  food  material  as  a  result  of  improper  care  at  10  per 
cent.  Moreover,  the  cases  of  so-called  sausage  poisoning,  the 
numerous  cases  of  sickness  after  eating  decomposed  ham,  "high'* 


752 


POST-MOETEM  ALTERATIONS 


FIG.  248. 


game,  poorly  preserved  pieces  of  meat,  and  recently  the  mysteri- 
ous cases  of  mince  meat  poisoning,  furnish  abundant  evidence  of 
the  danger  from  eating  decomposing  meat. 

PUTREFACTIVE  BACTERIA. — The  number  of  bacteria  which  are 
concerned  in  the  putrefaction  of  proteids  is  very  large.  The  most 
important  species,  however,  is  Proteus  vulgaris  (Hauser).  In  addi- 
tion to  numerous  species  of  bacteria  which  liquefy  gelatin,  Kraus 
found  in  decomposing  meat,  five  non-liquefying  species,  one  of 
which  possessed  great  similarity  to  Gartner's  Bacillus  enteritidis  and 
was  distinguished  from  the  others  by  the  fact  that  it  killed  mice 
in  combination  with  the  putrefactive  bacteria  which  liquefy  gelatin. 

Serafini  demonstrated  B.  mesentericus 
of  Fluegge  in  addition  to  other 
species  of  bacteria  in  all  sausages. 
This  species,  as  is  well  known,  is 
not  pathogenic,  but  induces  decom- 
position in  sausages. 

From  meat  which  had  caused 
bloody  vomit,  bloody  diarrhea,  great 
depression,  and  some  fever  in  10 
persons  with  a  fatal  outcome  in  one 
case,  Levy  isolated  Proteus  vulgaris. 
This  species  was  found  also  in  the 
incrustation  of  filth  in  the  ice  chest 
in  which  the  meat  had  been  kept. 
Hamburger  and  Wolff  examined  meat  which  had  caused  sum- 
mer cholera  in  the  inmates  of  the  mansion  of  the  Utrecht  Deacon- 
ess. A  non-motile  organism  was  isolated  from  the  meat,  which 
was  1  to  1.5  /<  long  and  0.4  /*  broad.  The  species  was  easily 
stained,  even  by  the  Gram  method.  On  bouillon  cultures,  a  thin 
pellicle  was  formed  with  vertical  bands  and  a  brush-like  growth 
was  produced  on  gelatin.  The  bacteria  grow  rapidly  on  meat  and 
develop  a  pronounced  odor  of  ammonia.  Raw  or  boiled  infected 
meat  and  meat  broth  made  from  it  are  pathogenic  for  dogs  and 
mice  (diarrhea).  On  account  of  the  formation  of  granules  on  the 
pellicle  of  meat  broth  cultures,  Hamburger  and  Wolff  named  the 
organism  Bacillus  cellulceformans.  These  authors  consider  it  prob- 
able that  the  species  is  a  putrefactive  organism. 

THE  PROCESS  OP  PUTREFACTION  IN  MEAT  FROM  DIFFERENT 
SOURCES. — Under  normal  conditions — that  is,  in  slaughtering  well 


Proteus  vulgaris  from  an  agar 

culture  24  hours  old. 

X  500  diameters. 


DECOMPOSING   MEAT  753 

animals — putrefaction  begins  after  a  certain  period  in  the  parts  of 
the  meat  which  are  accessible  to  the  air  and  gradually  penetrates 
into  the  interior  along  the  course  of  loose  strands  of  connective 
tissue  (compare  page  740).  In  the  meat  of  animals  which  are 
affected  with  febrile  conditions,  especially  those  of  a  septic  charac- 
ter, putrefaction  appears  more  promptly  and  penetrates  into  the 
deeper  parts  more  quickly.  In  dead  animals  which  are  allowed  to 
lie  without  exenteration,  superficial  and  deep-lying  putrefaction 
appears  simultaneously  and  after  a  very  short  period,  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  the  full  blood  content  of  the  meat  and  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  the  penetration  of  the  putrefactive  bacteria  from  the 
intestines  into  the  neighboring  venous  trunks.  In  the  meat  of  ani- 
mals which  have  died  a  natural  death,  the  deep-lying  putrefaction 
is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  gas,  for  the  reason  that  not 
only  aerobic,  but  also  anaerobic,  gas-forming,  cadaver  bacilli  pene- 
trate into  the  blood  of  cadavers.  In  deer  which  are  not  imme- 
diately dressed,  hunters  at  least  open  the  abdominal  cavity  in 
order  to  air  the  carcass,  an  empirical  measure  which  is  based  on 
the  fact  that  the  carcass  cools  off  more  rapidly  after  the  admission 
of  air  into  the  body  cavity  and  the  migration  of  anaerobic  bacteria 
from  the  intestine  into  the  neighboring  musculature  is  prevented. 
In  small  game,  such  as  hare  and  birds,  the  alimentary  canal  may 
remain  in  the  abdominal  cavity  without  producing  the  above  men- 
tioned harmful  results.  This  is  explained  by  the  rapid  cooling  of 
small  animal  bodies,  which  prevents  the  growth  of  cadaveric  bac- 
teria. 

PARTIAL  DECOMPOSITION. — Up  to  the  time  of  the  introduction  of 
meat  inspection  in  Norway,  the  bad  habit  prevailed  of  allowing 
fasting  calves  to  lie  unexenterated  after  slaughter  until  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  and  kidneys  acquired  a  stinking,  discolored  character. 
This  practice  frequently  led  to  cases  of  illness  after  eating  the  meat. 
Thus,  Nielsen  reports  that  the  foreparts  of  a  calf  treated  in  this 
manner  were  eaten  without  bad  consequences,  while  the  consump- 
tion of  the  loins  and  abdominal  musculature,  or  those  parts  which, 
were  in  immediate  contact  with  the  alimentary  tract,  caused  serious 
cases  of  illness,  whether  eaten  in  a  boiled  or  roasted  condition. 

INFLUENCE  OF  AIR  UPON  THE  DECOMPOSITION  OF  MEAT. — Nielsen 
attempted  to  determine  whether  and  under  what  conditions  during 
the  decomposition  of  animal  proteids  poisonous  decomposition, 
products  of  the  group  of  albumoses,  soluble  in  water,  are  formed. 


754  POST-MORTEM   ALTERATIONS 

During  this  investigation  he  found  that  when  a  limited  amount  of 
air  was  admitted,  albumoses  exhibiting  toxic  action  when  injected 
subcutaneously,did  not  appear  on  the  fifth,  tenth  or  fifteenth  day. 

When  the  air  was  freely  admitted,  however,  albumoses  with 
pronounced  poisonous  properties  developed  in  meat  which  was  only 
five  days  old. 

i 
DECOMPOSITION  TOXINS. — In    the    decomposition    of    proteids, 

poisonous  substances  develop  (decomposition  toxins),  which  have 
already  been  discussed  under  "Putrid  Intoxication"  (page  553). 

ISOLATION  OP  DECOMPOSITION  TOXINS  FROM  DECOMPOSING  MEAT. 
— For  isolating  decomposition  toxins  from  decomposing  meat, 
Scholl  recommended  pressing  out  the  fluid  and  the  extraction  of  the 
material  thus  obtained  with  pure  water  at  a  temperature  of  40°  C. 
for  a  period  of  twenty  minutes.  Scholl  emphasizes  the  fact  that 
according  to  this  method  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  demonstrate  toxins 
even  in  small  quantities  of  decomposing  meat.  From  one  piece  of 
beef  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  steak  which  had  been  putrefying  for 
two  days,  it  was  possible  to  extract  so  much  toxin  at  a  temperature 
of  40°  C.  that  a  guinea  pig  was  paralyzed  within  two  hours  after 
receiving  an  injection  into  the  body  cavity.  Jeserich  and  Niernann 
found  that  the  toxins  which  arise  during  the  decomposition  of  meat 
persist  in  the  meat  for  a  short  time  in  a  very  virulent  condition,  but 
soon  disappear  on  account  of  farther  decomposition.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  recommended  that  decomposing  material  which  is  to  be 
investigated  should  be  laid  immediately  in  absolute  alcohol,  since  in 
this  material  the  toxin  remains  unaltered  for  a  long  period.  For 
further  testing  the  alcoholic  extract,  it  is  evaporated  and  the 
material  left  behind  is  dissolved  in  water.  Subcutaneous  injections 
of  small  quantities  (one  to  two  cc.)  of  the  aqueous  solution  kill 
guinea  pigs  and  rabbits  if  virulent  decomposition  products  are 
present. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  DECOMPOSITION. — In  addition  to  the  above 
named  toxic  elements,  substances  are  produced  under  the  influence 
of  decomposition  bacteria,  viz.,  aromatic  substances  and  fatty  acids, 
mercaptan,  ammonia  and  carbolic  acid.  The  methods  for  the  posi- 
tive demonstration  of  decomposition  depend  upon  the  presence  of 
ammonia.  These  methods  are  of  great  value,  since  our  olfactory 
organs  may  often  fail  us  in  the  investigation  of  odorous  or  stinking 
materials,  and  since  alterations  of  color  (modification  into  a  dirty- 
gray  or  green)  as  well  as  of  consistency  are  not  always  conspicuously 


DECOMPOSING  MEAT  755 

present.  According  to  "W.  Eber,  the  odor  is  also  unreliable,  since, 
•quite  aside  from  individual  differences  in  the  perception  of  odors,  it 
is  not  a  simple  test.  Decomposing  meat  smells  differently  than 
decomposing  crabs.  Moreover,  fish  emit  a  peculiar  variable  odor, 
and,  finally,  decomposing  oysters  are  widely  different  in  their  odor- 
ous products  from  decomposing  green  herring  or  from  the  odor  of 
a  carcass  which  has  been  dead  for  several  days.  The  differences  in 
the  odors  of  decomposition  arise  also  from  their  different  behavior 
toward  acids  and  alkalies.  Some  are  not  affected  by  the  addition 
of  acids  or  alkalies,  while  others  are  intensified.  Moreover,  some 
contain  mercaptan  and  others  not.  Strange  to  say,  mercaptan  is 
entirely  wanting  in  the  intensely  odorous  products  of  superficial 
decomposition  of  meat.  Finally,  in  the  decomposition  of  schlack- 
wurst  and  salt  meat,  the  disagreeable  odor  may  not  appear  in  the 
raw  material,  but  is  first  observed  after  cooking. 

Schmidt-Miilheim  called  attention  to  the  alkaline  reaction  of 
decomposing  meat  due  to  the  formation  of  ammonia.  Decomposi- 
tion can  not  be  hastened,  however,  by  alkalinity  alone,  since  in  addi- 
tion to  fresh  organs,  blood  also  and  lymph  extravasations,  as  well 
as  pickled  meat  and  smoked  hams,  may  possess  an  alkaline  reaction. 
Moreover,  the  reaction  in  decomposing  materials  varies.  An  acid 
reaction  (mixed  processes),  an  amphoteric  (brine  and  juicy  materials) 
or  an  alkaline  reaction  may  prevail.  The  latter  is  the  usual  one, 
nk  least  in  the  decomposition  of  meat. 

W.  Eber,  accordingly,  proposed  an  objective  method  of  invests 
gation  which  is  based  on  the  demonstration  of  free  ammonia,  the  so- 
called  ammonia  test,  and  which  gave  good  results  in  Eber's  hands> 
in  investigating  decomposing  meat  and  fish. 

METHOD  or  MAKING  THE  SAL-AMMONIAC  TEST. — Reagent :  One 
part  pure  hydrochloric  acid,  three  parts  alcohol  and  one  part  of 
ether,  mixed  together  and  preserved  in  a  closed  vessel. 

A  test  tube  2  cc.  in  diameter,  10  cc.  in  length,  receives  enough 
of  the  reagent  to  cover  the  bottom  of  the  glass  to  a  depth  of  about 
1  cm.  It  is  then  corked  and  shaken  once.  A  sample  of  the  material 
io  be  examined  is  then  rubbed  with  a  clean  glass  rod,  or,  if  its  con- 
sistency is  still  quite  firm,  a  part  of  the  material  the  size  of  a  pea  is 
fixed  to  the  rod  by  adhesion.  The  rod  thus  prepared  is  quickly 
dipped  into  the  glass  filled  with  the  fumes  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
alcohol  and  ether,  so  that  its  lower  end  sinks  to  a  depth  of  1  cm. 
above  the  surface  of  the  fluid  and  so  that  it  does  not  touch  the 
avails  of  the  vessel. 


756  POST-MOKTEM  ALTERATIONS 

For  practical  purposes  in  making  the  test,  a  cylindrical  vessel 
furnished  with  a  perforated  cork  holding  a  glass  tube  may  be 
used  in  the  place  of  the  test  tube.  If  ammonia  is  present,  a  cloudi- 
ness appears  after  a  few  seconds,  which  sinks  down  at  the  end 
of  the  glass  rod  or  surrounds  it.  This  reaction  increases  in  inten- 
sity with  the  degree  of  putrefaction.  After  a  short  time  the  fumes 
may  fill  the  whole  vessel  and  may  be  temporarily  precipitated  as  a 
white  layer  on  the  walls. 

The  sample  should  not  be  colder  than  the  test  tube  (condensa- 
tion of  the  fumes  of  the  reagent).  Moreover,  the  test  for  decom- 
position should  not  be  made  in  rooms  which  contain  free  ammonia. 

The  decomposition  test  of  Eber  can  not  be  considered  as 
proving  unquestionably  the  presence  of  decomposition,  for  the  rea- 
son that  the  test  may  give  a  positive  result  in  undecomposed 
meat  (for  example,  mutton),  and  especially  in  meat  under  brine 
(pickled  meat,  pickled  herring,  sardines,  etc.),  on  account  of  the  fre- 
quent normal  occurrence  of  trimethylamine.  In  the  presence  of 
other  phenomena  of  decomposition,  however,  it  serves  to  confirm 
the  diagnosis. 

In  demonstrating  decomposition  in  larger  pieces  of  meat,  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  a  superficial  examination  is- 
not  sufficient,  but  that  deep  incisions  must  be  made  into  the  meat. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  DECOMPOSITION  IN  CANNED  MEAT.— On 
account  of  the  frequent  occurrence  of  poisoning  after  the  con- 
sumption of  canned  meat,  the  means  of  recognizing  decomposition 
processes  in  canned  meat  are  of  great  practical  value.  The  French 
Army  consumes  annually  3,000,000  cans  of  conserved  meat,  contain- 
ing five  rations  each.  In  1897,  201  cases  of  sickness,  and  in  1898, 
198  cases  appeared,  one  of  which  ran  a  fatal  course  (Vaillard). 
During  the  Spanish-American  war,  extensive  outbreaks  of  sickness 
appeared  in  the  American  army  after  eating  canned  meat.  The 
pathological  symptoms  consisted  either  of  non-febrile  digestive 
disturbances,  or  of  febrile  gastro-enteritis.  According  to  Ballard, 
the  ends  of  the  cans  in  case  of  well  conserved  meat  should  be 
depressed  on  account  of  the  condensation  of  the  steam  after  the  can 
is  soldered.  In  case  of  poorly  cooked  conserves  which  are  sub- 
sequently affected  with  decomposition,  the  cover  of  the  cans  is  dis- 
tended outward  as  a  result  of  the  gases  of  decomposition. 
Unscrupulous  manufacturers  frequently  boil  such  swelled  cans  a 
second  time.  In  order  to  do  this,  however,  a,  second  opening  must 
be  made  in  the  can,  which  hole  is  later  soldered.  Accordingly,  a. 


DECOMPOSING  MEAT  75T 

preventive  measure  may  be  adopted  against  possible  poisoning 
from  decomposed  canned  meat,  requiring  the  exclusion  from  the 
market  of  swelled  as  well  as  twice-soldered  cans.  After  opening 
suspected  cans,  one  finds  that  the  gelatin  surrounding  the  meat 
is  discolored  and  liquefied  (compare  page  760).  If  poisonous  sub- 
stances were  present  in  the  meat  at  the  time  of  its  preparation, 
the  recognition  of  injurious  canned  meat  by  the  above  mentioned 
process  is  impossible. 

JUDGMENT. — According  to  the  experimental  investigations  dis- 
cussed on  page  552,  decomposing  meat  must  be  considered  a 
poisonous  food  material.  As  shown  by  experience,  it  has  in  many 
cases  caused  injury  to  health  aud  even  the  death  of  man.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that  decomposing  meat,  known 
euphemistically  as  hautgout,  is  a  delicacy  for  gourmands  and  often 
eaten  without  injurious  consequences,  this  fact  is  of  no  importance 
in  sanitary  police  work;  for  the  positive  fact  that  decomposing 
meat  is  calculated  to  injure  human  health  is,  despite  the  numer- 
ous observations  of  its  harmless  effects,  a  quite  sufficient  basis  for 
the  exclusion  of  all  decomposing  meat  from  the  market*  Attention 
has  rightly  been  called  to  the  fact  that  admirers  of  hautgout  should 
be  permitted  to  allow  the  meat  to  ripen  privatim  before  eating,  but 
that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  authorities  to  exclude  decomposing  meat 
from  the  market  as  a  dangerous  food  material.  Finally,  the  fact 
should  be  emphasized  that  decomposition  toxins  are  not  destroyed 
by  ordinary  cooking,  f 

Van  Ermengem,  to  whom  we  owe  the  brilliant  investigations 
of  the  etiology  of  meat  poisoning  and  botulism,  is  of  the  opinion 
that  decomposition  is  of  but  slight  importance  in  the  etiology  of 
cases  of  sickness  after  eating  meat.  As  proof  of  this  position  he 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that,  according  to  Navarre,  decomposing 
fish  serve  as  a  delicacy  for  300,000,000  Indians,  Indo-Chinese, 
Malays,  Polynesians  and  negroes  of  all  kinds.  Forster,  however, 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  among  these  people  decomposing 
fish,  like  the  pungent  cheese  of  the  European  table,  are  used  as  a 


*  If  we  have  to  do  merely  with  a  slight  superficial  decomposition,  such  as 
occurs  frequently  in  wild  game,  the  meat  may  be  easily  put  in  marketable  con- 
dition by  cutting  off  the  superficial  layer,  or,  according  to  W.  Eber,  by  washing 
in  acetic  acid. 

f  Scholl  found  that  the  poisonous  property  of  decomposition  toxins  was  not 
completely  destroyed  until  after  subjection  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  for  a 
period  of  1>£  hours. 


758  POST-MORTEM   ALTERATIONS 

condimental   addition  to  rice,  and   that  we  know  nothing   of 
decomposition  processes  which  take  place  in  this  and  similar  food 
materials,  as,  for  example,  the  fermented  eggs  of  the  Chinese. 


APPENDIX. 
1. — Sausage  Poisoning  (Botulism,  Allantiasis). 

HISTORICAL. — The  earliest  reports  concerning  so-called  sausage- 
poisoning  are  contained  in  the  work  of  the  Schwabian  poet  and 
physician,  Justinus  Kerner.  According  to  Senkpiehl,  who  made  a 
careful  compilation  of  the  literature  concerning  botulism  up  to  the- 
year  1877,  Kerner's  "Neue  Beobachtung^ii  iiber  die  in  Wurttem- 
burg  so  haufig  vorfallenden  todlichen  Vergiftungen  dnrch  den, 
Geuuss  geraucherter  Wiirste,"  Tubingen,  1820,  and  his  other  trea- 
tise, "Das  Fettgift  oder  die  Fettsaure  und  deren  Wirkung  auf  dens 
tierischen  Organismus,"  Tubingen,  1822,  appear  to  contain  the  first 
published  reports  concerning  this  matter. 

Kerner  described  as  the  first  case  one  which  occurred  in  Klein- 
enzheim,  in  1793,  and  made  reference  also  to  an  epidemic  in  Moos- 
berg,  Breitenberg,  Beichenbach,  Stammheim  and  Salzer  Oberamt,  a 
total  of  76  cases  with  37  deaths.  In  the  second  treatise,  the  author 
enumerated  98  other  cases  with  34  deaths.  lu  two  instances  epi- 
demics appeared,  during  which  13  persons  became  ill  ami  6  died 
after  eating  sour  black  pudding,  while  15  cases  with  5  deaths 
occurred  after  eating  decomposed  sausage  of  other  kinds. 

Shortly  after  this  work  of  Kerner  (1824),  Weiss  reported  29  cases 
of  sickness  with  3  deaths  after  eating  spoiled  sausage  in  the  town  of 
Murrhardt.  Numerous  cases  of  sickness  from  eating  bad  sausage 
were  reported  during  the  50's  by  the  Wiirtemburg  physicians  Bach, 
Faber,  Schiitz,  Berg  and  Eeuss.  Later  Miiller  prepared  an  account 
of  62  cases  in  the  Wiirtemburg  Korrespondenzblatt  in  1863.  In  the 
same  journal,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  veritable  treasury  of 
literature  concerning  sausage  poisoning,  Josenhaus  and  Baumann 
(1869)  reported  two  epidemics  as  a  result  of  eating  hirnleberwurst 
and  ordinary  leberwurst  which  was  six  weeks  old.  In  the  same  jour- 
nal, Hedinger  noted  the  poisoning  of  several  persons  by  leberwurst, 
and  Nauwerck  reported  an  outbreak  of  sickness  among  10  persons  in 
Gamertingen  after  eating  schwartenmagen.  The  last  cases  of  sau- 
sage poisoning  in  Wiirtemburg  occurred  in  Beutlingen,  Horb  and 


BOTULISM  759 

Nordstetten.  In  Reutlingen,  20  persons  were  affected  with  botul- 
ism after  eating  leberwurst,  while  100  persons  were  similarly 
affected  in  Horb  and  Nordstetten. 

OCCURRENCE. — In  comparison  with  Wiirtemburg,  other  countries 
show  a  surprisingly  small  number  of  cases ;  especially  in  northern 
Germany,  the  occurrence  of  sausage  poisoning  is  comparatively 
rare,  while  from  Bavaria  and  Baden,  several,  but  not  nearly  so 
many  cases  as  from  Wiirtemburg,  have  been  reported.  However,  that 
the  disease  formerly  occurred  in  northern  Germany  is  shown  by 
two  publications  of  the  Royal  Imperial  Government  at  Arnsberg,  of 
January  18, 1822,  and  December  16,  1825,  in  which  a  warning  is 
issued  against  poisoning  as  a  result  of  eating  semi-fluid,  sour  and 
malodorous  sausage. 

If  we  ask  why  botulism  occurs  so  frequently  and  causes  so 
many  deaths  in  Wiirtemburg,  an  explanation  is  to  be  found,  in  the 
first  place,  in  the  great  development  of  sausage  manufacture  and  in 
the  consumption  of  sausages  in  Wiirtemburg,  and,  also,  in  the 
ignorance  previously  exhibited  in  preparing  certain  kinds  of  sausage, 
as  leberwurst  and  blutwurst,  for  consumption  at  a  considerably 
later  date.  I  emphasize  the  word  "  previously,"  for  the  gradually 
diminishing  number  of  cases  of  sausage  poisoning  in  the  last  decades 
proves  that  a  change  has  taken  place  in  this  regard.  In  northern 
Germany,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Main,  it  is  the  custom  to  eat 
sausages  prepared  from  the  viscera,  as,  for  example,  leberwurst  and 
lungenwurst,  only  in  a  fresh  condition.  At  any  rate,  smoked  leber- 
wurst in  northern  Germany  is  exceedingly  rare,  except  in  Thiiringen. 
The  so-called  long  keeping  sausages  of  northern  Germany  (mett- 
wurst  and  schlackwurst),  which  are  the  only  kinds  which  are 
preserved  for  the  period  of  months  or  one  year,  consist  of  muscula- 
ture, which,  when  properly  conserved,  resists  decomposition  much 
longer  than  lungs,  liver  or  blood.  In  the  etiology  of  sausage  pois- 
oning in  Wiirtemburg,  however,  smoked  visceral  sausages  (leber- 
wurst, hirnleberwurst,  schwartenmagen,  presssack  and  blunzen) 
play  an  important  role.  These  sausages  are  poorly  adapted  to 
keeping  for  a  long  time,  since  they  contain  material  which  spoils 
readily.  Moreover,  the  customary  method  of  interrupting  the 
smoking,  in  which  the  fire  is  not  maintained  during  the  night,  is  in 
part  the  cause  of  the  poor  conservation  of  sausages  in  Wiirtemburg. 
Pin;illy,  in  many  cases,  especially  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  means  of 
large  sausages  like  blunzen  and  presssack,  the  cooking  and  associ- 
ated destruction  of  the  putrefactive  bacteria  were  probably 


760  POST-MORTEM  ALTERATIONS 

incomplete  in  consequence  of  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  extremely 
slow  penetration  of  heat  into  meat  and  meat  products. 

An  illness  apparently  identical  with  poisoning  by  decomposed 
sausage  has  been  frequently  observed  after  eating  meat  prepared 
by  other  methods.  Thus,  after  eating  decomposing  meat  and  the 
broth  obtained  from  it,  or  boiled,  warmed  up,  or  re-roasted  meat ; 
also  after  eating  meat  from  a  can  s^f  conserves  which  had  been 
opened  for  eight  days ;  after  eating  pickled  products  from  poorly 
preserved  calf  liver  ;  freshly  boiled  pork  which  had  been  kept  in  an 
oven  ;  after  eating  imperfectly  cooked  teal;  a  rabbit  pie  preserved 
for  three  months  under  fat ;  after  eating  a  partridge  which  was 
found  dead  ;  after  eating  the  sauce  of  roast  mutton  left  over  from 
the  previous  day  ;  after  eating  pickled  meat  which  had  fermented  in 
a  cask ;  after  eating  spoiled  smoked  goose  and  mutilated,  bloody 
parts  of  game. 

Cases  of  poisoning  are  especially  frequent  after  eating  decom- 
posing ham.  In  this  connection,  attention  should  be  called  to  the 
fact  that  frequently  it  is  not  the  whole  ham,  but  only  the  superficial 
parts  arid  the  parts  which  lie  next  to  the  bones,  which  are  injurious. 

Moreover,  Wiedener  made  a  report  of  an  epidemic  of  illness 
after  en  ting  roast  goose.  Among  the  180  persons  affected,  about 
one-half  exhibited  symptoms  of  convulsive  pain,  vomition  and 
diarrhea.  The  geese,  thirty  in  number,  had  been  left  hanging 
unexenterated  in  the  cellar  for  one  day.  Bouchereau  and  Noil- 
reported  an  outbreak  of  poisoning  in  which  70  soldiers  were 
affected  after  eating  canned  meat.  The  meat  had  no  disagreeable 
odor  or  smell.  The  gruel-like  mass,  however,  in  the  cans  was  of  a 
brownish  color  and  was  liquefied. 

ETIOLOGY. — With  regard  to  the  etiology  of  botulism,  the  opinion 
formerly  prevailed  that  this  disease  was  caused  by  the  products  of 
ordinary  proteid  decomposition.  This  assumption  Avas  disproved 
by  the  epoch-making  investigation  of  the  Belgian  scientist,  Van 
Ermengem,  who  has  earned  great  credit  for  his  studies  on  the 
etiological  explanation  of  the  diseases  which  appear  after  eating 
meat. 

Van  Ermengem  investigated  portions  of  a  ham  which  had 
caused  slight  or  acute  symptoms  of  botulism  in  20  persons  in 
December,  1895,  in  the  village  of  Elezelles.  Three  of  the  patients 
<lied.  The  part  of  the  ham  which  remained  was  examined  by  him 
and  proved  not  to  be  decomposed,  but  had  a  musty,  rancid  odor. 
'I'he  ham  was  pale  in  color  and  more  readily  discerptible  than 


BOTULISM  761 

ordinary  ham.  Furthermore,  according  to  the  statements  of  all  the 
consumers,  it  possessed  a  bad  taste.  Experiments  were  instituted 
^with  the  poisonous  material  and  these  experiments  overthrew  the 
assumption  of  Housemann  that  the  theory  of  sausage  poisoning 
could  not  be  subjected  to  an  experimental  test.  Van  Errnengem 
found  that  cats  were  well  adapted  for  experimental  investigations 
in  this  field ;  that  phenomena  appeared  in  them  which  paralleled 
the  pathognomonic  symptoms  of  botulism,  viz.,  mydriasis  and 
paresis.  As  second  in  value  for  this  purpose,  mention  is  made  of 
pigeons,  which,  in  addition  to  paresis  of  the  wings,  exhibit  other 
interesting  paralytic  phenomena,  viz.,  ptosis  and  inequality  of  the 
pupils.  Babbits,  guinea  pigs  and  apes  are  also  very  susceptible. 
These  animals  may  be  easily  poisoned  per  os  and  show  a  pro- 
nounced paretic  disturbance.  From  the  toxic  ham  and  the  spleen 
of  one  of  the  dead  persons,  Van  Ermengem  succeeded  in  cultivating 
anaerobic  bacteria  which  possessed  the  power  of  producing  a  very 
active  toxin.  This  toxin  induced  in  the  experimental  animals  all 
the  symptoms  of  botulism.  It  is  thus  demonstrated  that  the  Bacillus 
botulinus  discovered  by  Van  Ermengem  is  one  or  the  only  cause  of 
botulism. 

BA.CTERIOLOGY. — Bacillus  botulinus  is  4  to  9  /^  long  and  0.9  to 
1.2  /*  thick.  It  is  a  straight  rod  with  somewhat  rounded  ends  and 
slightly  resembles  the  edema  bacillus.  The  rods  are  usually  iso- 
lated. Occasionally,  however,  they  are  found  in  pairs  or  short 
threads.  B.  botulinus  is  an  obligate  anaerobe  and  forms  oval  spores 
in  the  end  of  the  rod,  more  rarely  in  the  middle,  which  are  some- 
what thicker  than  the  rods  themselves.  Sporulation  occurs  only 
under  a  temperature  of  35°  C.  and  takes  place  more  vigorously  in 
strongly  alkaline  media  containing  two  per  cent,  grape  sugar. 
The  organism  is  slightly  motile,  possesses  4  to  8  flagella.  Cultures 
of  B.  botulinus  develop  no  odor  of  decomposition,  but  rather  a  pene- 
trating odor  resembling  butyric  acid.  Furthermore,  it  forms  an 
extraordinarily  poisonous  toxin  (toxigenic  bacillus).  In  order  to 
insure  a  luxuriant  and  toxic  growth,  a  certain  degree  of  alkalinity 
is  required  (10  to  15  cc.  of  a  one-tenth  normal  soda  solution  per 
100  cc.  of  the  medium).  The  optimum  temperature  lies  between 
20°  and  30°  C.  The  cultures  require  especial  care.  In  fluid 
media  the  bacillus  grows  only  in  vacuo,  or  in  the  presence  of  an 
inert  gas.  Growth  is  hindered  by  CO2.  The  addition  of  2  per 
cent,  grape  sugar  makes  possible  a  luxuriant  growth  in  gelatin 
agar.  An  excellent  medium  is  furnished  by  means  of  boiled  pork 


762  POST-MORTEM  ALTERATIONS 

rendered  alkaline  and  with  the  addition  of  grape  sugar  (1  per 
cent.),  peptone  (1  per  cent.),  salt  (1  per  cent.)  and  gelatin  (2  per 
cent).  In  this  medium  the  Bacillus  botulinus  grows  without  special 
care  with  regard  to  the  exclusion  of  the  air,  provided  melted  lard 
is  poured  over  the  meat  while  cooking. 

It  is  a  very  remarkable  fact  that  the  growth  of  B.  botulinus 
ceases  in  pork  when   the  latter   contains  6  per  cent,  of  common; 
salt.    Now,  pickling  is  usually  done  in  at  least  a  ten-per-cent.  solu- 
tion  of   brine ;   therefore,  ordinary  pickling  is   sufficient  to  check 
the  development  of  B.  botulinus  in  meat.     Furthermore,  the  bacillus, 
even   in   the   spore-bearing  condition,  is  sterilized  with   certainty 
by  subjection  to  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  for  one-half  hour.     The 
toxin  of  botulism  is  rendered  inactive  by 
FIG.  249.  heating   to   a   temperature   of  70°  C.  for  a 

^/^     ^  period  of  one  hour.      Boiling  is,  therefore, 

|\   — ^      \       I  a  good  prophylactic  against  botulism.     The 

0  toxin  of  botulism  is  only  slightly  resistant 

^  ^  "*    \         to  heat,  light   and  alkalies.     Finally,  it  is. 

\  s  i     \   ^^  an    important    fact    that    the   disturbances. 

^,       0        ^""  '       caused   by   eating  meat  appear  to   be  due 

\      \  •<  exclusively   to   the   toxin  preformed  in  the 

.        /"""    -^T          meat,  since  an  increase  in  quantity  or  further 

-•*  production   of   the   poison   in    the  body   of 

Bacillus  botulinus  from  a     experimental   animals    can    not   be   demon- 

KTfacim'al^ady^os!     Crated.      B.   loMinus  appears    not    to    b» 

sess  spores,     x  500  diam.     widely  distributed  in  nature.     Brieger  and 

Kempner  have  isolated  the  pure  toxin  from 

cultures  of  B.  botulinus.  Babbits  are  killed  within  24  hours  by 
0.0005  mg.  of  this  toxin.  Furthermore,  Kempner,  in  cooperation 
with  Pollak,  succeeded  in  preparing  an  active  therapeutic  serum 
against  sausage  poisoning  by  treating  animals  with  the  toxin  of 
botulism. 

Finally,  it  should  be  observed  that  these  authors  did  not  suc- 
ceed in  isolating  a  toxin  similar  to  that  of  botulism  from  the 
products  of  decomposition. 

PATHOLOGICAL  SYMPTOMS. —The  clinical  symptoms  of  sausage 
poisoning  are  of  a  very  peculiar  nature.  In  the  first  place,  it 
should  be  noted  that  the  pathological  picture  is  by  no  means  uni- 
form. Variations  appear,  especially  with  regard  to  the  incubation 
period  and  duration  of  the  disease.  These  variations  may  be 
explained  by  the  larger  or  smaller  content  of  botulism  toxins  in  the 


BOTULISM  76$ 

meat.  In  some  patients,  the  most  viruienc  symptoms  of  intoxica- 
tion appear  immediately  after  eating  the  sausage  or  meat,  while  in. 
other  patients  these  symptoms  appear  later.  In  some  cases  the 
effects  of  the  disease  continue  for  1,  2  or  3  days,  and  then  disappear 
entirely,  while  iu  other  cases  convalescence  is  very  slow  and  is 
extended  over  a  period  of  several  weeks.  However,  all  cases  of 
sausage  poisoning  uniformly  exhibit  the  following  symptoms : : 
indisposition,  bodily  pains,  pronounced  weakness,  vomiting,  consti- 
pation, or,  more  rarely,  diarrhea.  The  last-named  symptom  does 
not  appear  until  the  second  or  third  day.  Optical  disturbances 
are  pathognomonic.  The  eyes  are  affected  in  nearly  all  cases- 
One  observes  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve  (mydriasis),  of  the  motor 
oculi  (ptosis,  disturbances  in  accommodation  and  strabismus),  also> 
paralysis  of  the  trochlear  and  abducens.  The  lachrymal  nerve 
is  occasionally  affected  through  the  trigemini.  According  to  Vait 
Ermengem,  botulism  is  characterized  as  follows : 

1.  By  an  increased  or  decreased  secretion  of  the  saliva  and 
mucus  of  the  mouth,  pharynx,  etc. 

2.  By  a  more  or  less  marked  external  or  internal  ophthalmo- 
plegia  (blepharoptosis,  mydriasis,  paralysis  of  the  accommodation 
center,  diplopia,  internal  strabismus). 

3.  Dysphagia,   or    aphagia,   aphony,   persistent    constipation^ 
retention  of  urine. 

4.  Absence  of  fever  and  of  sensory  and  cerebral  disturbances. 

5.  With  these  symptoms  respiratory  and  cardiac  disturbances; 
are  often  associated  which  may  cause  death  more  or  less  suddenly 
with  symptoms  of  bulbar  paralysis. 

6.  Finally,   the   characteristic    symptoms    (mydriasis,    ptosis). 
appear,  at  the  earliest,  12  to  24  hours  after  eating  the  suspected 
food  material.     They  are  often  ushered  in  with  temporary  gastro- 
intestinal symptoms.     These   develop   gradually   and  do  not  dis- 
appear until  after  several  weeks. 

"With  regard  to  the  pathological  anatomy,  mention  should  be 
made  of  a  negative  post-mortem  finding.     Hyperemia  of  most  of 
the  viscera   is   observed.     Under   certain  conditions  symptoms  of" 
gastro-enteritis  and  fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver  may  be  present. 

MORTALITY. — The  death  rate  in  cases  of  sausage  poisoning  is 
very  high.    According  to  Miiller's  estimate,  one-third  of  the  patients 
die,  and  Senkpiehl,  in  essential  agreement  with  Miiller,  found   a. 
death   rate    of  40   per   cent.,    or    165  deaths  among  412  patients. 
(1789-1886). 


764  POST-MORTEM  ALTERATIONS 

PROPHYLAXIS. — Cases  of  sausage  poisoning  are  preventable  "by 
hygienic  instruction  of  the  public  and  by  suitable  laws.  The  public 
must  be  warned  against  eating  any  meat  which  is  in  process  of 
decomposition  or  which  is  already  decomposed.  Warning  should 
also  be  issued  against  eating  strongly  spiced  sausages,  for  sausage 
which  is  carelessly  prepared  from  decomposed  meat  is  often 
strongly  spiced  by  butchers  in  order  to  conceal  its  disagreeable 
taste.  Moreover,  suitable  punishment  should  be  provided  for  such 
dealing,  in  order  to  induce  sausage  makers  to  use  fresh  meat  in  the 
preparation  of  sausage,  and  thoroughly  to  clean  the  sausage  casings 
with  the  aid  of  harmless  disinfectants  wherever  possible,  and  also  to 
induce  them  to  cook  sausages  which  are  intended  for  immediate  con- 
sumption and  to  smoke  sausages  which  are  intended  for  long  keeping. 
As  shown  by  Serafiui,  a  water  content  of  30  to  35  per  cent,  furnishes 
the  best  security  for  the  preservation  of  sausages,  while  the  addition 
of  saltpeter,  boracic  or  salicylic  acids  excercises  a  noticeable  effect. 

Finally,  the  sanitary  police  should  strongly  insist  that  no 
sausages  of  any  kind  be  prepared  from  cases  of  emergency  slaugh- 
ter ;  at  any  rate  not  from  animals  in  which  a  thorough  bleeding  has 
not  taken  place.  For  experience  teaches  that  the  meat  of  such 
animals  is  abnormally  susceptible  to  decomposition. 

On  the  basis  of  his  investigations,  Van  Ermengem  has  formu- 
lated the  following  principles  in  the  prophylaxis  of  botulism  : 

1.  Meat  conserves  which  are  subjected  principally  to  anaerobic 
conditions,  should  not  be  eaten  in  a  raw  condition,  but  only  after 
thorough  cooking. 

2.  Conserves  which  arouse  suspicion  on  account  of  their  rancid 
odor  are  to  be  absolutely  excluded  from  consumption. 

3.  With  regard    to    hams,   a   sufficiently   concentrated    brine 
appears  to  prevent  them  from  spoiling. 

2. — Poisoning  from  Minced  Meat. 

DIFFERENCES  BETWEEN  MINCED  MEAT  POISONING  AND  THAT 
WHICH  FOLLOWS  AFTER  EATING  DECOMPOSED  MEAT  OF  OTHER 
KINDS. — Minced  meat  poisoning  is  essentially  different  from  poison- 
ing as  the  result  of  eating  decomposed  meat  ;  for  the  former  cases 
occur  after  eating  raw  meat  in  which  decomposition  processes  are 
apparently  absent.  Furthermore,  the  consumption  of  such  meat  in 
a  raw  condition  results  in  the  development  of  a  pronounced  toxic 
effect*,  while  in  a  roasted  condition  either  no  effect  or  only  a  slight 
illness  takes  place. 


POISONING  FROM   MINCED   MEAT  765 

OCCURRENCE. — Minced  meat  poisoning,  like  trichina  epidemics, 
is  closely  associated  with  the  habit  of  eating  raw  meat,  which  is 
widespread  and  firmly  rooted  in  certain  parts  of  Germany.  Thus 
far,  cases  of  minced  meat  poisoning  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
States  of  Saxony.  In  that  region,  raw  sausages  and  raw  minced 
meat  appear  to  be  real  delicacies,  the  consumption  of  which  has  not 
been  checked  by  the  numerous  epidemics  which  have  occurred. 

The  nature  of  minced  meat  poisoning  has  not  been  sufficiently 
explained.  Since  these  cases  occur  only  under  a  high  external  tem- 
perature in  spring  and  summer,  it  may  be  concluded  that  we  have 
to  deal  with  decomposition  from  the  effects  of  bacteria  which  are 
destroyed  by  boiling  and  do  not  form  toxins.  Bacteria  find  a  more 
favorable  medium  in  minced  meat,  the  more  water  has  been  added 
to  the  meat  by  underhand  methods. 

RECORD  OF  CASES. — The  following  cases  of  minced  meat  poison- 
ing have  been  reported:  In  Chemnitz  in  1879,  an  outbreak  of 
poisoning  occurred  after  mettwnrst  and  raw  beef  had  been  eaten,, 
during  which  241  persons  were  affected  and  2  died.  Seven  years 
later  in  the  same  city,  160  persons  became  ill  after  eating  minced 
meat.  Similar  epidemics  as  a  result  of  eating  raw  minced  meat 
have  been  observed  during  the  last  six  years  in  Dresden  (11  cases), 

Gerbstadt  (more  than  50  cases),  and  in  Gera  (30  cases). 

i 

SYMPTOMS. — With  regard  to  the  symptoms  in  the  second  epi- 
demic of  minced  meat  poisoning  in  Chemnitz,  Haupt,  according  to 
Schmidt-Mulheim,  makes  the  following  statements :  The  pathologi- 
cal symptoms  varied  according  to  the  quantity  of  meat  which  was 
eaten  and  the  age  and  constitution  of  the  patients.  The  symptoms 
appeared  four  to  twenty  hours  after  eating  the  meat,  and,  in  persons 
who  had  eaten  only  a  small  quantity  of  the  meat,  consisted  of  a 
slight  indisposition,  congestion  of  the  head  and  weakness.  How- 
ever, in  persons  who  had  eaten  larger  quantities  of  meat,  the 
symptoms  included  vomiting,  dysenterial  diarrhea,  headache,  dizzi- 
ness and  extreme  depression.  In  children,  the  cases  exhibited  - 
cholera-like  symptoms,  high  fever,  violent  headache,  delirium  and 
alarming  weakness.  A  few  cases  appeared  to  be  critical  after  a 
number  of  days.  All  of  the  patients,  however,  recovered  after  a 
shorter  or  longer  period  of  illness.  In  the  case  of  a  child  under  one 
year  of  age,  it  could  not  be  determined  whether  death  was  a  result 
of  eating  the  meat  or  not. 


"766  POST-MORTEM  ALTERATIONS 

PROPHYLAXIS. — For  preventing  cases  of  minced  meat  poisoning, 
Schmidt-Miilheim  recommended  that  the  long  preservation  of  raw 
meat  during  the  warm  days  of  summer  be  prohibited  by  police 
regulations.  Such  a  regulation  was  subsequently  passed  in  Schmal- 
ialden. 


Appendix. 
(a)  Poisoning'  from  Decomposing  Fish  and  Crustacea. 

In  the  decomposition  of  fish  and  Crustacea,  toxins  appear  to  be 
"formed  which  greatly  exceed  in  toxicity  those  formed  from  the  meat 
of  warm  blooded  animals.  According  to  Bocklisch,  the  toxic 
properties  of  fish  meat  are  greatest  in  the  first  stage  of  decomposi- 
tion.* 

For  this  reason,  careful  attention  should  be  given  by  the  market 
police  to  traffic  with  decomposing  fish  and  Crustacea. 

KECOGNITION  OP  DECOMPOSITION  IN  FISH. — In  addition  to  the 
above  mentioned  character  of  decomposition  (page  754),  Gerlach 
mentions  other  special  indications  of  decomposition  in  fish.  He 
says,  "dead  fish  are  to  be  considered  as  unfit  for  food  when  the 
eyes  have  lost  their  sheen,  or  the  cornea  is  somewhat  cloudy,  the 
red  gills  pale  and  the  meat  soft  so  as  to  pit  on  pressure  with  the 
finger,  or,  finally,  when  the  scales  are  easily  loosened." 

In  the  later  stages  of  decomposition  in  fish,  the  entrails  are 
partly  forced  out  of  the  body  cavity  as  a  result  of  the  decomposition 
gases.  Baranski  recommends  laying  fish  in  water  in  testing  their 
condition.  Dead  fish  which  sink  are  good  and  undecomposed, 
while  putrefying  fish  float  upon  the  water. 

With  regard  to  the  cadaverous  decomposition  of  Crustacea,  the 
Berlin  police  president  called  attention  in  a  public  circular  to  the 
fact  that  in  boiled  crawfish,  shrimps  and  other  Crustacea,  injurious 
substances  may  develop  after  long  standing,  even  before  the 
appearance  of  the  odor  of  decomposition  and  when  the  animals 
liave  been  boiled  after  being  allowed  to  die.  In  such  crawfish,  the 
lelson  is  usually  not  curved  under  the  abdomen.f 

*  From  the  similar  pathological  symptoms  in  man,  Van  Ermengem  concludes 
that  the  most  frequent  form  of  ichthystu  is  almost  identical  with  sausage  poison- 
ing and  therefore  has  the  same  etiology  as  the  latter. 

f  Landgericht  I.  in  Berlin  decided  with  regard  to  dead  crawfish  that  such 
material  must  be  considered  as  highly  unfit  for  human  food  and  must,  there- 


POISONING  FKOM  CLAMS 


767 


(b)  Poisoning:  from  Clams. 

The  outbreaks  of  clam  poisoning  which  were  observed  in 
"Wilhelmshaven  iu  1885  and  1887  and  which  are  described  by 
Schmidtmann,  have  recently  directed  attention  to  this  kind  of 

fore,  be  excluded  from  the  market.     This  decision  was  based  chiefly  on  the 
statement  of  an  expert  meat  inspector  that  the  meat  of  crawfish  rapidly  passes 


PIG.  250. 


FIG.  251. 


Male  crawfish,     a,  copulatory  organs; 
b,  swimmerets. 


Female  crawfish,      a,  opening  of  the 
genital  organs ;  b,  swimmerets. 


into  decomposition.     The  sale  of  dead  lobsters  and  fish,  as  is  well  known,  is  not 
to  be  prohibited  so  long  c.s  it  shows  no  decomposition.     In  addition  to  the  deter- 
mination of  cadaverous  alterations  in  crawfish,  the  recognition  of  the  sex  is  of 
interest,  eince  in  certain  parts  of  the  country  closed  seasons  are  prescribed  for 
female  crawfish.    The  male  is  slenderer  than  the  femala  and  possesses  only  threa 
swimmerets,  while  the  female  has  four  (Figs.  250,  6,  and  251,  b).     Furthermore, 
in  the  male  the  copulating  organs  (Fig.  250,  a)  are  found  in  front  of  the  first  pair  •* 
of  swimmerets,  and  in  the  female  the  opening  of  the  sexual  organs  at  the  base  of  *_ 
the  second  pair  of  thoracic  legs  (Fig.  251,  a)  are  diagnostic  characters. 


768  POST-MORTEM   ALTERATIONS 

intoxication,  which  was  observed  by  Yancower  in  1800.  The  etiol- 
ogy of  my  tills  m,  however,  is  not  fully  explained,  in  spite  of  the 
numerous  investigations  which  were  made  in  the  cases  which 
occurred  in  Wilhelmshaven. 

Nature  of  the  Poisoning. — Brieger  considers  the  toxic  body  to  be 
a  leucomain  (mytilotoxin),  which  he  succeeded  in  isolating  from  the 
clams,  especially  from  the  liver.  The  origin  of  this  body  was  not 
determined.  It  is  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  that  certain  "  poison 
areas"  are  found  in  the  water  along  the  coast,  in  which  clams  are 
uniformly  poisonous. 

Recognition  of  Poisonous  Clams. — According  to  Schmidtmann? 
and  Virchow,  poisonous  clams  are  less  pigmented  (lighter  with 
radiate  streaks),  while  non-poisonous  specimens  are  uniformly 
darkly  pigmented.  Furthermore,  the  shells  are  less  firm,  more- 
friable  and  broader  than  in  non-poisonous  clams.  The  liver  is 
larger,  softer  and  rich  in  fat  and  pigment. 

Prophylaxis.  —  Springfield  recommends  that  the  public  be 
"warned  against  buying  dead  clams  (those  which  do  not  close  the 
shell  when  taken  out  of  the  water).  Furthermore,  the  public 
should  be  warned  against  eating  the  liver  and  the  broth.  The 
former  is  the  principal  location  of  the  toxin,  which  is  extracted  by- 
water.  Finally,  it  is  recommended  that  the  clams  be  boiled  in  a> 
soda  solution,  since  the  toxin  is  thereby  destroyed  with  certainty. 
The  excess  of  alkali  after  boiling  may  be  easily  removed  by  the 
addition  of  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Relationship  Between  Hytilism  and  Botulism. — Mytilism,  even  in 
a  paralytic  form,  has,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  nothing  in  com- 
mon with  botulism.  For,  in  mytilism  the  pathological  symptoms- 
appear  within  one-fourth  to  one-half  hour  after  eating,  and  death 
within  a  few  hours  at  the  outside.  Moreover,  the  disease  quickly 
runs  an  acute  course  and  is  not  ushered  in  with  long-continued 
ocular  disturbances  as  in  botulism.  Finally,  mytilotoxin  resists- 
high  temperatures,  while  the  toxin  of  botulism  does  not.  Mytilism 
must,  therefore,  be  considered  as  an  intoxication  sui  generis. 

(c)  Poisoning  from  Oysters. 

As  shown  by  experience,  the  eating  of  oysters  may  lead  to 
slight  or  serious  cases  of  illness.  Slight  cases  consist  of  urticaria, 
and  albuminuria ;  more  serious  cases  in  violent  gastro-enteritis, 
Cases  have  been  observed  in  which  cholera-like  symptoms  devel- 
oped after  eating  a  single  oyster. 


POISONING  FROM   OYSTERS  769 

Etiology. — The  cause  of  oyster  poisoning,  like  that  of  clam 
poisoning,  is  still  doubtful.  Formerly,  it  was  assumed  that  color- 
ing oysters  with  verdigris  in  order  to  give  them  the  appearance  of 
the  so-called  groenbarden  *  was  the  cause  of  the  poisoning. 

This  assumption,  however,  can  not  be  brought  into  harmony 
with  the  phenomena  of  ordinary  oyster  poisoning.  According  to 
Bardet,  all  oysters  are  diseased  during  the  summer.  Bardet,  how- 
ever, was  unable  to  determine  the  nature  of  this  disease.  He 
merely  found  that  diseased  oysters  possess  a  characteristic  milky 
appearance  and  that  the  liver  is  enormously  enlarged,  gray  and 
soft. 

Prophylaxis. — In  view  of  the  fact  that  oysters  are  poisonous 
only  in  the  summer  months,  their  sale  has  long  been  prohibited 
during  the  months  from  May  to  August.  This  prohibition  is  per- 
fectly justifiable.  In  very  warm  early  autumns,  or  Indian  summers, 
cases  of  poisoning  may  occur  in  September  and  October.  More- 
over, the  public  should  be  warned  against  eating  dead  or  decom- 
posed oysters. 

When  removed  from  the  water,  good  oysters  close  the  shell, 
react  to  touch  with  movements,  are  of  medium  size  and  bluish  color 
and  exhibit  a  clear,  pure,  fluid  inside  the  shell.  In  the  case  of  dead 
oysters,  the  shells  remain  open,  while  decomposed  oysters  are  dis- 
colored, very  soft,  do  not  smell  fresh  and  also  exhibit  a  blackish 
ring  on  the  inner  side  of  the  shell. — Springfield. 


*  The  so-called  groenbarden,  or  Marennes  oysters,  acquire  their  natural  green 
color  from  the  sea  water  in  which  they  are  placed  as  soon  as  captured,  and  in 
which  they  are  kept  for  months,  during  which  time  they  are  fed  on  a  species  of 
seaweed,  Navicula  ostrearia.  The  seaweed  contains  the  coloring  matter  called 
by  Ray  Lankester,  marennin,  which  is  deposited  in  the  cuticular  cells  of  the 
gills  and  which  is  bluish  of  itself,  but  is  changed  to  green  by  the  normal  brown- 
ish or  yellowish  color  of  the  gills. 

Oysters  which  contain  copper  are  not  dark-green,  but  grass-green,  and 
exhibit  a  verdigris-like,  slimy  secretion  of  the  folds  of  the  mantel.  After  the 
addition  of  vinegar,  a  fork  becomes  encrusted  with  copper  when  stuck  into  the 
oysters,  and  when  ammonia  is  added,  the  oysters  become  dark-blue.— Spring- 
Jield. 


XV. 


ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGE— COLORING  AND 
INFLATION  OF  MEAT. 


1. — Addition  of  Flour  to  Sausages. 

GENERAL. — At  stock  shows  and  also  on  other  occasions,  butchers 
never  fail  to  insist  upon  the  fact  that  the  aim  of  hog  raising  runs 
directly  counter  to  the  interests  of  meat  dealers,  for  in  all  cases  an 
attempt  is  made  to  produce  as  early  and  as  large  a  deposition  of  fat 
as  possible.  Butchers  claim  that  such  hogs  are  not  suitable  for 
manufacturing  into  sausage,  since  they  do  not  render  possible  the 
preparation  of  a  sausage  with  good  keeping  qualities  and  do  not 
furnish  a  good  "  combining"  mass  for  so-called  kochwurst  or  brtih- 
wurst. 

By  the  term  "  combining  power  of  meat "  is  understood  the 
property  of  absorbing  water.  The  combining  power  is  due  to  the 
swelling  capacity  of  muscle  albumen  (Hofmann).  In  highly  fattened 
animals  which  mature  late,  this  swelling  capacity  is  greater  than  in 
animals  fattened  on  large  rations  of  manufacturers'  byproducts  and 
which  have  reached  an  early  maturity.  In  the  last  named  animals 
the  combining  power  of  the  meat,  especially  in  summer,  is  said  to 
be  slight.  Dry,  firm  fibers  have  the  power  of  absorbing  the  most 
water ;  moist  and  flabby  fibers,  the  least.  According  to  Trillion, 
and  his  statement  is  confirmed  by  others,  it  is  possible  for  100 
parts  of  sausage  to  absorb  as  much  as  70  parts  by  weight  of 
water. 

It  is  a  highly  remarkable  fact  that  in  beef  the  absorptive  power 
for  water  may  be  artificially  increased  by  working  it  up  in  a  fresh 
warm  condition  and  either  pounding  it  vigorously  or  deviling  it. 
Pork  with  a  low  combining  power  may  have  this  property  increased 
by  salting,  frequeut  turning,  or  by  the  addition  of  beef  and  veal. 
The  combining  power  of  pork  may  be  also  increased  by  adding  eggs 
or  dry  albumen  (100  to  200  grams  allowed  to  swell  in  one  liter  of 
water  per  half  centner  of  sausage  material). 

770 


GENERAL  771 

The  custom  of  mixing  flour  with  the  meat  is.  the  preparation  of 
tochwurst  or  briihwurst,  in  order  to  give  the  material  the  necessary 
combining  power,  is  attributed  to  the  defective  combining  power  of 
meat  There  are  no  reliable  data  concerning  the  time  when,  or  the 
place  where,  this  custom  originated.  Berlin  and  Leipsic  butchers 
testified  in  court  during  the  80's  of  the  previous  century  that  the 
custom  of  adding  material  to  the  sausages  above  named  had  been 
established  for  "  about  ten  years,"  and  that  this  method  of  manu- 
facturing sausage  had  been  introduced  from  southern  Germany. 
The  butchers  in  southern  Germany,  on  the  other  hand,  reported 
that  in  "  southern  Germany  since  ten  or  fifteen  years"  it  had  been 
the  custom  to  add  flour  to  sausage  pulp.  However  that  may  be,  it 
is  a  matter  of  fact  that  at  the  present  time  the  addition  of  flour  to 
sausages  intended  for  immediate  consumption  has  become  a  wide- 
spread custom  in  Germany. 

The  following  facts  were  obtained  by  means  of  a  circular  letter 
addressed  to  the  German  Meat  Dealers'  Union  : 

In  the  province  of  Hanover,  it  has  been  customary  since 
"grandfather's"  time  to  prepare  sausage  mixed  with  milling 
products.  In  Voigtlandt  and  Erzgebirge,  it  is  customary  to  add 
about  2  per  cent,  of  starch  flour  to  all  briihwurst.  In  Rheiuland 
and  Westphalia,  the  addition  of  potato  flour  to  a  number  of  kinds 
of  sausage  is  generally  practiced,  although  there  are  certain  butch- 
ers who  use  only  animal  products.  The  meat  dealers  in  Koln  assert 
that  the  addition  of  flour  is  absolutely  unnecessary  in  the  case  of 
sausages  intended  for  long  keeping  (cervelatwurst,  blockwurst,  etc.)  ; 
that  the  addition  of  2  or  3  per  cent,  is  sufficient  for  different  kinds 
of  kochwurst,  such  as  fleischwurst,  leberwurst,  mettwurst,  frank- 
furters, etc.,  while  for  ordinary  leberwurst  or  briihwurst,  the  addi- 
tion of  5  to  8  per  cent,  of  flour  is  considered  customary.  In  the 
Kingdom  of  Wiirtemburg,  according  to  the  statements  of  the 
Butchers'  Union,  the  preparation  of  fresh  sausages,  genuine  brat- 
wurst,  from  pounded  young  beef  or  veal,  with  the  addition  of  milk, 
eggs  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  wheat  flour,  has  been  customary  from 
time  immemorial  and  has  never  been  condemned  by  the  authorities. 
In  the  Province  of  Brandenburg,  the  addition  of  2  to  4  per  cent,  of 
starch  material  to  rostwurst  is  considered  necessary.  It  was 
reported  from  Magdeburg  that  it  was  not  customary  to  add  any 
considerable  quantity  of  flour  to  sausage,  and  finally,  from  Silesia 
and  East  Prussia  it  was  reported  that  the  addition  of  flour  to  sau- 
sage was  unknown  or  not  practiced. 

The  materials  for  the  technical  basis  of  the  draft  of  the  food 


772  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGES 

law  contain  the  statement  that  many  butchers  have  found  that  even 
small  quantities  of  starch  flour  or  ordinary  flour,  when  cooked  with 
water,  may  absorb  a  large  quantity  (50  times  its  volume)  of  water 
and  that  thereby  a  thick,  firm  paste  is  formed.  Butchers  are  said 
to  have  taken  advantage  of  this  property  by  adding  such  paste  to 
the  sausage.  Against  the  oft-repeated  assertion  that  the  addition 
of  flour  belongs  to  the  sausage,  it  must  be  objected  that,  especially 
in  private  houses,  good  sausages  are  frequently  made  without  any 
addition  of  paste. 

It  was  then  an  important  duty  of  chemical  experts — in  addition 
to  the  demonstration  of  coloring  matters  artificially  added  to  meat 
and  the  only  duty  which  fell  to  the  chemists  with  respect  to  the 
supervision  of  the  meat  traffic — to  demonstrate  flour  in  sausages, 
for  this  demonstration  is  very  simple.  The  simplicity  of  the 
demonstration  in  connection  with  the  above  mentioned  statements 
of  the  materials  for  the  basis  of  the  food  law  brought  it  about  that 
after  the  passage  of  the  food  law  a  very  large  number  of  prosecu- 
tions were  made  for  adding  flour  to  sausages,  and  these  cases, 
through  the  testimony  of  witnesses  and  the  accurate  investigations 
of  experts,  brought  to  light  some  surprising  facts  concerning  the 
operation  and  purpose  of  the  manipulation  in  question.  The  final 
result  could  not  be  brought  into  harmony  with  the  statement  in  the 
materials  for  the  basis  of  the  food  law,  and  the  latter,  therefore,  can. 
no  longer  be  considered  as  an  accurate  foundation  for  a  legal  judg- 
ment of  the  addition  of  flour  to  sausages. 

For  the  better  understanding  of  the  question  at  issue,  it  is 
necessary  to  devote  a  little  time  to  the  customary  method  of  prepar- 
ing meat  for  sausages,  especially  with  regard  to  the  manufacture  of 
kochwurst  or  briihwurst  intended  for  immediate  consumption.  With 
regard  to  the  two  last  named  kinds  of  sausage,  very  important 
criteria  are  contained  in  an  opinion  of  Prof.  Hofmann  in  Leipsic, 
which  was  requested  by  the  Landgericht  in  Liibeck. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  SAUSAGES. — Distinction  is  made  according 
to  the  material  which  constitutes  the  chief  element  of  the  sausage 
between  visceral  sausages  (lungwurst,  leberwurst,  hirnleberwurst), 
siilzwurst,  which  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  skin  from  the 
head  and  feet  (schwartenmageu,  presssack,  head  cheese,  "  calf's 
feet,"  etc.),  blood  sausages  and  lastly  meat  sausages.  Meat  sausages 
are  again  divided  into  those  which  are  intended  for  long  keeping 
(cervelatwurst,  schlackwurst  and  mettwurst)  and  bratwurst,  koch- 
wurst and  briihwurst.  The  latter  are  known  in  different  parts  of 


PREPARATION  OF  KOCHWURST  AND  BRUHWURST  773 

Germany  under  the  names   saitenwurst,   knoblauchwurst,   wiener- 
wurst,  bierwurst,  kuackwurst  and  jauerschewurst. 

PREPARATION  OF  KOCHWURST  AND  BRUHWURST. — In  contrast  with 
the  sausages  intended  for  long  keeping,  in  making  which  the  chief 
aim  is  to  secure  the  best  possible  keeping  quality,  the  method  of 
preparing  kochwurst  and  briihwurst  is  such  that  an  immediate  con- 
sumption is  required,  not  only  on  account  of  the  slight  keeping 
quality  of  the  sausage,  but  also  in  the  interest  of  the  manufacturer 
and  dealer.  The  water  content  of  the  meat  mass  which  is  used  in 
preparing  these  sausages  is  artificially  increased.  Kochwurst 
becomes  more  unsightly  from  day  to  day  on  account  of  the  evapora- 
tion of  water,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  delicate  casing,  takes 
place  much  more  rapidly  in  kochwurst  than  in  other  sausages.  For 
this  reason  it  is  to  the  interest  of  dealers,  as  already  mentioned, 
that  the  sausage  should  be  consumed  as  soon  as  possible.  The 
sausages  are  exposed  for  a  short  time  to  hot  smoke  and  immediately 
before  being  eaten  are  either  cooked  or,  more  frequently,  placed  in 
water  at  a  temperature  of  70°  C.  for  about  20  minutes. 

The  addition  of  water  to  the  minced  meat  in  the  preparation 
of  kochwurst  is  absolutely  necessary  for  two  reasons : 

In  the  first  place,  without  an  addition  of  water  to  the  minced 
meat  it  is  impossible  for  the  sausage  maker  to  prepare  a  meat  mass 
of  the  proper  consistency  for  injecting  into  the  thin-walled  casings 
which  are  used  and  which  must  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
briihwurst.  Thin-walled  casings  must  be  used,  since  in  the  case  of 
briihwurst  the  casing  is  not  removed,  as  in  the  other  sausages,  but  is 
eaten  along  with  the  sausage  by  the  great  majority  of  consumers. 

In  the  second  place,  the  high  water  content  of  kochwurst  or 
briihwurst  is  an  essential  character  required  by  the  consumers. 
The  public  desires  a  "juicy"  bierwurst  with  a  homogeneous,  coherent 
and  non-friable  cut  surface.  The  juicy  character  and  the  homogen- 
eous structure  of  the  sausage,  however,  can  not  be  secured  without 
the  addition  of  water.  The  natural  water  of  the  meat  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  render  possible  the  preparation  of  a  juicy  kochwurst.  For 
purposes  of  comparison,  Hof  mann  had  briihwurst  prepared  without 
the  addition  of  water.  Although  the  fresh  meat  paste  possessed  a 
water  content  of  76.5  per  cent.,  corresponding  to  that  of  fresh  meat, 
the  water  content  of  the  meat  paste  in  the  sausage  was  lowered  to 
51  per  cent,  as  a  result  of  smoking.  The  sausages,  the  dry  matter 
of  which  had  increased  49  per  cent,  were  hard,  tough  and  dry.  It 
was  necessary  to  masticate  the  firm  mass  a  long  time  before  it 


774  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGES 

could  be  swallowed.  Hofmann  says  that  the  sausages  were 
"simply  of  a  quality  such  that  they  could  not  be  sold  as  juicy,  soft 
briihwurst."  The  addition  of  water  is,  therefore,  made,  not  to 
increase  the  weight  of  the  sausages,  but  to  lend  them  quite  specific 
characters  which  are  demanded  in  briihwurst. 

From  the  experiment  of  Hofmann  it  is  apparent  that  the 
demand  of  consumers  for  a  juicy  briihwurst  is  not  unreasonable,  if 
we  consider  merely  the  palatability  of  the  material.  This,  how- 
ever, is  the  essential  feature  in  the  kind  of  sausage  in  question, 
Hofmann  rightly  says  :  "  On  account  of  the  necessary  addition  of 
water  to  briihwurst,  this  sausage  is  no  longer  a  pure  meat  sausage, 
Briihwurst  and  kochwurst,  as  usually  prepared,  do  not  possess  the 
nutritive  value  of  pure  meat."  Hofmann  also  demonstrated  that 
the  weight  of  sausages  found  on  the  market  varied  considerably 
(from  34.1  to  40.1  grams,  or  about  17.6  per  cent).  This  fact  indi- 
cated very  clearly  the  difference  in  value  between  sausages  intended 
for  long  keeping  and  kochwurst.  The  former  are  bought  by  weight. 
In  the  case  of  briihwurst  the  public  does  not  ask  concerning  the 
weight.  As  Trillich  says,  it  is  literally  true  that,  in  the  case  of 
briihwurst,  we  eat  water  with  a  fork ;  but  in  these  sausages  we  do 
not  pay  for  the  nutritive  value,  but  for  the  taste. 

WATER  CONTENT  OF  BRUHWURST.— The  quantity  of  water  which 
is  added  in  the  preparation  of  the  meat  mass  varies.  More  water  is 
added  to  good  dry  meat  than  to  that  of  a  watery  character,  since 
the  latter  possesses  smaller  powers  of  imbibition.  Sausage  makers 
determine  the  required  amount  of  water  for  different  qualities  of 
meat,  not  according  to  the  determined  weights,  but  according  to  the 
feeling.  Water  is  added  to  the  meat  mass  until  it  acquires  the 
proper  consistency  according  to  the  view  of  the  sausage  maker. 
According  to  Hofmann,  the  amount  of  water  added  amounts  to  24 
per  cent.  However,  the  amount  of  water  added  is  illusory,  since 
the  sausages  lose  water  during  smoking  and  drying,  and  are,  there- 
fore, sold  with  a  considerably  lower  water  content.  Hofmann 
found  that  the  water  content  of  sausages  immediately  after  smoking 
was  only  60.6  to  64.8  per  cent.  The  sausage  mass  had,  therefore, 
lost  during  the  process  of  smoking  not  only  the  quantity  which  was 
added  artificially,  but  also  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  natural  water  of 
the  meat. 

Is  STARCH  FLOUR  ABSOLUTELY  REQUIRED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF* 
BRUHWURST? — This  question  must  be  answered  in  the  negative  ;  for 


PREPARATION   OF   KOCHWURST   AND   BRUHWURST  775 

fhere  are  butchers  who  prepare  briihwurst  without  the  addition  of 
flour.  Furthermore,  in  legal  processes,  on  account  of  the  addition 
of  flour  in  Begensburg,  Munich  and  Coblenz,  it  was  considered  as 
demonstrated  that  the  addition  of  flour  was  not  customary  and  also 
that  the  public  expected  to  obtain  pure  meat  sausages  when  buying 
briihwurst.  The  addition  of  flour  to  meat  masses  intended  for 
briihwurst  can,  therefore,  not  be  considered  as  an  absolute  neces- 
sity, since  good  meat  possesses  a  sufficient  combining  power  to 
absorb  the  required  quantity  of  water  and  since  the  trade  has 
recourse  to  other  means  than  the  use  of  flour  for  increasing  the 
combining  power  of  meat  (page  770). 

The  preparation  of  briihwurst  without  the  addition  of  flour 
must,  however,  be  characterized  as  exceptional  in  Germany.  As  a 
rule,  flour  is  added,  especially  potato  flour,  to  which  also  the  name 
of  "strength  flour"  is  given  for  reasons  which  are  not  apparent. 
The  resolution  of  a  "Congress  of  Sausage  Makers,"  at  which  a 
majority  of  the  delegates  decided  that  the  addition  of  2  per  cent,  of 
flour  to  certain  sausages  was  necessary,  furnishes  proof  of  the 
extent  of  the  custom  of  using  flour  in  the  manufacture  of  briih- 
wurst. The  Batchers'  Union  in  Bremen  declared  in  the  form  of  a 
resolution  that  the  use  of  flour  for  improving  the  quality  of  certain 
kinds  of  sausage  had  been  customary  for  years ;  moreover,  that  this 
addition  is  not  considered  as  a  fraudulent  practice  by  the  dealers  is 
apparent  from  the  fact  that,  as  stated  by  Hofmann,  briihwurst  was 
prepared  with  the  addition  of  flour  before  the  eyes  of  the  public  at 
a  cooking  exhibition  in  Leipsic. 

DOES  THE  ADDITION  OF  STARCH  FLOUR  BENDER  POSSIBLE  AN 
UNUSUALLY  HIGH  WATER  CONTENT,  OR  DOES  IT  PREVENT  THE  Loss 
OF  WATER  IN  SMOKING  AND  DRYING? — It  must  be  considered  as  a 
happy  thought  on  the  part  of  the  Landgericht  at  Liibeck  that  it 
had  careful  experiments  instituted  in  the  form  of  a  sausage  test  for 
obtaining  light  on  these  points.  Sausages  were  prepared  without 
potato  flour,  with  0.8  per  cent.,  and  also  with  2  per  cent,  potato 
flonr.  (Sample  I.  without  flour,  but  with  the  usual  addition  of 
water;  Sample  II.  with  0.8  per  cent,  potato  flour  and  with  the 
usual  addition  of  water ;  Sample  III.  with  2  per  cent,  of  flour  and 
as  great  as  possible  an  addition  of  water ;  Sample  IV.  without  flour, 
but  with  the  same  amount  of  water  added  as  in  Sample  III.).  The 
experts  who  were  requested  to  test  the  sausages,  Pharmacist 
Schorer  and  Prof.  Kiistermann,  summarized  the  results  of  the  test 
as  follows  : 


77G  ADDITION   OF  FLOUR  TO   SAUSAGES 

1.  For  the  regular  preparation  of  bierwurst,  18  parts  of  water 
must  be  added  to  every  100  parts  of  meat  in  order  to  produce  a 
workable  raw  mass. 

2.  In  smoking  such  sausages,  which,  as  a  rule,  occupies  one- 
half  hour  and  is  carried  out  in  a  sort  of  fire-place,  or  over  a  free  fire, 
the  mass  loses  about  11  parts  of  water;  so  that  a  bierwurst  is 
obtained  with  7  parts  of  water  to  100  parts  of  meat. 

3.  The  addition  of  0.8  per  cent,  potato  flour  to  the  meat  mass 
is  without  any  decided  influence  upon  the  water  content  of  the  sau- 
sauge.     The   sausage   is   not    thereby   altered    either   in   external 
appearance  or  in  taste  after  cooking  ;  that  is,  in  the  case  of  meat 
with  a  good  combining  power. 

4.  With  the  addition  of  2  parts  of  potato  flour,  as  much  as  70 
parts  of  water  may  be  mixed  with  100  parts  of  meat  for  obtaining  a 
raw  mass  for  the  preparation  of  bierwurst. 

5.  The  same  quantity  of  water,  however,  70  parts  to  100  parts 
of  meat,  may  be  added  also  without  the  use  of  potato  flour.* 

6.  In  smoking,  Sample  III.  (with  2  per  cent,  flour)  and  Sample 
IV.  (without  flour)  lost  about  the  same  amount  of  water  immediately 
after  smoking,  or  32  and  35  parts  respectively.     After  hanging  24 
hours  in  the  air,  the  loss  increased  to  42  and  44  parts  of  water,  so 
that  the  bierwurst,  when  ready  for  consumption,  consisted  of  100 
parts  of  meat  with  28  or  26  parts  of  water. 

7.  The  addition  of  potato  flour,  at  least  in  quantities  up  to  2 
per  cent.,  does  not,  therefore,  make  possible  the  utilization  of  a 
larger  quantity  of  water  in  the  sausage  mass  than  could  be  accom- 
plished with  the  meat  mass  alone  without  the  addition  of  potato 
flour. 

In  any  event,  this  quantity  of  water  must  be  estimated  as  con- 
siderably less  than  70  per  cent,  of  the  raw  mass,  or  less  than  26  per 
cent,  of  the  100  parts  of  meat  in  the  smoked  sausage  when  ready  for 
consumption,  if  the  bierwurst  is  to  be  as  saleable  as  the  ordinary 
market  form  of  this  sausage. 

8.  From  a  comparison   of  the  loss  of  water  from  Sample  I. 
(without  flour)  and  Sample  II.  (with  0.8  per  cent,  flour)  or  from 
Sample  III.  (with  2  per  cent,  flour)  and  Sample  IV.  (without  flour), 
it  appears  "  that  the  amount  of  water  lost  in  smoking  depends  upon 


*  Trillich  also  demonstrated  this  fact.  At  the  Sixth  Session  of  the  Free 
Union  of  Bavarian  Representatives  of  Applied  Chemistry,  he  characterized  the 
influence  of  the  addition  of  starch  flour  upon  the  water  content  as  illusory,  since 
ic  is  possible  to  combine  an  equally  large  quantity  of  water  in  a  sausage  mass 
which  contains  no  starch  flour. 


DEMONSTRATION   OF   STARCH   FLOUR  777 

the  amount  of  water  added  to  the  raw  sausage  mass  and  that 
this  is  not  influenced  by  the  addition  of  potato  flour,  at  least  when 
used  in  quantities  up  to  2  per  cent." 

These  experiments  show  that  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity 
(up  to  2  per  cent.)  of  starch  flour  does  not  injure  the  quality  of  the 
sausage  in  the  sense  of  making  it  more  watery  than  would  be  pos- 
sible without  this  addition.  The  essential  point  in  the  views 
expressed  in  the  materials  for  the  technical  basis  of  the  food  law 
concerning  the  effect  of  the  addition  of  flour  is,  therefore,  robbed  of 
its  force.  Moreover,  on  the  occasion  of  the  legal  proceeding  in 
Liibeck,  Schorer  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  was  a  gross 
error  to  assume,  as  was  done  in  the  materials  for  the  basis  of  the 
food  law,  that  1  part  of  starch  flour  in  50  parts  of  water  furnishes 
a  thick,  firm  paste.  The  experiments  instituted  by  him  showed 
that  1  part  of  starch  flour  boiled  in  50  parts  of  water  gives  a 
fluid  substance  which  could  readily  be  poured  in  drops.  A  firm 
paste  could  be  obtained  only  by  cooking  1  part  of  flour  with  not 
more  than  10  parts  of  water.  In  general,  it  was  shown  that  potato 
flour  does  not  absorb  water  except  when  boiled ;  that  the  materials 
are  added  to  the  sausage  in  a  cold  form  and  not,  at  least  not  as  a 
rule,  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  as  assumed  in  the  materials  for  the 
basis  of  the  food  law.  Furthermore,  the  sausages  in  question  are 
usually  not  boiled,  but,  as  stated  by  Bischoff,  steamed  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  70°  C. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  STARCH  FLOUR. — This  demonstration  may 
be  conveniently  made,  chemically,  by  the  use  of  Lugol's  solution, 
with  which  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  sausage  to  be  tested  is  touched. 
If  starch  flour  is  present,  the  characteristic  blue  color  is  produced 
in  a  diffuse  distribution  over  the  whole  cut  surface. 

Furthermore,  the  addition  of  flour  may  be  demonstrated  by 
the  microscope.  Bruller  states  that  for  accuracy  he  prefers  a 
microscopic  demonstration.  He  argues  that  the  iodine  reaction 
proves  nothing  with  regard  to  the  presence  of  starch  flour,  since 
pepper  is  also  normally  present  in  sausage  and  this  may  give  a  fine 
iodine  reaction,  even  in  great  dilution,  with  5,000  times  its  quantity 
of  water.*  It  was  further  stated  by  Bruller  "  that  under  the  micro- 
scope the  starch  of  pepper  could  be  readly  distinguished  from  that 
of  potatoes,  since  the  starch  granules  of  pepper  are  considerably 

*  According  to  Lehmann,  the  amylum  of  the  seasoning  is  not  sufficient  to 
produce  a  microscopic,  diffuse,  blue  coloration  on  the  cut  surface  of  the  sausage 
after  treatment  with  iodine. 


778  ADDITION   OF  FLOUR  TO   SAUSAGES 

smaller  and  never  show  the  concentric  striation  with  the  excentria 
nucleus  of  potato  flour.  As  Briiller  rightly  observes,  amylum 
granules  are  for  the  most  part  demonstrable  in  the  unaltered  condi- 
tion, since,  as  a  rule,  flour  and  not  paste  is  added  to  the  sausage 
mass,  and  since  amylum  granules,  as  shown  by  Schorer,  undergo  no- 
alteration  during  smoking  at  a  high  temperature. 

HISTOLOGY  OF  POTATO  STARCH.— The  starch  granules  of  pota- 
toes are  on  an  average  45  to  75  //  long,  45  to  65  /*  wide,  round 
or  elliptical  (oyster-shaped).  The  excentric  nucleus  lies  almost 
always  in  the  narrower  portion.  The  striae  are  not  uniform,  but 
are  mostly  fine  and  sharp  (draft  of  the  Codex  Alimentarius  Austria- 
cus). 

QUANTITATIVE  DEMONSTRATION  OF  STARCH. — In  order  to  deter- 
mine the  quantity  of  starch  flour  which  has  been  added  to  meat 
products,  the  so-called  inversion  method  has  heretofore  been 
used  successfully.  By  this  method  the  amyloid  substances  are 
changed,  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids  under  high  temperature  and 
pressure,  into  sugar,  and  the  latter  is  determined. 

A  second  method  of  procedure  was  described  by  Mayrhofer. 
According  to  this  method  the  material  to  be  examined  is  dissolved 
by  the  application  of  heat  on  a  water  bath  in  about  8  per  cent 
alcoholic  potash  lye  without  the  addition  of  sand  for  the  purpose 
of  a  better  distribution.  In  the  case  of  pure  sausages,  scarcely  any 
residue  is  left  except  cellulose,  since  the  casing  is  also  dissolved. 
After  the  material  is  dissolved,  it  is  diluted  in  warm  alcohol  in 
order  to  prevent  gelatination.  Any  insoluble  residue  which  may 
be  present  is  placed  upon  a  paper  or  asbestos  filter  and  washed 
with  alcohol  until  the  alkaline  reaction  disappears.  It  is  then 
treated  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  potash  lye  and  thereby  the 
starch  is  brought  up  to  a  definite  volume.  If,  now,  the  alkaline 
solution  is  treated  with  alcohol,  the  starch  is  precipitated  in  flakes 
and  settles  rapidly  to  the  bottom.  After  filtration  upon  filters  of 
known  weight  and  washing  with  alcohol  and,  finally,  with  ether,  the 
quantity  of  starch  may  be  easily  determined. 

In  order  to  avoid  a  determination  of  the  ash,  it  is  desirable  to 
produce  the  precipitation,  not  with  alkalies,  but  with  a  solution 
slightly  acidified  with  acetic  acid,  since  the  acetate  of  the  carbonate 
of  potash  which  is  contained  in  abundance  in  the  starch  is  easily 
soluble  in  alcohol.  In  this  manner  we  obtain  starch  free  from  ash. 
The  results  show  the  quantity  of  pure  starch,  not  the  original  quan- 


HYGIENIC   AND    CULINARY   JUDGMENT  779f' 

tity  of  flour  added.  The  method  is,  therefore,  not  strictly  accurate^ 
but  it  is  quite  as  accurate  as  the  previous  method  of  inversion. 
Since  the  distribution  of  starch  in  the  sausage  is  not  uniform,  it  is 
desirable  to  take  not  merely  a  few  grams  for  samples,  but  pieces 
weighing  from  60  to  80  grams. 

Experiments  with  sausages  artificially  diluted  with  starch  flour 
have  shown  that  the  starch  which  was  originally  used  can  be  dem- 
onstrated by  the  method  of  Mayrhofer,  either  in  its  entirety  or  at 
least  within  a  few  milligrams. 

HYGIENIC  AND  CULINARY  JUDGMENT  OF  THE  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR.. 
— Hofmann  rendered  an  opinion,  in  harmony  with  Schmidt-Miil- 
heim  and  Schorer,  that  the  addition  of  flour  does  not  promote  the 
decomposition  of  sausages;  that  sausage  paste  decomposes  with 
equal  rapidity  whether  with  or  without  the  addition  of  flour,  and 
that,  therefore,  the  assumption  of  a  harmful  effect  from  the  addition , 
of  flour  is  unjustifiable,  since  the  starch  flour  belongs  to  a  class  of 
bodies  which  decompose  with  difficulty.*  Finally,  Hofmann  calls 
attention  to  the  fact  that  a  slight  addition  of  starch  flour  improves 
the  quality  of  sausages.  The  juice  of  the  sausage  is  thereby  ren- 
dered thicker  and  therefore  remains  longer  on  the  tongue.  More- 
over, it  is  asserted  that  the  addition  of  flour  renders  possible  the 
use  of  larger  quantities  of  spice  in  the  sausages,  since  it  operates  at 
the  same  time  as  a  diluting  and  enveloping  medium.  Hofmann 
claims  that  flour  is  therefore  added  even  by  very  reliable  dealers^ 
since  sausages  containing  flour  are  preferred  by  the  public.  As  a 
result  of  the  addition  of  flour  in  limited  quantities,  Schmidt-Mill- 
heim  observed  an  improvement  in  the  quality  of  sausage,  due  to  the- 
fact  that  the  starch  flour  helps  to  combine  the  sausage  mass  and 
prevents  its  escape  from  the  casing. 

LEGAL  JUDGMENT  OF  THE  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  BRUHWURSTV 
—No  hygienic  scruples  can  be  held  against  the  addition  of  flour  ta> 
briihwurst.  There  is,  however,  a  further  question,  whether  a 
material  injury  is  not  caused  to  the  consumer  through  the  addition 
of  flour,  and  whether  sausages  containing  flour  must  not  be  consid- 
ered adulterated. 

Under  the  head  of  adulterated  food  materials  (page  102),  we 


*  In  the  case  of  blood  and  liver  sausages  which  are  diluted  with  flour  to  the 
extent  of  10  per  cent,  and  which  are  not  at  all  or  only  partially  smoked  and  have- 
been  preserved  for  a  long  tune,  a  noticeable  souring  may  take  place  before  true 
meat  decomposition  sets  in  (Bischoff). 


780  ADDITION   OP   FLOUR   TO    SAUSAGES 

understand  those  which  do  not  possess  the  properties  which  are 
expected  in  actual  trade.  The  conditions  of  adulteration  are  not 
fulfilled  if  the  addition  of  flour  is  customary  in  the  locality  in  ques- 
tion— and  that  is  the  case  in  the  greater  part  ®f  Germany — and  if 
the  quantity  of  flour  added  does  not  exceed  1  to  2  per  cent.,  which 
is  the  usual  quantity  in  trade. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  flour  must  be  considered  as 
an  adulteration  in  localities  where  it  is  not  customary  ;*  or  if  it 
greatly  exceeds  the  above  named  limits  so  that  it  amounts  to  an 
actual  and  substantial  depreciation  of  value,  or  to  a  considerable 
replacement  of  meat  with  flour.  Greater  quantities  than  1  to  2  per 
cent,  are  added  to  the  sausage  mass  only  with  fraudulent  intent, 
since,  according  to  the  statements  of  reliable  dealers,  1  to  2  per  cent, 
is  sufficient  in  order  to  lend  the  sausages  an  appetizing  taste. 

It  must  be  characterized  as  an  adulteration  when  flour  is  added 
to  sausages  other  than  bruhwurst,  particularly  to  sausages  which 
are  intended  for  long  keeping,  since  in  the  latter  the  addition  of 
flour  is  neither  customary  nor  necessary  .f  Similarly,  the  addition 
of  flour  to  minced  meat  is  undoubtedly  a  gross  adulteration.^ 

The  Reichgericht,  in  a  judgment  rendered  October  4,  1883, 
declared  that  it  is  a  case  of  adulteration  when  a  paste  consisting  of 
potato  flour  and  water  is  added  to  sausages,  contrary  to  the  custom 
which  prevails  at  the  locality  where  the  sausage  is  prepared  and 
according  to  which  pure  meat  sausages  are  understood  by  the  terms 
used. 

Furthermore,  in  the  case  of  the  Regensburg  butchers  (Criminal 
Senate  I,  Judgment  of  September  23,  1883),  the  Reichgericht  ren- 
dered a  similar  decision.  These  butchers  had  added  1  to  5  per 
cent,  of  flour  to  presssack,  speckwurst,  blutpresssack,  weisswurst 
and  Parisian  sausages.  It  was  held  to  be  a  settled  fact  that  in. 

*  In  such  localities,  dealers  may  protect  themselves  against  legal  procedure 
by  the  use  of  placards  such  as  are  employed  in  Wiesbaden  (page  781). 

f  Bischoff  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  sausages  which  are 
boiled  before  smoking  a  very  different  judgment  should  be  rendered  than  in  the 
case  of  bruhwurst,  in  which  smoking  is  done  first.  In  material  which  is  first 
cooked,  as,  for  example,  liver  sausage,  the  starch  is  changed  to  a  paste  by  the 
process  of  boiling.  This  paste  yields  up  only  a  part  of  its  water  during  smoking, 
and  in  such  products,  subsequently  sold  according  to  weight,  an  abnormally 
large  water  content  is  present  as  a  result  of  the  addition  of  flour. 

t  The  addition  of  "  albumina  "  is  also  an  undoubted  adulteration.  Albumina 
consists  of  tragacanth  and  albumen  and  when  added  to  the  extent  of  3  per  cent, 
renders  possible  the  preparation  of  a  sausage  paste  which  consists  of  70  pounds 
of  meat  to  100  pounds  of  water. 


LEGAL  JUDGMENT  781 

Regensburg  the  addition  of  flour  was  not  a  common  custom  and  that 
the  public  did  not  know  or  expect  that  it  was  purchasing  anything 
else  than  material  prepared  purely  from  parts  of  the  animal  body 
with  the  addition  of  spice. 

Likewise,  the  Reichgericht  (I,  Judgment  of  January  7,  1887) 
decided  that  in  Munich  the  addition  of  4  to  5  per  cent,  of  starch 
flour  to  sausages  was  an  adulteration,  since  such  an  addition  in  the 
place  in  question  was  neither  a  common  custom  nor  expected  by  the 
public.  It  was  held  also  that  the  trade  practice  could  not  be  con- 
sidered as  deciding  the  question  in  itself,  merely  according  to  the 
wish  and  practice  of  the  producers,  but  that  the  reasonable  expecta- 
tion of  the  public  must  also  be  considered. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  wheat 
bread  to  rostbratwurst  (10  to  12  pfennig  worth  to  5  kg.  of  meat)  was 
not  considered  as  an  adulteration  if  in  the  region  in  question  such 
an  addition  was  "  by  no  means  an  unknown  or  unexpected  admix- 
ture," and  if,  on  the  contrary,  "  according  to  the  view  of  the*  public," 
wheat  bread  is  a  necessary  constituent  of  a  palatable  bratwurst 
(Decision  of  Criminal  Senate  III,  December  21,  1882). 

Finally,  on  December  3,  1894,  the  Reichgericht  decided  that 
the  addition  of  flour  to  cervelatwurst,  in  however  small  quantity, 
must  be  considered  as  an  adulteration. 

The  Royal  Prussian  Landgericht  at  Coblenz  declared  that  in 
Coblenz,  according  to  the  practice  of  the  reliable  tradespeople, 
nothing  but  meat  (beef  or  pork),  except  the  necessary  seasoning, 
is  to  be  used  in  the  ordinary  preparation  of  meat  sausage  and  that 
other  additions  (liver,  lungs,  sardines,  etc.)  are  to  be  indicated  in 
the  name  of  sausage.  It  was  held  that  flour  could  not  be  considered 
a  normal  constituent  of  meat  sausage.  Nevertheless,  the  defendants, 
who  had  used  flour  to  the  extent  of  3.3  per  cent.,  were  discharged 
for  the  reason  that  they  had  added  the  flour  merely  as  a  combining 
material  without  knowing  that  it  was  not  allowable,  and  without  the 
intention  of  deceiving. 

The  Landgericht  in  Frankfurt  decided  that  the  addition  of  two 
per  cent,  of  flour  as  combining  material  was  permissible. 

In  Wiesbaden  and  Giessen,  any  addition  of  flour  to  sausage  is 
considered  as  punishable.  For  this  reason  it  has  become  the  estab- 
lished custom  of  sausage  dealers  to  display  placards  in  their 
salesrooms  with  the  inscription  "sausage  with  combining  material." 
The  dealers  thus  escape  liability  of  punishment  by  this  declaration. 
Likewise,  according  to  a  decree  of  the  council  in  Dresden,  April  8, 
1899,  any  addition  of  flour  to  sausages  is  considered  punishable. 


•782  ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGES 


the  other  hand,  the  utilization  of  wheat  bread  in  the  preparation 
of  so-called  semmelleberwurst  is  not  condemned  on  account  of 
<being  a  local  custom.  Also  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  no 
addition  of  flour  is  permitted  (Ministerial  Decree  of  March  17, 
1897). 

Note. 
OTHER  ADULTERATIONS  WITH  INFERIOR  MATERIAL. 

With  regard  to  other  adulterations  in  meat  traffic  and  in  the 
^manufacture  of  sausages,  a  proper  decision  can  easily  be  reached 
In  accordance  with  the  previous  discussion  and  after  consideration 
of  the  meaning  of  the  term  adulteration.  In  all  cases  the  essential 
points  which  determine  the  fact  of  deception  are  the  determination 
of  the  prevailing  custom  of  preparation  among  reliable  dealers  and 
"the  reasonable  expectation  of  the  consumers  in  buying  the  products 
and  also  the  price. 

According  to  these  points  of  view,  the  addition  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  wheat  bread  to  rostbratwurst  was  not  considered  as  an  adul- 
teration in  the  decision  of  the  Reichgericht,  December  21,  1882. 
"Similarly  the  utilization  of  wheat  bread  in  preparing  fresh  blood 
and  liver  sausages  in  Berlin  was  not  considered  an  adulteration 
since  this  method  of  preparation  was  quite  common  and  well 
inown  (Bischoff).  On  the  other  hand,  the  utilization  of  testicles, 
uteri,  with  or  without  the  fetus,  beef  head,  etc.,  in  the  preparation 
of  sausages,  undoubtedly  constitutes  an  adulteration. 

Special  attention  may  be  directed  merely  to  an  adulteration, 

the  detection  of  which  is  in  other  respects  the  function  of  a  chemist 

—  namely,  to  the  adulteration  of  lard  with  cottonseed  oil.     This  oil 

is  added  in  large  quantities  to  American  lard.     According  to  Sendt- 

ner,  for  example,  among  110  samples  of  American  lard  examined  in 

JMunich,  not  less  than  72  were  adulterated  with    cottonseed  oil, 

^vhile,  according  to  Stein,  14  out  of  78  samples  inspected  in  Copen- 

hagen were  likewise  adulterated.     The  addition  of  this  vegetable  oil 

^amounted  to  50  per  cent,  or  more,  so  that  the  mixture  should  not 

properly  have  borne  the  name  lard.     So  long  as  the  American  fat 

mixture  is  sold  under  proper  declaration,  no  objection  can  be  made 

to  it.     Volenti  non  Jit  injuria.     On  the  other  hand,  the  practice  of 

mixing  domestic  lard  with  the  American  material  and  selling  this. 

mixture  under  the  name  and  for  the  price  of  the  former  should  be 

checked. 


OTHER  ADULTERATIONS  783 

The  demonstration  of  cottonseed  oil  in  lard  may  be  made  by 
determining  the  iodin  number  (page  219).  According  to  Neufeld, 
the  iodin  number  of  lard  is  46  to  61.  Cottonseed  oil  raises  the 
iodin  number,  while  it  is  lowered  by  the  addition  of  beef  tallow. 

GOVERNMENTAL  KEGULATIONS  AGAINST  THE  ADULTERATION  OF  LARD. 

According  to  the  Imperial  law  concerning  traffic  in  butter, 
cheese,  lard  and  other  substances,  June  15, 1897,  all  lard-like  prepar- 
ations in  which  the  fat  content  does  not  consist  exclusively  of  pork 
fat,  must  be  declared  as  "  artificial  food  fat."  The  following  state- 
ment concerning  the  meaning  of  this  term  is  contained  in  Section  1: 

"  Artificial  food  fats  in  the  sense  of  the  law  include  prepara- 
tions resembling  lard  in  which  the  fat  content  does  not  consist 
exclusively  of  pork  fat.  Exception  is  made  in  favor  of  unadulterated 
iats  of  certain  animal  and  vegetable  species  which  are  exhibited 
under  names  which  indicate  their  origin." 

Adulteration  of  Caviar. — A  work  of  Niebel  contains  some  very 
interesting  statements  concerning  adulterations  of  caviar.  In  Ger- 
many, according  to  Niebel,  fluid  or  granular  caviar  is  almost  the 
only  kind  found  on  the  market.  More  rarely  pressed  or  so-called 
servietten-caviar  is  observed.  The  best  caviar  is  the  Russian  ;  the 
American  is  next  best ;  the  third  best  is  the  Elbe  caviar.*  The 
Russian  caviar  is  coarsely  granular  and  free  from  membranes  and 
mucous  admixtures.  In  judging  caviar,  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  color,  consistency,  size  of  the  eggs  and  the  odor  and  taste,  as 
well  as  the  purity.  According  to  Niebel,  caviar  is  to  be  considered 
spoiled  when  it  contains  foreign  admixtures  or  when  it  is  rancid  or 
possesses  a  mouldy  or  bile-like,  bitter  taste.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  to  be  considered  as  adulterated  when  foreign  materials,  like 
bouillon,  white  beer,  oil  or  sago  are  added.  Sour  caviar  is  of 
inferior  quality.  The  border  line  between  inferior  and  rancid  caviar, 
according  to  Niebel,  is  at  the  point  of  4.5  per  cent,  of  free  acid  con- 
tent. The  content  of  common  salt  in  samples  of  caviar  which  were 
examined  amounted  to  from  6.15  to  11.4  per  cent.  Strongly  salted 
caviar  is  of  inferior  value  and  caviar  saturated  with  salt  is  not  suit- 


*  Concerning  the  quality  of  the  Elbe  caviar,  Bischoff  states  that  as  a  rule  it 
is  a  suspicious  product.  Sturgeons  are  at  present  almost  never  observed  in  the 
Elbe.  It  is  asserted  that  the  product  which  is  sold  under  the  name  Elbe  caviar 
is  usually  decomposing  American  caviar  which  has  been  subjected  to  a  subse- 
quent process  of  preservation. 


784 


ADDITION  OF  FLOUR  TO  SAUSAGE 


able  for  human  food.  Likewise,  decomposing  caviar  must  be 
characterized  as  unfit  for  food.  As  helps  for  judging  caviar,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  reaction  be  determined ;  furthermore,  that  a 
quantitative  demonstration  of  free  fatty  acids  and  salt  be  made,  and, 
finally,  that  the  amount  of  free  ammonia  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
be  determined. 

Adulteration  of  Shrimps. — Two  kinds  of  so-called  shrimps  occur 
on  the  market:  the  common  shrimp  (Crangon   vulgaris)  and   the 

FIG.  252. 


Crangon  vulgaris.     a,  median  spine;  b,  inner  antennal  filaments;  c,  external  antennal 

filaments;  d,  third  appendage;    e,  the  five  ambulatory  appendages;  /,  sixtf" 

abdominal  appendage.     (After  H.  Raebiger.) 


FIG.  253. 


Palaemon  squilla.     a,  rostrum;    5,  inner  antennal  filaments;    c,  outer  antennal  fila- 


LI1OH      JSljlllLict.          tv.    1  Uoul  U.111  j        fy    11- 

ments;  d,  third  appendage;  e,  the  five  ambulatory  appendages;  /,  sixth 
abdominal  appendage.     (After  H.  Raebiger.) 

prawn  (Palaemon  squilla}.  The  latter  is  the  more  valuable  of  the 
two,  since  it  possesses  a  better  flavor  and  is  more  edible  than  the 
former.  It  assumes  an  appetizing  red  color  in  cooking  and  is  also 
rarer  than  the  common  shrimp.  The  price  of  common  shrimp  is  20 
to  60  pfen.,  and  of  prawns,  1.6  to  3  marks  per  pound.  This  differ- 
ence in  price  makes  an  adulteration  of  the  last-named  species  a 


OTHER  ADULTERATIONS  785 

profitable  practice  and  this  has  recently  been  done  by  boiling,  in: 
iuchsin  water,  the  common  shrimp,  which  normally  remains  gray  in 
cooking.  Boiled,  common  shrimps  thereby  acquire  the  character 
which  ordinary  people  consider  as  the  most  important  criterion  for 
recognizing  the  prawn. 

The  adulterated  shrimp  6r  imitation  prawn  may,  according  to 
Raebiger,  be  recognized  by  the  following  characters  :  Red  coloration 
of  artificially-stained  shrimps  is  spotted.  Moreover,  the  broken  off 
ends  of  the  abdomen  are  totally  stained  and  the  eggs  which  are 
found  under  the  abdomen  are  bright  red.  In  some  parts  of  the 
shrimp  the  coloring  material  penetrates  even  into  the  meat.  Artifi- 
cial coloring  may  also  be  demonstrated  by  boiling  shrimps  in 
alcohol.  Artificially  stained  shrimps  lend  the  alcohol  a  cloudy 
rose-red  color,  while  with  naturally  red  prawn  the  alcohol  remains 
whitish  yellow. 

The  prawn  are  characterized  by  the  strongly  projecting  frontal 
spine,  the  long-peduncled  eyes,  the  larger  number  of  antennal  fila- 
ments, the  chelipers  on  a  number  of  the  ambulatory  appendages, 
and  the  bright-red  telson,  as  contrasted  with  the  short  spine, 
short-peduncled  eyes,  less  numerous  and  shorter  antennal  filaments, 
different  anatomical  structure  of  the  ambulatory  appendages  and 
the  darkly  pigmented  telson  of  the  shrimp  (Figs.  252,  253). 

Fraudulent  Treatment  of  Salmon. — According  to  Kaebiger,  the 
following  salmon  are  found  in  trade :  The  Rhine,  Weser,  Elbe, 
American,  Baltic,  Volga  or  Russian,  saltwater  (common  hake),  and, 
finally,  the  fagonlachs.  The  Rhine  salmon  (Trutta  salar)  is  the 
most  expensive.  It  costs  from  5  to  8  marks  per  pound,  and  other 
species  of  salmon  of  less  value  are,  therefore,  frequently  used  to 
replace  it.  The  Rhine  salmon  is  distinguished  by  its  rose-red 
color  of  slightly  yellowish  tinge,  strong  development  of  white  fat, 
the  elongated,  oval,  silvery-white  scales,  becoming  black-brown 
toward  the  dorsal  line,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  the  dorsal  and 
ventral  lines  approach  each  other  toward  the  head.  The  Rhine 
salmon  swims  up  stream  in  a  fat  condition  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning  and  returns  to  the  sea  in  a  poor  condition  with  pale  meat. 
When  caught  returning  to  the  North  Sea,  they  are  called  poor 
"Rheinsalm."  The  Elbe  and  Weser  salmon  are  identical  with  the 
Rhine  salmon,  but,  according  to  the  opinion  of  connoisseurs,  are 
not  so  valuable  as  the  latter.  The  American  salmon  *  (probably 

*  The  most  important  Alaskan  salmon  are  King  salmon,  redfish,  cohoea, 
humpbacks  and  dog  salmon. — TRANSLATOR'S  NOTE* 


786  COLORING  AND  INFLATION  OF  MEAT 

Oncorhynchus  quinnat),  which,  on  account  of  its  coarse-fibered  meat 
and  very  salty  taste,  brings  a  price  of  2  to  4  marks,  possesses  a 
rose-red  or  brick-red  meat,  well  developed  intermuscular  connective 
tissue  and  myomeres,  and  exhibits  much  less  fat  than  the  Rhine 
salmon.  The  salmon  which  occurs  in  the  Baltic  is  less  highly 
prized  for  its  meat  than  the  North  Sea  salmon  ;  its  meat  possesses 
the  typical  salmon  color,  is  very  fat  and  its  intermuscular  connec- 
tive tissue  is  less  strongly  developed  than  in  the  American  salmon. 
The  Baltic  salmon  during  its  migrations  reaches  the  Weichsel  and 
the  Memmel,  is  identical  with  the  Russian  salmon  and  possesses 
small  round  scales.  The  Volga  salmon  is  either  an  American  or 
Baltic  salmon.  Saltwater  salmon  or  hake  (Merluccius  vulgaris)  is  a 
species  belonging  to  the  gadoid  group  and  not  to  the  Salmonidae. 
It  is  characterized  by  its  almost  white  meat,  which  contains  but 
little  fat.  Finally,  do-over  salmon  (faconlachs),  which  is  prepared 
by  pressing  together  the  waste  pieces,  is  recognizable  by  the 
absence  of  the  connective  tissue  strands,  or  by  their  regular  course 
upon  a  cut  surface. 

2.— Coloring. 

The  artificial  coloring  of  large  pieces  of  meat,  minced  meat  and 
especially  sausages,  belongs  among  the  achievements  of  the  most 
questionable  sort,  which  characterize  the  modern  meat  industry. 

PURPOSE. — The  purpose  of  coloring  meat  varies.  The  materials 
for  the  technical  foundation  for  the  draft  of  the  food  law  contain  the 
statement  that  a  sausage  mass  which  has  lost  its  natural  coloring 
by  the  excessive  addition  of  flour  and  water  is  frequently  colored 
with  fuchsin  in  order  to  conceal  this  defect.  From  a  study  of  court 
proceedings  it  appears  that  the  artificial  coloration  of  sausages 
from  this  cause  is  less  frequent  than  in  the  case  of  minced  meat 
which  is  intended  for  sale  as  such.  Furthermore,  we  learn  from 
court  proceedings  that  in  recent  times  the  coloration  of  meat  is 
practiced  rather  extensively  with  the  object  of  concealing  the  gray 
color  of  sausages  intended  for  long  keeping.  This  alteration  of 
color  is  common  in  sausages,  eve/n  in  those  which  have  been 
properly  prepared  (page  749).  Bischoff  asserts  that  until  the 
authorities  interfered  in  this  matter,  about  70  per  cent,  of  all  the 
sausages  imported  from  Thiiringen  were  colored  for  the  reason 
just  mentioned.  At  present,  it  is  said,  the  percentage  is  much, 
smaller.  Finally,  there  are  unscrupulous  dealers  who  do  not  hesi- 
tate to  give,  by  means  of  coloring  materials,  the  appearance  of 


COLORING  787 

"wholesome  products  to  meat  which  has  lost  its  normal  color  as  a 
result  of  decomposition. 

KINDS  OF  COLORING  MATERIAL. — The  dyes  which  are  used  for 
coloring  meat  products  are  of  various  sorts.  It  appears  that  the 
first  experiments  iu  coloring  meat  were  made  with  fuchsin.  Since, 
however,  this  stain  could  easily  be  demonstrated,  coloration  with 
cochineal  and  carmin  prepared  from  cochineal  (ammouiacal  extract 
of  cochineal)  came  into  use.  Carmin  is  sold  on  the  market  under 
the  name  of  "  karnit."  A  very  small  quantity  of  either  of  these  dyes 
is  sufficient  to  produce  a  bright  red  color  in  the  meat,  since  the 
staining  power  of  tfoese  materials  is  very  great.  According  to 
Palk  and  Oppermann,  a  carmin  solution  of  1:30,000  is  sufficient  to 
stain  the  meat  red. 

According  to  Marpmann,  in  addition  to  fuchsin  and  carmin, 
other  dyes  have  recently  been  used  for  staining  meat,  including 
safranin,  eosin  and  red  vegetable  dyes,  from  saturated  stains  of  red 
berries,  beets  and  roots  to  yellow  crocus.  According  to  Bischoff, 
moreover,  azo-dyes  have  been  used  for  this  purpose.  These 
materials  are  added  under  the  most  various  names,  in  part  calcu- 
lated to  deceive  ("rosalin,"  "carmin  substitute,"  "blood  color," 
"  blackberry  red,"  "  stabil,"  "  cervelatwurst  salt  with  spice," 
"alkerrnessaft)."  Kosalin  is  a  carmin  preparation.  Carmin  sub- 
stitute, on  the  other  hand,  is  an  azo-dye  (Bischoff);  blood  color 
consists  of  starch  colored  red  by  anilin  dyes  (Baumert).  Another 
anilin  dye  sometimes  used  is  the  so-called  brilliant-berolina 
(Polenske).  Corallin  is  used  for  coloring  sausage  casings.  The 
-use  of  this  dye  is  forbidden  by  the  law  of  June  5,  1887,  concerning 
the  utilization  of  injurious  coloring  materials  in  the  preparation  of 
food,  for  the  reason  that  it  frequently  contains  phenol.  According 
to  their  effects,  as  shown  by  Juckenack  and  Sendtner,  the  dyes 
utilized  in  coloring  sausages  may  be  divided  into  three  groups : 
(1)  Those  which  stain  the  meat  portions,  but  leave  the  fat  un- 
colored.  (2)  Those  which  color  finely  minced  meat  and  fat 
nniformly  red.  (3)  Those  which  are  soluble  in  fat  and  which  con- 
sequently color  finely  or  moderately  finely  minced  meat  and  fat 
uniformly  and  throughout.  If  stained  with  members  of  group  1, 
the  sausage  when  rendered  contains  uncolored  fat,  while,  if  stained 
with  group  3,  the  fat  is  of  a  bright  red  color. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  DYE  STUFFS. — Lehmann  recommends  for 
the  demonstration  of  fuchsin  in  sausages  extraction  with  ethyl  or 


788  COLORING  AND  INFLATION  OF  MEAT 

amyl  alcohol.     "  If  a  distinct  red  coloring  matter  is  dissolved  out,, 
the  sausages  are  evidently  stained  with  artificial  dyes." 

According  to  Fleck,  comminuted  meat  samples  are  treated  with 
amyl  alcohol  as  long  as  the  latter  shows  any  red  color.  The  larger 
portion  of  the  solvent  is  distilled;  the  remainder  is  volatilized  on 
the  water  bath  and  the  residue  dissolved  in  petroleum  ether.  The 
reddish-brown  solution  thus  obtained  is  shaken  together  with 
absolute  alcohol  after  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  1:4.  The  petroleum  ether  together  with  the  fat  which 
may  be  present  then  comes  to  lie  as  a  layer  upon  the  alcoholic 
fuchsin  solution.  The  latter  is  repeatedly  washed  in  a  filter  with 
petroleum  ether  until  the  ether  leaves  no  residue  of  fat  after 
evaporating.  The  alcoholic  fuchsin  solution,  thus  carefully 
obtained,  is  now  diluted  with  an  excess  of  ammonia.  The  ammo- 
nium sulphate  which  is  formed  is  separated  by  filtration  from  the 
fluid  which  is  now  colored  slightly  yellow,  and  the  latter  is  evapor- 
ated in  a  tared  platinum  or  glass  cup. 

From  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  the  fuchsin  used  in  coloring  the 
meat  should  be  demonstrated  by  Fleck's  method. 

For  the  demonstration  of  cochineal,  Kliuger  and  Bujard  first 
suggested  a  method  which  is  based  on  extraction  by  means  of 
glycerin. 

Twenty  grams  of  finely  minced  sausage  is  boiled  on  a  water 
bath  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  water  and  glycerin.  If  cochi- 
neal is  present,  a  conspicuously  red  colored  solution  is  obtained  in 
a  short  time.  In  the  absence  of  this  dye,  the  glycerin  is  not  at  all 
stained  or  at  most  somewhat  yellowish.  After  cooling,  the  solution 
is  filtered  and  if  only  small  quantities  of  the  dye  have  been  dissolved 
the  process  is  repeated  with  the  filtrate  obtained  from  another  20 
grams  of  sausage.  The  perfectly  clear,  and,  what  is  of  special 
importance,  fat  free,  more  or  less  red  colored  glycerin  solution  may, 
as  a  rule,  be  then  directly  examined  by  means  of  the  spectroscope, 
during  which  the  absorption  bands  characteristic  of  carmiii  may  bfr 
plainly  recognized  in  all  cases.  Otherwise  the  carmin-lac  may  be 
precipitated  out  of  the  solution  in  the  usual  manner.  This  sub- 
stance is  then  collected  upon  a  filter  and  dissolved  in  a  small 
quantity  of  tartaric  acid.  A  quite  concentrated  solution  of  the 
dye  is  thus  obtained  with  which  the  usual  reactions  may  be  demon- 
strated. 

According  to  Petsch,  extraction  with  ammoniacal  alcohol  is  a,- 
more  rational  method.  By  shaking  the  samples  of  colored  sausage- 
in  a  vessel  containing  ammoniacal  alcohol,  a  more  intensive  colora— 


COLORING  789 

of  the  filtrate  appears  than  with  glycerin  extraction.  Petsch, 
therefore,  proposes,  as  a  method  for  the  demonstration  of  foreign 
coloring  materials  in  sausage,  that  after  negative  results  from  the 
.amyl  alcohol  test,  the  comminuted  sample  should  be  treated  with  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  ammonia  by  the  cold  method.  Spath 
recommends  extraction  with  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  salicy- 
late  as  a  preliminary  test  in  the  demonstration  of  carmin  from 
-analin  dyes  in  sausage.  The  minced  sausage  is  warmed  on  a  water 
bath  in  this  solution  for  fifteen  minutes.  It  is  then  allowed  to  cool 
and  is  filtered.  The  filtrate  is  stained  if  artificial  coloring  materials 
are  present.  In  old  sausages  (two  years  old)  Polenske  found  that 
carmin  was  readily  recognized  by  the  color  of  the  extract,  while  the 
analin  dye  (brilliant-berolina)  was  not.  However,  when  the  extracts 
were  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  salicylic  acid  was 
separated  with  a  yellowish  white  color  in  the  case  of  non-colored 
samples  of  sausage,  while  with  sausages  stained  with  carmin  or 
brilliant-berolina,  the  salicylic  acid  was  colored  crimson. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  demonstrate  even  small  quantities  of 
carmiu,  Bremer  recommends  that  in  suspicious  samples  of  sausage, 
extraction  of  the  coloring  material  should  be  attempted  not  only 
with  alcohol,  amyl  alcohol,  or  alcohol  and  glycerin,  but  also  with  a 
slightly  acidified  (tartaric  or  hydrochloric  acid)  mixture  of  glycerin 
and  water  in  equal  parts.  From  this  solution,  which,  moreover,  in 
-the  presence  of  acids,  is  colored  merely  yellowish,  the  coloring 
material  may  be  precipitated  as  lac.  This  is  brought  about  by 
boiling  the  fluid  with  ammonia  and  diluting  with  water  and  allowing 
to  settle.  After  twenty- four  hours,  if  small  quantities  of  carmin  are 
.present,  a  deep  crimson  precipitation  is  formed  which  may  be  col- 
lected on  the  filter. 

On  the  basis  of  extensive  experiments,  Polenske  considers  a 
combination  of  the  methods  of  Bremer  and  Spath  as  most  suitable 
in  demonstrating  artificial  dyestuffs  in  sausages.  Polenske  recom- 
mends a  solution  containing  5  grams  salicylate  of  soda,  50  cc.  of 
water  and  5  cc.  of  glycerin.  Twenty  grams  of  the  sausage  is  pressed 
into  a  paste,  30  cc.  of  the  extraction  fluid  added,  and  the  whole 
heated  on  a  water  bath  for  half  an  hour  with  repeated  stirring. 
After  cooling,  the  whole  is  pressed  through  gauze  and  filtered. 

The  presence  of  "  carmin  substitute  "  is  easily  demonstrated  by 
a  boiling  test.  In  boiling  a  piece  of  sausage,  the  fat  stains  red  and 
floats  like  red  oil  on  water  (Bischoff). 

Marpmann  and  Spath  recommend  a  microscopic  examination 
iis  a  certain  method  of  demonstrating  dyestuffs  in  sausage.  Under 


790  COLORING  AND  INFLATION  OF  MEAT 

the  microscope  one  recognizes  artificial  coloration  by  the  fact  that  iso- 
lated portions  of  tissue  paper  appear  to  be  stained  red,  while  fresh 
tissue,  even  from  smoked  meat,  exhibits  a  yellowish,  yellowish-green 
or  yellowish-gray  color.  According  to  Polenske,  however,  the 
microscopic  demonstration  of  dyestuffs  in  smoked  sausages  is  not 
easily  made,  while  a  chemical  demonstration  offers  no  difficulty,, 
even  in  case  of  smoked  sausages  two  years  old.  A  microscopic 
examination,  however,  may  serve  as  a  test  for  orientation.  Marp- 
mann  considers  as  most  suitable  the  following  method  of 
microscopic  determination  of  dyestuffs  in  sausage: 

A  piece  of  sausage  to  be  examined  is  macerated  in  water.  It  m 
then  saturated  with  50  per  cent,  alcohol,  after  which  the  coloration 
of  the  cells  may  be  recognized.  Sausages  which  when  covered  with 
50  per  cent,  alcohol  possess  a  decolorized  appearance  after  standing 
for  two  hours  at  ordinary  living  temperature  must  be  considered  as 
unstained,  while,  conversely,  if  the  sausage  still  possesses  a  color,, 
it  is  sufficient  evidence  of  adulteration  by  artificial  stains.  If  one 
treats  a  sausage  with  carbol  xylol  and  replaces  the  latter  with 
tetrachloromethane,  treatment  with  cedar  oil  renders  the  prepara- 
tion more  favorable  for  a  microscopic  examination. 

OFFICIAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  DEMONSTRATING  COLORING  MATTERS 
IN  SAUSAGES. — The  Berlin  Police  President  issued  the  following 
directions  for  the  demonstration  of  dyestuffs  in  sausages  for  the 
food  control  stations  which  are  under  the  direction  of  the  district 
veterinarians : 

1.  Small  pieces  weighing  about  10  gm.   of  the  sausage  to  be 
tested  are  placed  in  a  test  tube  and  covered  with  a  mixture  of  offi- 
cinal glycerin  and  water,  so  that  the  pieces  of  sausages  are  about  1 
cm.  beneath  the  surface  of  the  fluid.     If,  after  the  test  tube  has  been 
kept  for  fifteen  minutes  on  a  boiling  water  bath,  the  fat  layer  upon 
the  glycerin  or  the  glycerin  water  itself  or  both  fluids  are  colored 
red  the  sausage  must  be  considered  as  artificially    colored   with 
car  in  in  or  azo-dyes. 

2.  If  by  the  application  of  the  method  just  described  a  negative 
result  is  obtained,  a  piece  of  sausage  weighing  about  10  grams  is  to 
be  placed  in  a  cold  mixture  of  officinal  ammonia  and  water  in  the 
proportion  of  1  :  3.     If  after  some  time  the  sausage  exhibits  violet 
red,  or  crimson  spots,  it  must  be  considered  as  having  been  colored 
with  carmin  powder. 

3.  If  these  tests  give  a  negative  result,  a  portion  of  the  sausage 
is  to  be  heated  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol.     If  the  alcohol  is  colored 


GOLOEING  791 

red  the  sausage  must  be  considered  as  having  been  dyed  with 
fuchsin. 

4.  The  application  of  these  methods  is  left  to  the  discretion  of 
the  veterinarians. 

Against  the  above  directions,  Weller  and  Riegel  have  raised 
the  objection  that  they  may  fail  to  give  results,  since  sausages  which 
are  made  from  meat  prepared  with  saltpeter  always  yield  a  bright 
red  colored  fluid  after  treatment  with  the  solvents  mentioned  in  the 
above  directions. 

Weller  and  Riegel  demonstrated  by  means  of  spectrum  analysis 
that  the  coloring  material,  which  is  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol  and  in 
aqueous  and  alcoholic  glycerin,  but  which  does  not  stain  wool,  is 
methemoglobin.  The  modification  of  the  hemoglobin  into  a  per- 
manent red  coloring  matter  under  the  influence  of  saltpeter  appears 
to  be  a  specific  peculiarity  of  the  hemoglobin  of  hog  blood,  since  in 
a  control  experiment  with  calf's  blood,  only  small  quantities  of 
yellow  coloring  materials  were  obtained  in  the  ether  which  was  used 
as  an  extraction  reagent.  The  experiments  which  were  instituted 
by  Weller  and  Riegel,  however,  as  indicated  by  Juckenack  and 
Sendtner,  do  not  correspond  with  actual  conditions,  for  it  never 
occurs  in  practice  that  meat  sausages  intended  for  long  keeping  are 
prepared  by  adding  blood,  since  blood  would  reduce  the  keeping 
property  of  the  sausages. 

JUDGMENT. — The  dye  stuffs  which  are  used  for  coloring  sau- 
sages are  not  injurious  from  the  nature  of  their  composition,  nor  do 
they  produce  a  substantial  depreciation  of  the  value  of  the  meat  or 
meat  products  on  account  of  the  quantity  which  is  added.  Never- 
theless, from  the  standpoint  of  meat  inspection  and  also  from  the 
legal  standpoint,  the  addition  of  dye  stuffs  must  be  treated  as  an 
adulteration,  and  this  is  right  and  just. 

It  is  undoubtedly  a  case  of  adulteration  if  the  coloration 
deceives  the  consumer  concerning  the  age  of  the  meat,  as  in  the 
case  of  mince  meat,  or  with  regard  to  the  fraudulent  addition  of 
flour  and  water.  It  is  an  adulteration  and  also  a  violation  of  Sec. 
12  of  the  Food  Law  if  decomposing  meat  is  colored  and  offered  for 
sale,*  for  decomposing  meat  is  injurious  to  health  (page  757). 

It  is  only  in  the  case  of  the  coloration  of  otherwise  good  sau- 
sage intended  for  long  keeping  that  judgment  may  be  doubtful. 

*  Reichardt  (cited  from  Lehmann)  describes  an  outbreak  of  illness  which 
affected  a  whole  family  and  was  due  to  colored  sausage.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  in  this  case  the  sausage  was  prepared  from  decomposing  meat. 


792  COLORING  AND   INFLATION   OF   MEAT 

This  is  done  in  order  to  conceal  the  gray  color  of  the  sausage  and, 
according  to  the  statements  of  Bischoff,  is  extensively  practiced  in 
Thiiringen,  but  even  in  this  locality  the  courts  without  exception 
condemn  the  practice  on  the  basis  of  Sec.  10  of  the  Food  Law,  since 
fuchsin  and  cochineal  are  not  constituents  of  normal  sausage  and 
since  the  addition  of  these  dye  stuffs  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing the  sausage  the  appearance  of  freshness  and  increased  nutritive 
qualities.  Moreover,  Bremer  rightly  states  that  coloration  may 
conceal  not  only  the  gray  color,  but  also  other  decomposition 
processes  in  sausage,  which  may  spoil  the  taste  of  the  sausage. 
It  i&  stated  that  in  Munich  sausages  have  repeatedly  been  examined 
which,  at  first  glance  at  the  fresh,  smoothly  cut  surface,  would  be 
considered  as  excellent  material,  while  they  were  absolutely  inedible, 
except  to  a  perverted  palate.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  institution 
for  the  examination  of  foods  in  Munich,  cervelatwurst  was  found  of 
very  good  external  appearance,  but  exhibiting  a  rather  bright  red 
color  on  the  cut  surface.  It  possessed  an  acid  content  of  76  per 
cent.,  however,  arid  was  literally  inedible.  Moreover,  with  the 
utilization  of  azo-dyes,  which  give  a  red  color  to  the  fat,  the  appear- 
ance of  pure  meat  sausage  is  produced.*  Finally,  it  should  be 
observed  that  hundreds  of  sausage  makers  in  Gotha,  which  is  the 
chief  location  for  the  manufacture  of  cervelatwurst,  have  declared 
that  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  dye  stuffs  would  be  to  the  interest 
of  reliable  dealers ;  for,  with  the  help  of  dye  stuffs,  cheap  American 
beef  may  be  worked  over  into  sausages,  and  thereby  the  good 
reputation  of  domestic  sausages  may  suffer. 

DECISIONS  OF  THE  REICHGERICHT. — The  coloration  of  the  gills 
of  fish  with  red  dye  stuffs  in  order  to  give  them  the  appearance 
of  fresh  fish  is  an  instance  of  adulteration  (Decision  II.,  Criminal 
Senate,  December  2,  1891).  Likewise,  the  coloration  of  sausage  by 
means  of  dye  stuffs  in  order  to  preserve  the  color  of  fresh  products 

*  Juckenack  and  Sendtner  have  demonstrated  by  means  of  analyses  that  the 
addition  of  dye  stuffs  makes  possible  the  preparation  of  sausage  intended  for  long 
keeping  with  a  higher  fat  and  water  content  or,  in  other  words,  sausages  whick 
are  of  inferior  value  as  compared  with  uncolored  sausages. 

The  sausages  exhibited  the  following  average  conditions  : 

Deficiency  Excess  of  Excess  of 

in  lean  meat.              fat.  water. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

1  kg.  colored  mettwurst 22.96                      14.68  14.68 

1  kg.  colored  cervelatwurst. . . .        22.67                       7.44  14.92 

1  kg.  colored  salamiwurst  .....        22.41                       7.19  15.56 


INFLATION  793 

for  a  period  during  which  without  such  manipulation  it  would  be 
apparent  from  the  alteration  of  the  natural  color  that  the  products 
were  not  fresh  (Decision  III.,  Criminal  Senate,  February  18,  1882). 

THE  POSITION  OF  THE  IMPERIAL  HEALTH  OFFICE  WITH  KEGARD 
TO  THE  COLORATION  OF  SAUSAGES.— Concerning  the  coloration  of 
sausages,  the  Imperial  Health  Office  has  published  a  memorial,  the 
gist  of  which  may  be  stated  in  the  following  propositions  : 

1.  If  meat  rich  in  natural  coloring  matter  is  utilized  with 
proper  regard  to  care  and  cleanliness,  a  uniformly  red  colored  sau- 
sage, suitable,  for  long  keeping,  may  be  prepared  without  the  help 
of  artificial  dye  stuffs. 

2.  The  addition  of  dye  stuffs  makes  it  possible  to  lend  the 
appearance  of  a  better  quality  to  a  sausage  which  is  prepared  from 
less  suitable  material  or  with  insufficient  care,  and  the  purchasers 
are  thus  deceived  concerning  the  true  character  of  the  sausage. 

3.  In  accord  with  the  principles  laid  down  by  the  Beich- 
gericht,  the  majority  of  the  courts  which  have  considered  this  ques- 
tion assume  that  the  artificial  coloration  of  sausages,  which  has 
become  established  in  many  regions,  can  not  be   considered  as 
legitimate  business  practice  from  the  standpoint  of  the  food  law. 

4.  By  the  utilization  of  poisonous  dye  stuffs,  the  consumption 
of  sausages  colored  with  them  may  be  injurious  to  human  health.* 


3.— Inflation. 

PURPOSE. — The  inflation  of  whole  calves  and  sheep,  as  well  as 
the  lungs  of  these  animals,  is  considered  by  the  butchers  as  a  tradi- 
tion of  their  trade,  so  well  founded  that  strong  objections  were 
raised  when  the  authorities  in  many  localities  decided  to  prohibit 
the  practice.  Butchers  especially  assert  that  the  process  of  remov- 
ing the  skins  from  the  animals  just  mentioned  is  made  much  easier 
after  inflation.  Daily  experience  in  abattoirs,  however,  where  infla- 
tion is  forbidden,  teaches  that  skinning  of  calves  and  sheep — in  the 
latter  inflation  is  a  much  more  general  custom  than  in  the  former — 
does  not  offer  any  special  difficulties,  even  without  artificial  infla- 
tion with  air  forced  into  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissue.  The 


*  By  order  of  the  Federal  Council  of  February  16,  1902,  the  artificial  colora- 
tion of  meat  and  meat  products,  with  the  exception  of  the  coloration  of  sausage 
casings,  is  forbidden  in  the  whole  German  Empire  from  and  after  October  1, 
1902. 


794  COLORING  AND  INFLATION  OF  MEAT 

actual  reason  of  the  objection  of  tradesmen  to  the  prohibition  of 
inflation  from  the  side  of  the  authorities  is,  therefore,  doubtless, 
not  the  reason  alleged,  but  another,  namely,  that  it  is  possible,  by 
means  of  inflation,  to  increase  the  apparent  value  of  the  meat. 
Meat  is  rendered  more  plump  and  of  better  appearance  by  inflation. 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether,  as  Schmidt-Mulheim  assumes,  it  also 
becomes  more  appetizing.  This  appears  to  be  a  matter  of  taste. 
The  effect  sought  in  inflation  is  at  any  rate  a  possible  advantage 
for  the  butcher  in  all  cases  in  which  poor,  immature  animals  are 
concerned,  which  do  not  produce  a  favorable  impression  in  the  non- 
inflated  condition. 

In  the  case  of  the  lungs,  a  volume  is  obtained  by  means  of 
inflation  which  is  not  seen  in  them  in  the  non-inflated  condition. 
In  this  case  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  organs  are  not  only  of 
better  appearance,  but  that  they  exhibit  a  more  appetizing  exterior 
than  when  not  thus  treated.  On  the  other  hand,  inflation  makes  it 
possible  to  substitute  inferior  hog  and  sheep  lungs  for  the  more 
valuable  calf  lungs.  This  substitution  may  be  accomplished  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  laity  more  easily  than  when  inflation  is  for- 
bidden. 

Schmidt-Mulheim  mentions  an  increase  in  the  keeping  property 
of  the  meat  as  a  hygienic  advantage  in  inflation,  provided  that  this 
operation  is  done  by  means  of  bellows  with  air  filtered  through  cot- 
ton. The  lymph  which  remains  in  the  subcutaneous  and  inter- 
muscular  connective  tissue  is  forced  into  the  larger  lymph  vessels 
by  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  the  drying-out  of  the  subcutis,  an 
important  factor  in  the  keeping  quality  of  meat,  is  thus  favored  by 
the  enlargement  of  the  body  surface  due  to  inflation.  In  this  con- 
nection, however,  experience  also  teaches  that  we  may  well  dispense 
with  inflation  without  exposing  the  meat  to  a  more  rapid  process  of 
spoiling. 

In  addition  to  calves  and  sheep,  light,  poorly  fed  geese  are  also 
inflated,  with  fraudulent  intent. 

TECHNIQUE. — Inflation  is  done  in  its  simplest  form  by  means  of 
the  mouth.  As  a  rule,  the  lungs  are  inflated  in  this  manner.  For 
inflating  whole  animals,  however,  tradesmen  usually  employ  a  bel- 
lows. These  possess  a  pointed  canula,  which  is  introduced  into  the 
subcutis  in  any  part  of  the  body  through  a  slit  in  the  skin.  The 
air  after  being  forced  into  the  subcutis  is  distributed  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  body  by  rubbing  with  the  hand.  Geese  are  inflated 
by  means  of  a  quill. 


INFLATION  795 

EECOGNITION. — It  is  not  difficult  to  recognize  the  inflated  condi- 
tion of  a  whole  animal.  This  condition  is  apparent  at  first  glance 
from  the  unusual  size  of  the  slaughtered  animal  and  from  the 
peculiar  sheen  exhibited  by  the  subcutis  in  place  of  the  cloudy- 
character  of  the  panniculus  adiposus  or  of  the  pure  white  appear- 
ance of  the  subcutaneous  tissue  which  is  not  filled  with  fat.  A. 
spongy  feeling  on  palpation  and  a  crackling  sound  are  conspicuous. 

The  detection  of  inflated  lungs  is  not  so  simple.  The  condi- 
tion of  such  lungs  is  best  understood  by  making  an  inflation 
experiment.  If  warm  lungs  are  inflated  by  means  of  a  tube  inserted 
into  the  trachea,  under  slight  pressure,  the  lungs  swell  greatly,  the 
mediastinal  surfaces  come  to  lie  in  contact  and  the  borders  of  the 
lungs  become  unusually  sharp.  The  inflation  is  uniform  and 
appears  also  in  the  anterior  lobes,  which  consequently  do  not  hang 
down  or  at  the  side,  but  stand  out  in  the  natural  direction  from  the 
principal  lobes.  Moreover,  as  a  rule,  sub-pleural  emphysema  is 
observed  as  a  result  of  excessive  mechanical  tension,  and  rupture  of 
the  alveolar  walls  by  the  pressure  of  the  air. 

All  of  these  points  should  be  carefully  observed,  for,  since  the 
prohibition  of  inflation  has  come  into  force,  butchers  have  found 
another  method  of  producing  "large "  lungs,  which  can  not  be  con- 
demned. This  consists  in  the  clever  utilization  of  the  mechanics 
of  the  thorax.  After  the  exenteration  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  and 
after  the  incision  is  made  through  the  ischio-pubic  symphysis,  the 
animals  are  hung  by  the  posterior  extremities  on  gambrels,  the 
hind  legs  are  forced  as  far  apart  as  possible,  and  the  abdominal 
walls  above  the  sternal  cartilage  are  likewise  forced  apart  by  means 
of  wooden  braces.  The  artificial  enlargement  of  the  thorax  causes 
an  excessive  inspiration  into  the  air-tight  lungs  and  this  air  is 
retained  after  the  removal  of  the  lungs  from  the  thorax,  if  the 
removal  does  not  take  place  too  soon,  but  only  after  the  appear- 
ance of  a  more  or  less  complete  rigor  mortis.  Such  lungs  with 
artificially  increased  inspiration  are  distinguished,  however,  from 
inflated  lungs  by  their  smaller  size,  less  sharp  borders,  the  absence 
of  interstitial  emphysema  and,  finally,  by  the  flabby  character  of 
the  anterior  lobes.  The  latter  possess  only  a  medium  air  content, 
and,  therefore,  hang  to  the  side  or  downward,  for  the  artificial 
enlargement  of  the  thorax  on  account  of  the  natural  anatomical 
conditions  is  greater  in  the  posterior  parts  of  the  lungs  and  much 
less  in  the  anterior  parts. 

A  condition  which  resembles  inflation  is  occasionally  observed 
in  the  lungs  of  slaughtered  cattle  when  aspirated  fodder  balls 


796  COLORING  AND  INFLATION  OF  MEAT 

become  wedged  in  the  trachea  or  in  the  chief  bronchi,  as  a  result 
of  violent  inspirations  during  bleeding,  so  that  they  can  not  be 
driven  out  again  by  expiration. 

JUDGMENT. — While  it  can  not  be  denied  that  the  inflation  of 
whole  animals  renders  skinning  easier  and  increases  their  keeping 
quality,  nevertheless  experience  teaches  that  these  advantages  of 
inflation  may  well  be  dispensed  with  by  tradesmen.  Moreover, 
inflation  is  a  trade  custom  the  prohibition  of  which  is  justified  for 
hygienic  and  commercial  reasons. 

With  but  few  exceptions,  consumers  might  reasonably  reject  a> 
food  material  which  is  filled  with  the  expired  air  of  another  person. 
In  addition  to  the  subjective  feeling,  however,  it  should  also  be 
remembered  that  in  inflation  by  means  of  the  mouth  numerous 
putrefactive,  often  pathogenic,  bacteria  are  inoculated  into  the  meat 
and  thus  the  advantage  of  increased  keeping  qualities  is  not  real- 
ized, while  under  certain  circumstances  the  meat  may  be  given  an 
actually  dangerous  quality.  Putrefactive  bacteria  are  also  forced 
into  the  meat,  even  when  the  bellows  is  employed,  if  the  filtering 
apparatus  for  the  air  recommended  by  Schmidt-Miilheim  is  not  used 
in  connection  with  the  bellows. 

Moreover,  in  any  individual  case  it  can  not  be  determined 
whether  the  animal  body  or  a  lung  has  been  inflated  by  means  of 
bellows  or  with  the  mouth.  A  general  prohibition  of  inflation  is, 
therefore,  sufficiently  justified  by  the  reasons  which  have  already 
been  mentioned. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  less  observing  pur- 
chasers may  be  deceived  concerning  the  true  character  of  the 
products  in  consequence  of  inflation  and  consumers  may  be  enticed 
into  buying  meat  which  they  perhaps  would  not  have  bought  in  an 
uninflated  condition. 

DECISION  OF  THE  EEICHGERICHT. — The  Eeichgericht  declared  in 
a  decision  of  M;iy  27, 1888,  that  inflated  meat  must  be  considered  as 
spoiled  in  the  sense  of  Sec.  3677  of  the  Criminal  Law  Statutes,  and 
must,  therefore,  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market.  The  case 
in  question  concerned  the  offering  for  sale  of  a  leg  of  veal  which 
had  been  inflated  with  the  mouth.  The  Eeichgericht  held  that  the 
meat  into  which  air  had  been  forced  by  means  of  the  mouth  was  dis- 
gusting to  the  majority  of  consumers  and  was  thereby,  as  well  as 
from  the  fact  of  the  danger  of  the  transmission  of  pathogenic  organ- 
isms from  the  person  who  inflated  it,  unsuited  for  ordinary  con- 


INFLATION  797 

sumption.  Moreover,  it  was  considered  that  the  meat  was  depre- 
ciated below  its  normal  condition  and  was  thus  rendered  of  inferior 
value. 

PROHIBITION  OF  INFLATION. — A  circular  letter  of  the  Royal  Prus- 
sian Ministries  of  February  13,  1885,  recommends  to  the  Govern- 
ment presidents  the  decree  of  a  police  regulation  against  inflation 
of  meat.  The  inflation  of  meat  with  the  mouth  had  already  been 
prohibited  by  decree  of  the  Eessorfc  minister  of  August  17,  1861, 
and  furthermore  under  the  decree  of  November  15, 1879,  the  abso- 
lute prohibition  of  inflation  was  declared  to  be  justifiable.  Accord- 
ingly, the  inflation  of  meat  in  Berlin  as  well  as  in  the  governmental 
districts  of  Konigsberg,  Frankfurt,  Posen  and  Bromberg  was  for- 
bidden. 

The  Prussian  Kammergericht,   on  an  appeal    of  a    butcher 
against  an  unfavorable  judgment  of  the  Landgericht  in  Frankfurt, .... 
decided  that  police  ordinances  forbidding  inflation  were  legal. 


XVI. 

PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT, 


As  with  milk,  so  also  with  meat,  we  may  speak  of  a  certain 
keeping  quality.  While,  however,  in  the  case  of  milk,  the  keeping 
property  may  be  endangered  and  destroyed  by  acid  and  zymogenic 
bacteria,  in  meat  it  is  the  putrefactive  bacteria,  those  "  ubiquitous 
organisms  "  which  are  everywhere  present  and  which  wait  only  for 
a.  favorable  opportunity  to  induce  decomposition  in  meat.  The 
keeping  property  of  meat  depends  upon  various  conditions.  Atten- 
tion has  already  been  called  (page  711)  to  the  fact  that  the  meat  of 
animals  slaughtered  on  account  of  disease  is  characterized  by  poor 
keeping  property.  For  the  rest,  however,  the  keeping  power  of 
the  meat  depends  chiefly  upon  the  temperature  and  moisture  con- 
tent of  the  air  in  the  room  in  which  the  meat  is  preserved.  In 
cold,  dry  rooms  meat  keeps  much  longer  than  in  warm,  moist 
rooms.  This  fact  finds  its  natural  explanation  in  the  biological 
properties  of  putrefactive  bacteria.  The  latter  thrive  in  a  certain 
moisture  content  of  the  nutritive  substratum  and  at  a  temperature 
Tvhich  is  not  too  low.  One  necessary  condition  of  good  keeping 
property  of  wholesome  meat  is,  therefore,  a  careful  cooling  immedi- 
ately after  slaughter,  since  the  animal  heat  is  the  optimum 
temperature  for  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  putrefactive  bac- 
teria. By  the  application  of  artificial  agents — so-called  preserving 
-agents — it  is  possible  to  increase  the  normal  keeping  power  of  meat. 
"The  preserving  agents  are  of  a  chemical  and  physical  nature.  The 
former  are  utilized  more  extensively  in  traffic  in  meat  preparations, 
while  the  latter  are  more  applicable  to  the  traffic  in  unprepared 
meat. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  possible  to  protect  meat  from 
decomposition  by  preservation  in  sterile  air.  The  Argentine  Govern- 
ment is  said  to  have  made  an  experiment  in  preserving  fresh  meat  in 
sterile  air  in  special  rooms  on  transport  vessels.  The  method  of 

798 


KEEPING  QUALITY  OF  MEAT  7iH) 

Hinmericli  was  also  devised  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing  sterile 
preservation. 

This  method  consists  in  exenterating  and  cutting  up  food 
animals  with  instruments  rendered  aseptic  by  passing  them  through 
a  flame.  The  natural  casing  of  the  meat,  viz.,  the  skin,  fat,  connec- 
tive tissue,  etc.,  are  not  removed.  The  surface  of  those  portions  of 
the  meat  not  covered  by  the  skin  are  sprinkled  with  glacial  acetic 
acid  and  the  pieces  of  meat  to  be  preserved  are  finally  packed  in 
sawdust  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  them  dry.  The  sawdust  is  sat- 
urated with  common  salt  and  heated  and  dried  at  a  temperature  of 
180°  C. 

How  long  will  meat  keep  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of 
preservation  ?  Concerning  this  important  question,  accurate  state- 
ments are  found  only  in  a  work  which  has  already  become  historical, 
namely,  in  Johann  Peter  Frank's  "  System  einer  vollstandigen 
medizinischen  Polizei."  Mannheim  :  1804.  Frank  makes  the  fol- 
lowing statements  :  The  learned  contributions  to  the  Braunschwei- 
gischen  Anzeigeu  of  1773  contain  a  table  on  the  length  of  time 
during  which  raw  meat  may  be  kept  in  the  air  without  spoiling. 
The  table  gives  the  following  data  for  the  keeping  power  of  meat  of 
different  origins : 

In  Summer    In  Winter 
Days  Days 

Deer 4  8 

Wild  boar 6  10 

Hare 3  6 

Pheasant •. 4  10 

Black  grouse  4  10 

Woodgrouse 6  14 

Partridge 2  6-8 

Cattle  and  hogs 8  6 

Sheep 2  3 

Calves  and  lambs 2  4 

Turkeys  and  geese 4  8 

Capons 3  6 

Old  roosters 3  6 

Young  roosters 2  4 

Young  pigeons 2  4 

Naturally,  as  observed  by  Frank,  this  table  would  not  hold  true 
ior  all  climates  and  all  kinds  of  game. 

"  On  sultry  days  and  during  thunder  storms,  meat  may  begin, 
to  decompose  within  one-half  day." 


BOO  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 


1. — Chemical  Preservatives. 

The  most  common  methods  of  preserving  meat  by  means  of 
chemical  materials  are  those  of  salting  and  pickling.  Moreover, 
the  disinfecting  agents,  boric,  salicylic  and  sulphurous  acid,  are 
used  in  the  preservation  of  meat.  Smoking  is  a  combination  method 
of  preservation  in  which  chemical  materials  and  hot  air  act 
together. 

With  regard  to  the  application  and  effectiveness,  as  well  as  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  various  preserving  agents,  the 
following  statements  may  be  made  : 

(a)  Salting  and  Pickling. 

APPLICATION. — Common  salt  is  used  especially  in  the  preserva- 
tion of  bacon  sides  and  hams.  Moreover,  in  America  and  Australia, 
beef  is  prepared  for  export  by  means  of  salt  ("  salt  meat ").  Salt 
is  either  rubbed  into  the  pieces  of  meat  in  a  dry  condition  (salting) 
or  is  applied  in  the  form  of  a  salt  brine  (pickling).  For  determining 
the  salt  content  of  the  brine  a  so-called  alkalimeter  is  employed, 
which  is  constructed  according  to  the  principle  of  Quevenne's 
hydrometer.  The  introduction  of  brine  syringes  marked  an  impor- 
tant step  in  advance  in  the  field  of  preservation  technique.  These 
syringes  end  in  a  long,  hollow  needle  which  is  introduced  deeply 
into  the  connective  tissue  lying  between  the  bones  and  muscles.  By 
means  of  brine  syringes  it  is  possible,  in  a  very  short  time,  uni- 
formly to  impregnate  large  pieces  of  meat,  especially  hams,  with 
salt  water.  This  result  would  not  be  possible  by  simply  laying  the 
meat  in  salt  brine.  In  large  meat  salting  establishments,  brine 
pumps,  constructed  on  the  principle  of  the  force  pump,  are  used. 
Huppert  and  others  recommend  pickling  in  iron  tanks  from  which 
the  air  has  been  exhausted  and  in  which  the  pickling  brine  i^ 
allowed  to  penetrate  the  meat  under  pressure  for  a  period  of  seven 
to  eight  hours.  Pickling  is  thereby  said  to  be  more  uniform  than 
by  the  old  method  and  much  accelerated,  so  that  the  whole  process 
of  pickling  hams  requires  only  fourteen  days,  while  by  the  old 
pickling  method  six  to  nine  weeks  were  required.  By  means  of  a 
patent  apparatus  (rapid  pickling  apparatus  "  Meteor "),  it  is  said 
that  pickling  takes  place  so  rapidly  that  meat  may  be  prepared 
ready  for  sale  and  cutting  up  within  one  to  two  days. 


SALTING  AND  PICKLING  801 

PICKLING  THBOUGH  THE  MEDIUM  OF  THE  CIRCULATORY  SYSTEM. — 
The  Swedish,  investigator,  Fjelstrup,  recently  attempted  to  introduce 
a  method  of  pickling  which  utilizes  the  circulatory  system  for  trans- 
porting pickling  brine.  The  animals  are  killed  by  shooting,  the 
hair  is  removed  from  hogs  in  the  usual  manner  after  death.  The 
blood  is  still  perfectly  fluid  under  ordinary  circumstances  and  this, 
is  a  necessary  condition  for  the  success  of  the  injection.  The  ani- 
mal is  then  placed  oh  its  back  in  a  trough  table,  so  that  the  blood 
may  run  off  completely.  The  thoracic  cavity  is  opened  by  a  long 
incision  through  the  soft  parts  and  by  sawing  through  the  sternum, 
and  a  canula  is  introduced  through  the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta 
and  ligated.  A  pump  is  connected  with  the  canula,  by  means  of 
which  the  salt  brine  after  the  right  side  of  the  heart  is  opened,  ia 
forced  in  under  a  pressure  equal  to  the  normal  aortic  pressure. 
The  salt  brine  thus  forces  the  blood  out  through  the  right  side  of 
the  heart  and  at  the  same  time  fills  the  blood  system.  The  process 
requires  from  three  to  four  minutes.  After  being  cut  up,  allowed 
to  cool  and  lying  for  a  short  time,  the  meat  is  ready  for  export  or 
smoking.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  injected  with  sterilized  water  or 
very  weak  brine  immediately  after  death,  in  order  to  force  out  the 
blood. 

This  process  is  not  new.  J.  P.  Frank,  in  his  "  System,"  already 
referred  to,  states  :  "  According  to  the  statements  of  the  Englishman 
Hales,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  inject  with  saltwater  the  blood 
vessels  of  animals  which  have  been  killed  by  bleeding.  This  is. 
done  in  order  to  preserve  the  meat  longer.  This  method  was  first 
tested  in  Madagascar  and  is  really  the  most  rapid  method  of  thor- 
oughly saturating  the  meat." 

Experiments  with  the  new  methods  of  preservation  are  not  yet 
complete.  According  to  Kiihnau,  the  public  objects  to  the  utiliza- 
tion of  injected  meat  in  the  form  of  fresh  meat  on  the  ground  that 
it  retains  its  red  color  in  cooking. 

PICKLING  WITH  THE  AID  OF  ELECTRICITY. — The  South  Ameri- 
can author  Pinto  claims  that  rapid  pickling  (within  ten  to  twenty 
hours)  may  be  brought  about  by  passing  an  electric  current  through 
the  meat  while  lying  in  the  brine. 

EFFECT. — The  preserving  action  of  brine  depends  upon  the  dry- 
ing effect  as  a  result  of  the  extraction  of  water.  Furthermore, 
chloride  of  sodium  possesses  slight  disinfecting  properties.  The 
disinfecting  action  of  salt  consists  in  a  general  check  upon  the  mul- 


802  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

tiplication  of  micro-organisms,  the  prevention  of  the  powerful  pro* 
teolytic  action  of  these  organisms,  even  in  a  comparatively  dilute 
.solution,  and  the  reduction  of  the  chemical  functions  of  certain 
organisms  (Petterson). 

Salt  does  not  exhibit  a  pronounced  checking  effect  upon  micro- 
organisms except  in  solutions  of  from  20  to  23  per  cent. 
In  a  concentration  of  5  per  cent,  it  hinders  the  multiplica- 
tion of  obligate  anaerobes,  but  not  that  of  facultative  anaerobes  and 
aerobes.  Putrefactive  bacteria  are  much  more  susceptible  to  the 
action  of  salt  than  cocci.  In  general  the  growth  of  bacilli  is  checked 
by  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  salt.  Some  of  them,  however,  endure 
a  concentration  of  12  per  cent,  and  occasionally  one  of  15  per  cent, 
in  pure  cultures  in  bouillon.  The  majority  of  cocci  thrive  even  in 
a  solution  containing  15  per  cent,  of  salt. 

Salt  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  the  preservation  of  the  meat  of 
healthy  animals.  The  action  of  salt  upon  pathogenic  bacteria  in 
meat,  however,  has  been  considerably  overestimated,  although  J. 
P.  Frank,  at  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  stated  :  "  Brine  on  meat 
which  is  fundamentally  spoiled  is  nothing  more  than  an  unwhole- 
some broth,  and  if  any  one  believes  that  salt  can  extract  the  poison 
from  suspicious  meat  in  the  manner  in  which  it  dissolves  the  aque- 
ous parts  thereof,  such  a  person  would  allow  his  imagination  to 
influence  his  most  important  business  dealings  for  very  slight  rea- 
sons." Frank  rightly  characterizes  the  pickling  of  the  meat  of 
diseased  animals  as  "  painting  with  a  sort  of  health  varnish,"  and 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  pickling  has  no  other  effect  upon 
the  meat  of  diseased  animals  than  to  preserve  it  from  total  decom- 
position in  the  same  manner  as  it  preserves  healthy  meat.  This 
empirical  demonstration  of  the  great  sanitarian  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury has  been  confirmed  from  a  scientific  standpoint  by  recent  exact 
experiments.  According  to  the  experiments  of  Forster,  pathogenic 
staphylococci,  the  streptococcus  of  erysipelas  and  the  bacilli  of 
swine  erysipelas,  remain  alive  for  weeks  and  months  when  pure  cul- 
tures of  these  micro-organisms  are  covered  with  salt.  Tubercle 
bacilli  in  cultures  treated  in  the  same  manner  proved  virulent  after 
two  months.  Pieces  of  tuberculous  organs  finely  minced  also  proved 
to  be  virulent  after  lying  in  salt  brine  for  eighteen  days.  Anthrax 
bacilli  were  destroyed  in  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours. 
Anthrax  cultures,  however,  containing  spores,  retained  their  viru- 
lence for  months,  despite  treatment  with  salt.  Salting  the  meat  of 
diseased  animals  has,  therefore,  by  no  means  the  high  value  which, 
is  commonly  ascribed  to  this  method  of  preservation. 


SALTING  AND  PICKLING  803 

The  effect  of  salt  manifests  itself  ID  the  meat  by  a  decoloriza- 
tion  of  the  musculature.  In  order  to  prevent  this  result,  it  is 
customary  to  add  saltpeter  to  the  salt  brine.*  According  to  Glage, 
however,  the  persistence  of  the  red  color  of  meat  is  not  due  to  salt- 
peter, but  to  the  effect  of  the  nitrites  and  perhaps  nitric  oxide, 
which  are  formed  from  the  saltpeter  in  the  brine.  In  cooked  meat 
products,  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  nitre  to  the  pickling 
salt  is  a  sure  means  of  producing  the  red  color.  Also  in  the  case  of 
raw  meat  products  it  is  not  the  saltpeter,  but  one  of  its  decomposi- 
tion products  (nitric  oxide  ?)  which  preserves  the  redness  of  the 
coloring  matter  of  the  muscle.  Glage  determined,  furthermore, 
that  in  raw  meat  products,  in  addition  to  saltpeter  and  cane  sugar, 
di-phosphate  of  soda,  potash  and  borax  have  the  effect  of  gradually 
producing  a  red  color. 

COMPOSITION  OF  ORDINARY  BRINE. — Sixteen  parts  of  salt  are 
mixed  with  one-half  part  saltpeter  and  1.5  to  2  parts  of  sugar.  For 
each  100  kg.  of  meat,  5  kg.  of  this  mixture  is  used,  or  4,350  gm.  of 
salt,  150  gin.  of  saltpeter  and  500  gin.  of  sugar.  The  sugar  is  added 
to  the  meat  on  account  of  its  marked  action  in  preventing  putrefac- 
tion (impoverishment  of  the  nutrient  medium  for  putrefactive 
"bacteria).  On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  sugar  may  cause  a 
slimy  fermentation  of  the  brine,  which,  however,  is  said  to  be  with- 
out effect  upon  the  character  of  the  pickling  material. 

SPECIAL  PICKLING  METHODS. — In  America,  the  so-called  dry 
pickled  beef  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner : 

A  20  per  cent,  salt  brine  is  prepared  with  the  addition  of  salt- 
peter and  sugar.  The  meat  is  thus  pickled  in  a  moist  condition. 
Before  it  is  shipped  the  meat  is  dried  by  means  of  special  machines 
and  is  sprinkled  with  borax.  The  addition  of  borax  is  said  to 
amount  to  from  1  to  2  per  cent.f  After  the  meat  is  sprinkled  with 
borax,  it  is  pressed  by  machine  power. 

*"Stabil,"  which  is  recommended  by  the  preservative  manufacturer 
Adamczyk  for  the  preservation  of  sausage  for  long  keeping,  contains  79  per  cent, 
of  saltpeter  (Polenske). 

f  According  to  an  analysis  made  in  Germany,  the  content  of  boric  acid  is 
much  greater.  Thus,  in  Dresden,  3.87  per  cent,  boric  acid  was  demonstrated  in 
American  dry  pickled  beef.  Amthor  found  in  American  beef  70.37  per  cent, 
water  and  7.61  per  cent,  mineral  substances  which  consisted  of  68.5  per  cent,  salt 
and  19.5  per  cent,  borax.  In  51  samples  of  American  dry  pickled  meat  (partly 
pork  and  partly  beef)  Polenske  demonstrated  boric  acid  in  every  case.  Nineteen, 
samples  contained  from  1  to  2  per  cent.;  13,  2  to  3  per  cent.,  and  1  sample,  3.3& 


804  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

The  Chicago  firm  of  Nelson,  Morris  &  Co.  declares  that  it 
pickles  meat  only  by  means  of  a  salt  brine  and  that  at  least  sixty 
days  are  occupied  with  the  process.  The  meat  is  then  allowed  to 
hang  eight  to  ten  days  more  before  it  is  ready  for  export. 

American  pickled  tongues  are  slightly  salted,  but,  like  the 
greater  part  of  American  dry  pickled  beef,  contain  the  forbidden 
boric  acid.  The  tongues  are  washed  in  water,  thoroughly  cleaned 
and  dried.  They  are  then  rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  50  kg.  coarse 
dry  salt,  350  gm.  of  saltpeter  and  750  gm.  of  borax,  or  with  the 
same  weight  of  boric  acid,  and  placed  in  tight  oak  casks.  Usually 
there  is  such  an  abundant  production  of  brine  that  the  subsequent 
addition  of  artificial  brine  is  unnecessary.  The  casks  are  hermeti- 
cally sealed  after  three  or  four  days. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  PICKLING.— Probably  under  the  erroneous 
supposition  that  any  injurious  properties  which  are  contained  in 
the  meat  are  destroyed  by  the  pickling  process,  the  introduction 
of  pickled  meat  was  favored  as  compared  with  that  of  fresh  meat. 
For  this  reason  the  distinction  between  pickled  meat  and  fresh  meat 
is  of  practical  value.  As  shown  by  Glage,  pickled  meat  has  an 
alkaline  reaction,  tastes  salty  and  is  darker  red  and  firmer  than  fresh 
meat  and  exhibits  a  lacquer-like  cut  surface,  while  the  cut  surface 
of  fresh  meat  shows  grooves  and  channels  on  account  of  the  unequal 
retraction  of  the  muscle  fibers.  For  the  certain  detection  of  pick- 
ling, Glage  recommends,  in  the  place  of  the  simple  silver  nitrate 
solution  proposed  by  the  author,  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate  partly 
neutralized  by  ammonia  and  possessing  the  following  composition  :  , 

Argent,  nitric,  2. 
Aquadestill.,  100. 
Mf.  sol. 

Adde  exactissime 
Liquor.  Ammonii  caustic,  q.  s. 
ad  prsecipit.  et  perfect,  resolut. 
Argent,  nitr. ;  deinde 

Liquor.  Ammonii  caustic,  volumetric  40  cc. 
Aq.  destill.  q.  s.  ad  200  cc. 
M.  D.  in  vitro  flav. 

Sig.  Reagent  for  the  differentiation  of  salt  and  fresh  meat  ;  10  cc.  for 
each  sample  of  1  gm. 

The  reagent  is  to  be  preserved  in  well-stoppered  yellow  glass 
bottles.  For  making  the  test,  10  gm.  of  the  reagent  is  poured  into 


per  cent.  The  pieces  of  meat  were  surrounded  by  a  gray  layer  1  cm.  thick.  The 
inside  of  the  beef  possessed  a  deeper  red  color  than  fresh  meat.  The  water  con- 
tent of  the  dry  pickled  beef  ranged  between  65  and  69  per  cent. 


SALTING  AND   PICKLING  805 

a  glass  bottle  with  a  wide  neck  and  a  ground  glass  stopper.  A 
piece  of  meat,  as  free  from  fat  as  possible,  about  the  size  of  a  nut 
(1  gm.)  is  taken  from  the  interior  of  the  piece  of  meat  to  be  tested 
and  thrown  into  the  reagent.  The  piece  of  meat  should  not  be 
comminuted.  If  one  observes  a  white  precipitation  of  chlorid  of 
silver  which  by  daylight  rapidly  becomes  violet  or  black,  but 
by  lamplight  slowly,  or  not  at  all,  the  meat  has  been  pickled, 
Presh  meat  produces  only  an  albuminous  cloudiness  which. does 
not  become  discolored.  Fresh  meat  also  retains  its  red  color, 
while  pickled  meat  becomes  coated  with  chlorid  of  silver  on  the 
surface. 

EFFECT  OF  PICKLING  ON  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  MEAT. — As  a 
result  of  pickling,  meat  suffers  a  loss  of  nutritive  material, 
Polenske  pickled  meat  in  a  solution  of  1£  kg.  salt,  15  gm.  saltpeter, 
and  120  gm.  of  sugar  in  6  kg.  of  water,  and  found  that  the  weight  of 
the  pickled  meat  was  considerably  diminished  as  a  result  of  the 
mutual  exchange  between  the  meat  juice  and  brine.  The  maximum 
of  increase  of  weight  was  observed  within  three  weeks  and 
amounted  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight.  By  the  action  of 
the  brine,  however,  the  following  quantities  of  materials  were 
extracted  from  the  meat : 

Anhydrous 

Nitrogen  Phosphoric  add 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

After  three  weeks' pickling 7.77  34.72 

After  six  months'  pickling , . .    -j  j^g  j  j?|'*Jj 

Polenske  was  unable  to  demonstrate  directly  the  loss  of  any 
potash  salts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  high  content  of  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  brine  showed  that  the  potash  salts  had  also  been 
extracted  to  a  large  extent. 

According  to  an  analysis  of  Voit,  the  nutritive  value  of  meat 
appeared  not  to  have  been  greatly  diminished  by  pickling.  This 
investigation,  however,  was  made  on  meat  which  had  been 
pickling  only  14  days.  At  this  time  1,000  gm.  of  fresh  meat  had 
absorbed  43  gm.  of  salt  and  had  given  up  79.9  gm.  of  water,  4.8  gm. 
organic  materials,  2.4  gm.  albumen,  2.5  gm.  extractives  and  0.4  gm. 
phosphoric  acid.  Expressed  in  the  form  of  a  percentage,  the  loss 
amounted  to  10.4  of  water,  2.1  organic  materials,  1.1  albumen,  13.5 
extractives  and  8.5  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Experiments  conducted  by  Nothwang,  however,  confirmed  the 
Jesuit  which  had  been  obtained  by  Polenske.  Nothwang  found  the 


806  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

extraction  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  especially  of  extractives,  to  be  so> 
considerable  that  pickled  meat  must  be  regarded  as  actually  au 
inferior  product.  Nothwaiig  demonstrated  that  p;ckling  causes  a 
greater  loss  of  material  than  mere  salting.  In  pickling,  2.14:  per 
cent,  of  the  protein  and  50.1  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid  was 
lost,  while  meat  which  had  lain  in  salt  for  the  same  length  of  time— 
the  maximum  of  extraction  of  materials  was  reached  during  the  first 
two  weeks — lost  only  1.3  per  cent,  of  the  protein,  39  per  cent,  of  the 
extractives  and  33  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid. 

JUDGMENT  OF  THE  SALTPETER  CONTENT  OF  PICKLED  MEAT.— 
Lehmann  emphasizes  the  fact  that  saltpeter  is  a  powerful  poison 
for  man.  Five  gm.  may  cause  decided  illness  and  8  gm.  (more 
often  15  to  25  gm.  are -required)  prove  fatal.  Nothing  is  known 
concerning  saltpeter  poisoning  from  the  consumption  of  meat. 
The  question  of  the  hygienic  judgment  of  saltpeter  appears  still  to 
require  a  more  thorough  examination. 

Nothwang  investigated  the  saltpeter  content  of  various  meat 
products  and  obtained  the  following  data :  Dry  pickled  meat 
products  do  not  always  contain  saltpeter,  but  often  contain  only 
common  salt  The  greatest  amount  of  saltpeter  was  found  in  raw 
hams  and  the  so-called  country  hams,  but  always  in  harmless  quan- 
tities (0.197  to  .328  per  cent.).  Even  if  an  adult  person  should  eat 
200  to  300  gm.  of  such  meat,  he  would  receive  only  0.66  to  .99  gm.— 
quite  a  harmless  dose. 

The  salt  content  of  dry  pickled  meat  products  varies  between 
3.42  per  cent,  (boiled  hams),  5  per  cent,  (raw  hams)  and  8.7  per  cent. 
(Kassel  spare  ribs). 

In  a  series  of  experiments  it  was  found  that  meat  pickled  in 
brine  absorbed  a  constantly  increasing  quantity  of  salt,  while  the  salt- 
peter content  became  less  after  a  short  time  (eight  days).  Nothwang 
ascribes  this  disappearance  of  the  saltpeter,  which,  however,  did 
not  always  occur,  to  reduction  processes  in  the  meat  (formatior  of 
nitrous  acid).  For  the  rest,  the  content  of  salt  and  saltpeter  in 
meat  is  dependent,  according  to  Nothwang,  upon  the  concentration 
of  the  solution  which  is  used,  upon  the  length  of  the  period  of 
application,  upon  the  transformation  of  saltpeter  into  ammonia,  the 
pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  the  meat,  and  perhaps  also  upon  the 
temperature  and  certainly  upon  the  size  of  the  pieces  of  meat  which, 
are  subjected  to  the  pickling  process. 


SMOKING  807 


f  (b)   Smoking. 

DIFFERENT  METHODS  OF  SMOKING.— Since  ancient  times  the  pre- 
serving action  of  smoke  lias  been  utilized  for  increasing  the  keeping 
powers  of  meat  and  meat  products  (smoked  meat). 

In  practice,  distinction  is  made  between  Iwo  kinds  of  smoking : 
slow  and  rapid  or  so-called  hot  smoking.  The  greater  part  of  meat 
products  is  smoked  slowly,  that  is,  for  days  at  a  temperature  of 
about  25°  C.  Certain  products,  however,  like  knackwurst,  also  all 
fish,  are  either  exposed  to  smoke  for  several  hours  at  a  temperature 
of  70°  C.  and  thereupon  for  a  shorter  time  at  a  temperature  of 
100°  C.  or  more,  or  they  are  immediately  exposed  to  smoke  at  a 
temperature  of  100°  C.  Discontinuous  smoking,  in  which  the 
smoking  process  is  maintained  only  during  the  day,  is  highly 
unsatisfactory.  It  is  thus  brought  about,  as  shown  by  Senkpiehl, 
that  in  winter  the  pieces  of  meat  are  frozen  during  the  night  and 
thawed  out  again  during  the  day,  as  a  result  of  smoking.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  process  of  decomposition  is  favored  by  the 
repeated  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  meat. 

MATERIALS  FOR  PRODUCING  SMOKE.— Only  wood  smoke  is  uti- 
lized for  smoking  meat.  Juniper  bushes,  beech  chips  with  juniper 
berries,  tanbark  with  mahogany  chips  and  other  waste  material 
from  hard  wood  furnish  very  good  smoke.  Fir  chips  are  not  desir- 
able, since  they  unfavorably  affect  the  taste  of  the  smoked  pro- 
ducts. 

PRESERVATIVE  EFFECT  OF  SMOKING. — The  action  of  smoke  con- 
sists in  extracting  water  as  a  result  of  the  high  temperature  of  the 
smoke  and  in  the  influence  of  the  disinfecting  materials  contained 
in  the  smoke ;  for  example,  creosote,  empyreumatic  oils  and  car- 
bolic acid.*  Seranni  and  Uugaro  mention  the  higher  tar-like  sub- 
stances as  active  constituents  of  smoke.  The  effect  of  these  sub- 
stances is  increased  by  the  disinfecting  action  of  carbonic  acid. 

Beu  examined  smoked  products  from  the  market,  and  animal 
food  materials  which  he  smoked.  During  this  investigation  it  was 
found  that  among  the  meat  products  which  are  found  on  the  market 
and  which  had  been  smoked  slowly,  bacon  was  the  only  one  which 


*  It  thus  appears  that  simple  moistening  of  meat  products  with  pyroligneous 
acid,  which  has  been  a  common  practice  for  many  years,  as  a  substitute  for 
smoking,  can  not  produce  the  preserving  effect  of  smoke. 


808  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

was  absolutely  free  from  bacteria  in  its  interior.  Country  mett- 
\rurst  exhibited  some  colonies  of  Micrococcus  candicatis.  Hamburg 
smoked  meat  which  had  been  pickled  for  from  three  to  four  weeV.s, 
then  slowly  smoked  for  five  days,  showed  several  colonies  of  white 
staphylococci.  In  a  piece  of  the  same  meat  products  which  Lad 
been  smoked  for  three  days,  numerous  bacteria  were  found,  among 
which  a  species  of  proteus  was  observed.  Fish  smoked  at  a  hign 
temperature  were  either  free  from  bacteria  or  showed  but  few  colo- 
nies which  did  not  liquefy  gelatin.  Numerous  putrefactive  bacteria, 
among  them  Proteus  vulgaris,  were  found  in  the  knackwurst  which 
had  been  smoked  at  a  high  temperature. 

The  experiments  which  Beu  instituted  for  determining  the 
influence  of  a  gradual  smoking  at  a  temperature  of  22°  to  25°  C. 
yielded  the  following  results :  Pickled  lean  pork  which  before 
smoking  contained  large  numbers  of  putrefactive  bacteria  was 
absolutely  free  from  bacteria  after  a  six-day  period  of  smoking. 
Similarly,  bacon  became  free  from  bacteria  after  subjection  to 
smoke  for  seven  days.  A  piece  of  unsalted  pork,  on  the  other 
hand,  began  to  decompose  in  spite  of  smoking,  and  in  knackwurst 
with  which  Beu  experimented  he  was  unable  to  observe  any  con- 
siderable effect  upon  the  bacterial  content  despite  long  continued 
smoking.  The  marked  influence  of  a  previous  extraction  of  water 
by  salting  upon  the  preservative  effect  of  the  smoke  thus  becomes 
apparent. 

The  disinfectant  influence  of  smoke,  whether  by  the  slow  or  by 
the  hot  process,  can  not  be  denied.  On  the  other  hand,  putrefac- 
tive bacteria  are  destroyed  with  difficulty  or  not  at  all  in  meat 
products  which  contain  much  water  and  which  have  not  been 
previously  dehydrated  by  pickling. 

EFFECT  OF  SMOKE  UPON  PATHOGENIC  BACTERIA. — Serafini  and 
Ungaro  demonstrated  that  smoke  exercises  a  very  energetic  bacteri-  • 
cide  action  upon  pure  cultures  of  bacteria.  The  effect  is  observed 
in  the  case  of  the  anthrax  bacillus  and  staphylococcus  after  not 
more  than  2J  hours ;  in  the  case  of  the  hay  bacillus  after  3£  hours, 
and  in  the  case  of  anthrax  spores  after  18  hours.  Palozzi  found 
that  staphylococci,  diphtheria  bacilli  and  anthrax  bacilli  were 
killed  in  1  hour  and  anthrax  spores  in  8  hours,  and  the  tubercle 
bacillus  in  2  hours.  In  experiments  with  infected  meat,  however 
(pieces  of  guinea  pigs  infected  with  anthrax),  Serafini  and  Ungaro 
found  that  the  process  of  smoking  did  not  appear  to  act  so  energeti- 
cally upon  the  bacteria  contained  in  the  meat  as  upon  pure  cul- 


PRESERVATION  WITH   BORIC  ACID  809 

tares.  Smoke  penetrates  with  difficulty  into  the  interior  of  the 
meat,  chiefly  for  the  reason  that  under  the  influence  of  the  smok- 
ing process  a  layer  of  coagulated  albumen  is  formed  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  pieces  of  meat.  Serafini  and  Ungaro  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  smoking  in  and  of  itself  had  the  effect  of  checking  the 
growth  of  bacteria  as  a  result  of  desiccation,  but  that  it  did  not 
destroy  the  pathogenic  bacteria  which  might  be  present  in  the 
meat. 

(c)  Preservation  with  Boric,  Sulphurous  and  Salicylic 

Acids. 

Boric,  sulphurous  and  salicylic  acids  exert  a  more  decided 
influence  in  checking  the  growth  of  bacteria  than  does  salt.  It  was, 
therefore,  probable  from  the  first  that  the  keeping  property  of  the 
meat  could  be  considerably  increased  by  means  of  these  agents. 
Against  the  use  of  these  chemical  substances,  however,  it  may  be 
objected  that  they  are  not  indifferent  for  the  human  organism, 
especially  for  the  sick  or  convalescent,  and  that  furthermore  the 
consumer  in  buying  meat  and  meat  products  assumes  that  foreign 
materials  like  boric,  sulphurous  and  salicylic  acids  are  not  con- 
tained in  those  products.* 

1.— Boric  Acid. 

APPLICATION. — Boric  acid  is  used  either  alone  as  a  powder  and 
in  an  aqueous  solution,  or  together  with  other  preserving  agents. 
In  the  powdered  form  boric  acid  is  dusted  upon  the  livers  after  a 
previous  cutting  into  strips,  and  upon  American  dry  pickled  beef 
(page  803).  Otherwise  boric  acid  is  used  only  in  a  fluid  form,  that 
is,  in  solution  with  water.  Thus,  in  America,  Denmark  and  Russia, 
the  practice  prevails  to  a  large  extent  of  injecting  livers  with  a  solu- 
tion of  boric  acid  ("Hamburg"  or  "injected  livers").  Boric  acid 
is  a  good  reagent  for  checking  putrefaction.  As  shown  by  Petter- 
son,  however,  it  does  not  completely  prevent  decomposition  of 


*  For  this  reason  the  Swiss  Government  has  prohibited  the  use  of  chemical 
agents  in  preserving  meat  and  meat  products,  with  the  exception  of  salt  and 
caltpeter.  Likewise,  the  German  Federal  Council  has  forbidden  through  a 
decree  of  February  16,  1902,  which  went  into  effect  October  1,  1902,  the  use,  for 
meat  preserving  purposes,  of  boric  acid  and  its  salts,  formaldehyde,  hydroxids 
and  carbonates  of  alkalies  and  alkaline  earths,  sulphurous  acids  and  their  salts, 
as-  well  as  the  salts  of  hyposulphurous  acid,  hydrofluoric  acid  and  its  salts,  sali- 
cylic acid  and  its  combinations,  and,  finally,  the  salts  of  hydrochloric  acid. 


810  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

meat.  Borax,  on  the  other  hand,  is,  according  to  Petterson,  a  very 
effective  agent  in  checking  the  growth  of  bacteria  when  used  in 
combination  with  salt. 

TRADE  PREPARATIONS  WHICH  CONTAIN  BORIC  ACID.— According 
to  Venzko  and  Schorer,  the  following  preparations  should  be 
classed  under  this  head  : 

1-3. — Australian  salt  II.;  Barmenit,  and  "strong  preserving 
salt,"  consisting  of  equal  parts  of  salt  and  boric  acid. 

4-5.  Boroglycin,  Rolikramer's  preserving  salt  (95  per  cent,  boric- 
acid  and  5  per  cent,  sugar). 

6.  Eckhart' s  preserving  salt  (60  per  cent,  salt,  40  per  cent,  boric 
acid). 

7.  Z'iffer's  preserving  powder  (30   per   cent,  salt,  1,5  per  cent 
Glauber  salts  and  68.5  per  cent,  boric  acid). 

8.  Sanitat,  a  brine  preserving  fluid  containing  in  each  liter  45 
gm.  boric  acid,  8.5  gm.  salt,  2.5  gm.  ferrous  gypsuni  and  Glauber 
salts. 

9.  Three-fold  preserving  salt   (93.5   per   cent,  boric  acid,  5  per 
cent,  saltpeter  and  1.5  per  cent,  salt  and  Glauber  salts). 

10.  Simple  preserving  salt  (48  per  cent,  saltpeter,  50  per  cent, 
"boric  acid,  1.5  salt,  and  0.5  Glauber  salts). 

11.  Z'ffer's  preserving  salt  (30  per  cent,  boric  acid,  35  per  cent, 
saltpeter,  33  per  cent,  salt  and  2  per  cent.  Glauber  salt). 

12.  Oppermann's  cervelatwurst  salt  (77.5  per  cent,  salt,  13.5  per 
cent,  saltpeter,  8.7  per  cent,  borates  and  0.3  per  cent,  organic  sub- 
stances). 

Furthermore,  according  to  Polenske,  the  following  should  be 
mentioned  in  this  connection  : 

13.  DreseTs  preserving  or  pickling  salt  (80  per  cent,  salt,  12  per 
cent,  saltpeter,  8  per  cent,  borax). 

14.  Preserving  salt  for  covering  and  packing  American  hams 
after  removal  from  the  pickling  water  (84  per  cent,  borax,  3  per  cent, 
salt,  13  per  cent,  water). 

15.  Stares  "sausage  salt''  Stares  " conservator"  Stare's  "  sani- 
tat,"  for  pickling,  containing  as  their  chief  constituent  boric  acid 
(about  60  per  cent.)  and  also  saltpeter  (12  to  14  per  cent.),  cane 
sugar  (4  to  8  per  cent.)  and  sodium  salicy.late  (7  6  per  cent.).     The 
conservator,  which  Stare  claims  will  keep  meat  dry  and  fresh,  was 
found  to  contain  32.3  per  cent,  borax  and  42  per  cent.  salt. 

16.  Stern's  three-fold  preserving  salt  (80  per  cent,  borax,  17  per 
cent,  boric  acid  and  3  per  cent.  salt). 


PRESERVATION   WITH   BORIC   ACID  811 

17.  Delventhal  and  Kiinzel's  Berlimt,  concentrated  (7.46  per 
cent,  salt,  9.8  per  cent,  boric  acid,  45.75  per  cent,  borax,  with  36.8 
per  cent,  water  of  crystallization).  Berlinit  for  pickling  (45.92  per 
cent,  salt,  32.2  per  cent,  saltpeter,  19.16  per  cent,  boric  acid,  2.28 
per  cent,  water). 

The  following  preservative  agents  also  contain  borax :  viz., 
China  preserving  powder,  Minerva  (contains  also  sodium  sulphate), 
Ohrtmann's  Australian  salt,  Magdeburg  preserving  salt,  Heydrich  & 
Co.'s  preserving  salt. 

EXPERIENCE  CONCERNING  THE  PRESERVATIVE  EFFECT  OF  BORIC 
ACID. — According  to  a  statement  of  Lehmann,  a  1  per  cent,  solution 
of  boric  acid  has  the  effect  of  keeping  meat  for  four  to  seven  days 
longer  than  normal.  Schiff  highly  recommends  the  method  of  Her- 
zen,  according  to  which  crude  boric  acid  is  dissolved  in  water  with 
the  addition  of  borax  and  a  little  salt  and  saltpeter,  and  poured 
upon  the  meat.  The  meat  is  then  said  to  retain  a  perfectly  fresh 
appearance.  Roosen  recommends  boric  acid  in  combination  with 
tartaric  acid  and  salt  (about  3  parts  of  the  mixture  to  97  parts  of 
water)  for  the  preservation  of  fresh  meat,  and  especially  of  salt 
water  fish.  Eoosen  claims  for  his  method  that  it  extends  the  mar- 
ket for  salt  water  fish  in  the  interior.  The  fish  keep  very  well  in 
casks.  When,  however,  the  fish  are  removed  from  the  casks,  they 
keep  but  a  few  days  in  an  undecomposed  condition. 

DEMONSTRATION  OF  BORIC  ACID  IN  MEAT.— According  to  Ka'm- 
merer,  one  may  employ  either  the  flame  test  or  curcuma  paper. 

For  making  the  flame  test,  10  gm.  of  the  suspected  meat  are 
saturated  with  a  soda  solution  and  incinerated  in  a  platinum  or 
porcelain  vessel.  The  incinerated  mass  is  carefully  neutralized  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1 : 10),  5  cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
and  5  cc.  of  methyl  alcohol  are  then  added  and  the  mixture  is 
ignited.  In  the  presence  of  boric  acid,  the  flame  exhibits  the 
familiar  emerald  green  color. 

Likewise,  in  making  a  test  with  curcuma  paper,  the  mixture  is 
neutralized  with  sulphuric  acid  and  the  curcuma  paper  is  dipped, 
into  the  solution.  If  boric  acid  is  present,  the  curcuma  paper 
exhibits  a  brown  or  red  color  after  drying  and  then  moisten- 
ing with  water.  If  the  paper  is  then  sprinkled  with  10  to  12 
per  cent,  potash  lye,  a  green  coloration  appears  if  boric  acid  is 
present. 

The  following  method  is  prescribed,  for  demonstrating  boric 


812  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

acid,  by  a  decree  of  the  Swiss  Agricultural  Department  concerning 
the  veterinary  service  along  the  frontier,  December  5,  1898  : 

A  piece  of  meat  not  smaller  than  a  walnut,  from  which  most  of 
the  fat  has  been  removed,  is  finely  minced  and  shaken  up  iu  a  wide 
test  tube  together  with  20  to  30  cc.  of  water  and  a  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  then  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  during 
which  part  of  the  boric  acid  which  is  present  passes  over  into  the 
solution.  A  strip  of  curcuma  paper  is  then  dipped  into  the  solu- 
tion. If  the  paper  appears  red  after  drying  in  the  air,  borax  was 
present  in  the  sample  of  meat. 

Hafelin  recommends  the  following  method  for  the  quantitative 
demonstration  of  boric  acid  in  meat  and  sausages  :  10  gm.  of  meat 
or  sausage,  as  free  as  possible  from  fat,  is  finely  minced  and  boiled 
for  about  one  minute  in  a  wide  test  tube  together  with  a  mixture  of 
2  cc,  glycerine,  4  cc.  alcohol,  4  cc.  of  water  and  a  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid  (enbugh  to  give  an  acid  reaction).  The  mixture 
is  then  filtered  through  a  moist  folded  filter  if  fat  is  present.  It  is 
then  tested  with  curcuma  paper  of  known  sensitiveness.  The  paper 
is  dried  by  rapidly  passing  over  the  flame  of  a  Buusen  burner.  If 
boric  acid  is  present,  a  cherry-red  or  brown  color  appears,  which 
must  persist  when  the  paper  is  sprinkled  with  water,  but  which 
passes  into  a  bluish  black  when  sprinkled  with  ammonia.  Hafelin 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  case  of  the  combinations  mentioned 
by  the  Imperial  Health  Office,  the  flame  reaction  may  lead  to  erro- 
neous conclusions,  since  the  CH3C1  or  C2H6C1  which  is  formed 
under  certain  circumstances,  burns  with  a  green  color. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  BORIC  ACID  ON  MAN. — Liebreich  is  of  the 
opinion  that  fish  treated  with  boric  acid  according  to  Boosen's 
method  can  not  exercise  any  injurious  effect  upon  health.  It  is 
maintained  ,that  man  can  consume  two  to  four  grams  of  boric  acid 
daily  without  any  bad  consequences.  However,  fish  preserved 
according  to  Boosen's  method  contain  only  two  grams  of  boric  acid 
per  kilogram,  three-fourths  of  which  may  pass  over  into  the  water 
in  boiling.  Accordingly,  so  small  a  quantity  remains  in  the  meat  of 
the  fish  that  no  injurious  effect  need  be  feared  from  daily  consump- 
tion of  the  material. 

In  opposition  to  the  assumption  of  Liebreich,  Amthor  showed 
that  the  quantities  of  borax  demonstrated  by  him  in  American  dry 
pickled  meat  (page  803)  are  not  completely  removed  even  by  wash- 
ing in  water  for  eighteen  hours.  Heinze  obtained  the  same  results. 
Pieces  of  American  dry  pickled  meat  containing  1.16  per  cent. 


PRESERVATION   WITH   SULPHUROUS   ACID 

"boric  acid  were  washed  under  tap  water.  They  were  then  soaked 
in  water  for  two  and  one-half  to  twelve  hours  and  boiled  for  three 
and  one-half  hours.  Heinze  found  that  the  meat  was  not  com- 
pletely free  from  boric  acid  even  after  soaking  for  twelve  hours,  but 
still  contained  0.93  per  cent,  of  boric  acid,  while  0.28  per  cent,  was 
found  in  the  bouillon. 

Emmerich  considers  the  use  of  boric  acid  as  a  preservative  as 
unallowable,  since,  according  to  his  experiments,  a  dog  was  made 
very  sick  by  eating  two  grams  and  a  large  rabbit  was  killed  with 
four  grams.  On  the  basis  of  these  experiments  and  other  experi- 
ence, the  Association  of  Bavarian  Representatives  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry declared  that  "  the  use  of  boric  acid  as  an  addition  to  foods  and 
condiments  is  not  an  indifferent  matter  from  a  sanitary  standpoint, 
according  to  the  present  knowledge  of  the  subject." 

Likewise,  the  physiologist,    Halliburton,    and  the   sanitarian, 
Gruber,  have  argued  against  the  admission  of  borax  preparations-  ] 
and  similar  materials  as  preservatives.    Moreover,  Annett  and  Chit- 
tenden,    as   well   as   Gies,  have   experimentally  demonstrated  the 
harmful   effect   of  borax   and   boric   acid.     Chittenden    and    Gies 
demonstrated  that  boric  acid  and  borax  produce  indisposition  and  ; 
vomiting  in  experimental  animals  when  the  dose  amounted  to  1.5  to  j 
2  per  cent,  of  the  daily  ration. 

In  accordance  with  this  view,  the  Swiss  Government  has  for- 
bidden the  importation  of  American  dry  pickled  meat  and  has  also 
issued  the  following  decree  of  March  19, 1897,  concerning  the  intro- 
duction and  sale  of  meat : 

"  The  use  of  borax  preparations,  salicylic  acid,  formalin,  combi- 
nations of  sulphurous  acid  and  other  cjiemical  agents  for  the  preser- 
vation of  meat  and  meat  products,  with  the  exception  of  salt  and 
saltpeter,  is  forbidden  for  all  meat  intended  for  sale  and  subject  to 
inspection." 

2.— Sulphurous  Acid. 

APPLICATION. — For  natural  reasons,  gaseous  sulphurous  acid  is 
not  used  in  the  technique  of  meat  preservation.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  use  of  acid  calcium  sulphite  and  acid  sodium  and  potassium 
sulphite  is  a  common  practice  in  the  preservation  of  meat.  As 
shown  by  Fischer  in  his  Yearbooks,  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  of  the 
inspected  samples  of  minced  meat  in  Breslau  have  been  treated 
with  the  salts  of  sulphurous  acid. 


814:  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

TRADE  PREPARATIONS  WHICH  CONTAIN  SULPHUROUS  ACID  OR  ITS 
SALTS. — Venzko  and  Schorer  have  demonstrated  sulphurous  acid  or 
its  salts  in  the  following  preservatives  which  are  found  on  the 
market : 

1.  Meat  preserve,  consisting  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  calcium 
sulphite.     One  liter  of  the  fluid  contains  68  grams  sulphurous  acid 
and  18.5  grams  lime. 

2.  Best  Australian  and  Neio  Zealand  meat  preserve  (powder,  con- 
sisting of  sodium  sulphite,  23  per  cent.;  salt,  40  per  cent.;  Glauber 
salt,  37  per  cent.).     The  fluid  which  has  been  placed  on  the  market 
under  the  same  name  consists  of  acid  calcium  sulphite  (77  grams  of 
sulphurous  acid  and  22.5  grams  lime  per  liter). 

3.  Royal  Australian  meat  preserve,  consisting  of  sodium  sulphite, 
19  per  cent.;  Glauber  salt,  79  per  cent.;  common  salt,  2  per  cent. 

4.  Sozclith,  consisting  of  80  per  cent.  Glauber  salt  and  20  per 
cent,  sodium  sulphite. 

5.  Double  concentrated  sodium  sulphite  (fluid),   containing    254 
grams  sodium  bisulphite  and  71  grams  Glauber  salt,  per  liter. 

6.  Meat  preserve  crystal  (powder),  consisting  of  53   per  cent, 
sodium  sulphite,  6  per  cent,  salt  and  41  per  cent.  Glauber  salt. 

7.  Meat  preserving  crystal  excelsior  (powder),  consisting  of  crys- 
talline sodium  sulphite,  85  per  cent.,  and  Glauber  salt,  15  per  cent. 

8.  Carnat  (powder),  consisting  of  43  per  cent,  salt,  25  per  cent, 
sodium  sulphite,  27  per  cent.  Glauber  salt,  5  per  cent,  sugar. 

9.  Meat  conserve  fluid,  containing  38.7  grams  sulphurous  acid 
and  16.2  grams  lime  per  liter.     It,  accordingly,  consists  of  bisul- 
phide acid  calcium  sulphite. 

According  to  analyses  made  by  Polenske  in  the  Imperial 
Health  Office,  the  following  preservatives  also  belong  to  this  group: 

10.  Odorless  meat  preserve  fluid,  consisting  of  22  parts  common 
salt,  73  parts  Glauber  salt,  171  parts  sodium  sulphite,  34  parts 
sulphurous  acid  and  0.15  parts  vanillin  per  liter  of  water. 

11.  Meat  preserve  powder,  consisting  of  sodium  hyposulphite, 
which  is  in  large  part  oxidized  to  sodium  sulphite. 

12.  Newest  meat  preserve  powder,  consisting  of  sodium  hyposul- 
phite, one-half  of  which  is  oxidized  into  sodium  sulphate. 

13.  Chromosot,  consisting  of  coloring  material  which  does  not 
belong  to  the  analin  dyes,  and  also  sodium  sulphite,  sodium  sul- 
phate and  albumen. 

14.  AdamczyJcs  "  Probat "    (47.5    per    cent,    sodium    sulphite, 
11  per  cent,  sodium  sulphate,  10.5  per  cent,  common  salt,  4.5  pe~ 
cent,  sugar). 


PRESERVATION   WITH   SULPHUROUS  ACID  815 

15.  Preserving  salt  of  Lancjbein  &  Co.  (80  per  cent,  crystallized 
sodium  sulphite,  20  per  cent,  crystallized  sodium  sulphate,  with  a 
small  percentage  of  soda). 

Finally,  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  are  contained  in  "  treuenit," 
manufactured  by  the  druggist  Wolf  in  Treuen  ;  u  Universal  Preserv- 
ing Fluid,"  made  by  Druggists  Yolz  and  Oehme  ;  Stuttgart  Conserve 
Salt,  and  in  "  German  Meat  Water." 

In  an  extensive  series  of  analyses  made  in  Niirnberg,  29  per 
cent,  of  the  samples  examined  contained  the  salts  of  sulphurous 
acid,  and  in  a  similar  test  of  samples  in  Dresden  52  per  cent,  con- 
tained these  salts. 

PRESERVATIVE  EFFECT. — According  to  Baierlacher,  sulphurous 
acid  operates  most  vigorously  on  yeasts.  It  also  prevents  the  for- 
mation of  mold  and  delays  the  process  of  decomposition,  without, 
however,  preventing  it  entirely.  Schmidt-Mulheim  recommended 
calcium  sulphite  on  the  basis  of  his  experiments  for  preserving  raw 
minced  meat.  If  from  30  to  40  cc.  of  a  saturated  solution  is  poured 
upon  10  kg.  of  minced  raw  beef,  the  penetrating  odor  of  sulphurous 
acid  rapidly  disappears,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  oxidized  in  the 
meat.  It  is  claimed  also  that  in  boiling  and  roasting  such  meat,  no 
odor  of  sulphurous  acid  is  apparent.  The  keeping  property  of  the 
meat  is  said  to  be  greatly  increased.  After  exposure  to  the  air  for 
a  long  time  the  meat  possesses  the  appearance  of  a  perfectly  fresh 
color,  and  even  after  standing  for  days  at  a  living  temperature 
exhibits  no  evidence  of  decomposition.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
development  of  molds  was  not  prevented  in  all  cases. 

These  statements  were  subsequently  found  to  be  not  strictly 
correct.  It  appears  that  sulphurous  acid  is  a  good  preservative  for 
the  muscle  pigment,  but  not  for  the  meat  itself. 

DETECTION  OF  THE  ADDITION  OF  SULPHUROUS  ACID  AND  ITS 
SALTS. — Under  a  microscopic  examination  of  meat  which  has  been 
treated  with  sodium  or  calcium  sulphite,  the  presence  of  Glauber 
salt  or  gypsum  crystals  becomes  manifest  in  consequence  of  the 
partial  oxidation  of  sulphurous  acid  in  the  meat.  Kammerer 
recommends  a  method  of  demonstration  by  means  of  potassium 
iodate  paper. 

Samples  of  meat  are  laid  on  potassium  iodate  paper  and  moist- 
ened with  sulphuric  acid  free  from  nitric  oxide  (1 :8).  In  the  pres- 
ence even  of  small  quantities  of  sulphurous  acid,  a  pronounced  blue 
co^or  immediately  appears  in  the  paper.  If  the  meat  has  not  been. 


816  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

treated  with  sulphurous  acid,  there  is  either  none  or  only  a  slight 
blue  color,  and  that  not  until  some  time  after.  The  latter  case 
occurs  when  the  meat  is  not  quite  fresh.  The  color  change  which 
appears  in  such  cases,  however,  can  scarcely  be  mistaken  for  the 
instantaneous  blue  coloration  caused  by  the  presence  of  sulphites. 

Kammerer  notes,  furthermore,  that  many  samples  treated  only 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  give  off  immediately  the  odor  of  sulphur- 
ous acid. 

Salted  meat  can  not  be  tested  with  potassium  iodate  paper  and 
sulphuric  acid,  since  the  hydrochloric  acid  which  is  set  free  after 
the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  is  immediately  decomposed  in  con- 
tact with  the  iodic  acid.  Similarly,  meat  products  treated  with 
saltpeter  can  not  be  tested  according  to  the  method  of  Kammerer, 
since  in  this  case  the  nitrites  immediately  produce  a  pronounced 
blue  color. 

JUDGMENT  OF  THE  ADDITION  OF  SULPHUROUS  ACID  TO  MEAT. — 
Since  each  pound  of  meat  requires  only  one-fifth  gram  of  sulphur- 
ous acid  and  one-fifteenth  gram  of  lime,  there  can  not  exist, 
according  to  Schmidt,  any  possibility  of  an  injurious  effect  from 
so  slight  an  addition  of  calcium  sulphite  to  meat.  Nevertheless, 
the  addition  of  "  meat  preserve "  to  minced  or  chipped  meat 
should  be  forbidden ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  such  an  addition  is 
not  expected  by  the  consumers.  In  buying  minced  meat  in 
ordinary  trade,  it  is  assumed  that  it  is  pure  meat  without  the 
addition  of  chemical  agents.  In  the  second  place,  the  amount  of 
the  addition  can  not  be  controlled  in  individual  cases,  and,  con- 
sequently, in  a  careless  application  it  may  occur  that  poisonous 
quantities  of  the  preservative  are  added  to  the  meat.  In  samples 
of  minced  meat,  taken  under  police  supervision,  0.5,  .85,  and  1.4 
per  cent,  of  the  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  were  frequently  demon- 
strated, and  in  one  case  (Koln)  as  much  as  2.24  per  cent.  In  some 
cases  Kammerer  found  minced  meat  thickly  covered  with  preserv- 
ing salt,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  flies  away  from  the 
meat.  Moreover,  even  in  the  case  of  the  addition  of  ordinary  quan- 
tities, injurious  amounts  may  be  present  in  certain  parts  as  a  result 
of  an  unequal  distribution.  It  is  thus  a  fact  of  great  importance 
that  the  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  do  not  commonly  hinder  the 
process  of  decomposition,  but  merely  obscure  it  (compare  the 
observation  of  Mobius).  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the 
addition  in  question  is  calculated  to  deceive  the  buyer  concerning 
<the  true  character  of  the  meat,  for  this  addition  gives  inferior  meat  a 


PRESERVATION   WITH    SULPHUROUS   ACID  81? 

^better  appearance,  renders  possible  a  fraudulent  addition  of  water, 
and  also  makes  it  possible  to  sell  old  minced  meat  as  fresh  material. 
Moreover,  it  is  not  at  all  desirable  that  minced  meat  should  be 
capable  of  preservation  for  a  long  time.  Minced  meat  should  be 
prepared  only  for  immediate  use,  since,  in  contrast  with  meat  which 
is  not  minced,  it  possesses  a  striking  tendency  to  decomposition 
(compare  "Minced  Meat  Poisoning"). 

Finally,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  use  of 
preservatives  which  contain  sulphurous  acid  or  its  salts  is  not  to 
the  interest  of  tradesmen.  For,  according  to  Schorer,  sulphurous 
acid  frequently  becomes  changed  into  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
the  meat  thus  acquires  the  familiar  odor  of  rotten  eggs  and  becomes 
absolutely  unsaleable. 

According  to  a  report  of  the  Saxon  District  Veterinarian, 
Mobius,  several  persons,  adults  and  children,  became  ill  after  eat- 
ing minced  meat  sprinkled  with  meat  preserve.  The  symptoms 
were  loss  of  appetite,  vomiting,  internal  pains  and  diarrhea.  A 
microscopic  examination  of  the  minced  meat  in  question  showed 
that  the  transverse  striation  of  the  musculature  was  still  retained. 
"Bacteria,  micrococci,  triple  phosphate  and  gypsum  crystals  were 
present.  The  presence  of  triple  phosphate  crystals,  demonstrated 
by  Mobius  in  the  poisonous  minced  meat,  shows  that  decomposition 
may  take  place  in  meat  in  spite  of  the  preserving  fluid. 

L.  Pfeiffer,  in  Munich,  collected  the  statements  contained  in 
literature  concerning  the  toxic  effect  of  sulphurous  acid  upon  man 
^compare  Lehmann).  These  statements  varied  greatly.  Polli 
found  8  to  12  grams  of  the  salts  of  the  sulphurous  acid  to  be  harm- 
less for  adults,  and  other  authors  found  1.8  grams  per  day  of  these 
salts  to  be  without  effect  upon  children,  while,  according  to  Ber- 
natzik  and  Braun,  doses  of  even  one  gram  magnesium  sulphite  with 
0.3  gram  sulphurous  acid  were  not  well  endured  by  women  in  child- 
birth (vomiting  and  diarrhea).  On  the  other  hand,  one-third  of 
these  patients  who  received  3.75  grams  sodium  sulphite  (with  2.28 
grams  SO2)  and  two-thirds  of  those  who  received  3.75  grams  potas- 
sium sulphite  (with  1.98  grams  SO2),  showed  no  bad  effects  of  the 
treatment.  The  other  women  showed  digestive  disturbances. 

Kionka  found  that  a  young  dog  which  during  a  period  of  five 
days  had  received  90  grams  of  the  preserving  salt  of  Heydrich 
&  Co.  died,  and  also  that  two  other  dogs  which  during  a  period  of  44: 
days  had  been  fed  711  grams  of  the  preserving  salt  together  with 
meat  did  not  increase  in  weight,  despite  the  fact  that  their  rations 
•were  large,  but  showed,  temporarily,  diarrhea  and  vomition.  The 


818  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

dogs  were  killed  and  in  both  cases  hemorrhages  were  found  in  the 
lungs  and  in  one  case  an  intensive  hemorrhagic  nephritis.  Similar 
alterations  were  observed  in  two  dogs  which  during  a  period  of  about 
nine  weeks  received  only  as  much  preserving  salt  together  with 
meat  as  should  be  added  to  the  meat  according  to  directions  (12 
grams  of  the  salt  for  each  5  kg.  of  meat).  To  be  sure,  the  two 
last-mentioned  experimental  animals  received  very  large  quantities 
of  meat  daily  (300  to  1,000  grams).  The  animals  remained  well 
during  the  experiment  and  increased  considerably  in  weight. 

Kionka,  on  the  basis  of  his  experiments,  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  use  of  the  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  as  a  preservative  should 
be  absolutely  forbidden  on  account  of  their  injurious  properties. 
He  condemns  the  procedure  of  the  Chemist  Bischoff,  who  gave  an 
opinion  to  the  effect  that  the  preserving  salts  in  question  were  not 
harmful  to  health  when  used  in  the  quantities  recommended. 

The  Chemists  Bischoff  and  Lebbin  believed  themselves  justi- 
fied in  advocating  the  addition  of  sulphites  (not  more  than  one  or 
two  grams  per  kilogram  of  meat),  on  the  ground  that  such  addition 
was  harmless.  Liebreich  also  declared  in  favor  of  admitting  sul- 
phites as  preservatives,  since,  according  to  his  view,  they  did  not 
cause  any  harm  to  the  purchaser. 

The  Imperial  Health  Office  issued  the  following  statement  con- 
cerning the  necessity  alleged  by  butchers  for  the  addition  of  sul- 
phites to  minced  meat  and  concerning  their  sanitary  importance  : 

1.  By  preserving  proper  cleanliness,   minced  meat  may  be  prepared  from 
freshly  slaughtered  meat,  without  the  use  of  chemical  preservatives,  so  success- 
fully that  when  preserved  at  a  low  temperature  it  will  retain  its  normal  color 
for  more  than  twelve  hours. 

2.  The  addition  of  sulphites  and  preservatives  which  contain  such  salts  is 
calculated  to  improve  the  natural  color  of  the  meat,  but  not  the  meat  itself,  and 
to  make  the  meat  keep  longer.     The  appearance  of  a  better  quality  may  thus  be 
given  to  minced  meat. 

3.  The  continued  consumption  of  minced  meat  which  has  been  treated  with 
sulphites  may  injure  human  health,  especially  in  the  case  of  sick  and  weakly 
individuals. 

Among  the  materials  which  serve  as  a  foundation  for  these 
propositions,  the  following  statements  are  worthy  of  reproduction  : 

"The  consumption  of  minced  meat  which  has  been  prepared 
with  the  aid  of  sulphites  is  by  no  means  an  indifferent  matter  from 
a  sanitary  standpoint.  It  is  true  that  upon  the  wrappers  of  several 
of  these  preservatives  opinions  of  experts  are  printed  wherein  cer- 
tain quantities  of  the  preservatives  are  stated  to  be  absolutely  harm- 
less, and  butchers  on  the  basis  of  these  opinions  are  accustomed  to 


PRESERVATION  WITH   SALICYLIC   ACID 

utilize  sulphites  without  special  care.  They  are  not  able  to  under- 
stand that  these  opinions  concerning  the  harmlessness  of  the  pre- 
servatives are  given  by  chemists  or  men  whose  technical  training 
lies  in  other  fields  than  that  of  medicine  and  hygiene. 

"  The  preserving  materials  which  contain  sulphites  possess  a 
pronounced  toxic  effect,  which  consists  of  a  local  irritation  of  the 
gastric  mucous  membrane  and  in  an  injury  to  the  blood  system. 
The  consumption  of  no  more  than  0.5  gm.  of  sodium  sulphite  is 
accompanied  by  a  general  indisposition  and  digestive  disturbances. 
Smaller  doses  of  the  salt  would  probably  be  without  effect  upon 
healthy  persons,  but  even  if  a  certain  small  dose  in  the  regular  diet 
should  be  shown  to  be  harmless  for  healthy  individuals,  we  must 
still  have  some  hesitation  in  admitting  to  the  market  minced  meat 
treated  with  this  quantity ;  for,  as  is  well  known,  the  use  of  minced 
and  chipped  meat  is  frequently  recommended  by  physicians  for  sick 
and  convalescing  persons ;  or,  in  other  words,  individuals  whose 
digestive  organs  are  in  a  weakened  condition.  For  such  individuals 
however,  the  consumption  of  meat  treated  even  with  a  minute  quan- 
tity of  sulphites,  is  undoubtedly  accompanied  by  bad  consequences. 
In  this  connection,  it  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  preservative  in  the  meat  mass  when  carelessly  applied 
may  be  irregular,  so  that  comparatively  large  quantities  may  be 
found  in  certain  parts  of  the  meat." 

3.— Salicylic  Acid. 

The  power  of  salicylic  acid  in  checking  the  development  of  bac- 
teria is  well  known.  On  account  of  its  slight  solubility  in  water  and 
its  disagreeable  taste,  however,  salicylic  acid  is  less  adapted  for  use 
in  the  preservation  of  meat  than,  as  emphasized  by  Lehmann,  for 
alcoholic,  strongly  flavored  substances,  such  as  beer.  Nevertheless, 
salicylic  acid  is  used  in  the  preservation  of  fish  (salmon). 

Toxic  EFFECT  OF  SALICYLIC  ACID. — Kolbe  for  a  period  of  nine 
months  took  one  gram  of  salicylic  acid  daily  in  various  drinks  with- 
out the  slightest  harm  ;  and  Lehmann  persuaded  two  Munich  work- 
men to  take  one-half  gram  each  of  salicylic  acid  in  one-half  liter  of 
beer  for  seventy-five  and  ninety-one  days,  respectively,  without  noting 
the  slightest  trace  of  an  effect  upon  their  condition.  Toxic  symp- 
toms were  not  observed  until  the  dose  reached  five  grams.  The 
Paris  Academy  of  Sciences,  however,  would  not  admit  the  addition 
of  small  doses  of  salicylic  acid  to  food  materials,  since  even  small 


820  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

doses  repeated  daily  for  a  long  period  produced  disturbances  of 
health  in  old  individuals  and  in  persons  affected  with  cardiac  and 
digestive  troubles. 

OTHER  CHEMICAL  PRESERVATIVES. — Under  the  name  "salufer,""" 
a  silicate  of  fluorin  (fluorin  sodium  silicate)  has  been  patented  in 
England  and  is  claimed  to  possess  remarkable  antizymotic  proper- 
ties. A  saturated  solution  containing  0.61  per  cent,  of  this  body 
has  a  greater  antiseptic  effect,  according  to  Thomson,  than  a  1  per 
cent,  aqueous  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  Minced  meat  is  said 
to  remain  in  an  undecomposed  condition  for  a  long  period  under 
the  influence  of  this  tasteless,  odorless  and  non-poisonous  body. 

Another  method  which  has  been  patented  in  England  consists 
of  dipping  meat  in  ammonium  acetate  and  then  allowing  it  to  dry 
in  the  air.  The  meat  is  said  to  keep  well  when  treated  in  this  man- 
ner. Upon  boiling  or  roasting,  the  ammonium  acetate  disappears 
completely  and  no  trace  of  the  preservative  is  noticed  in  eating  the 
meat. 

Furthermore,  potassium  permanganate  (under  the  name  anti- 
grisein)  has  been  recommended  for  preserving  meat. 

Formalin  (40  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  formaldehyde)  has 
recently  been  recommeded  as  possessing  a  considerable  preserving 
power.  Its  use,  however,  is  somewhat  questionable,  since  aldehyde 
does  not  belong  to  the  indifferent  bodies.  Against  this  view,  held 
by  Halliburton,*  Fernbach  and  other  well-known  writers,  "Windisch 
claims  that  the  use  of  formaldehyde  as  a  preservative  is  unobjection- 
able, for  the  reason  that  formaldehyde  is  also  contained  in  smoke 
and  is  perhaps  a  more  active  constituent  than  creosote.  Formalde- 
hyde can  actually  be  demonstrated  in  the  gases  from  wood  fire, 
Windisch  himself  devised  a  preserving  experiment  during  which  he 
exposed  fresh  sausage  for  several  consecutive  days  to  fumes  of  for- 
maldehyde under  a  moderate  temperature.  The  sausage  smelled  of 
smoke,  dried  very  rapidly  and  had  an  excellent  keeping  quality. 
Strose  constructed  a  ventilated  preserving  box  in  which,  by  means 
of  the  fumes  of  formaldehyde,  meat  could  be  easily  preserved  for  from, 
four  to  six  weeks  even  in  summer  and  under  unfavorable  weather 
conditions.  Gottstein  attempted  to  preserve  meat  with  formalde- 
hyde by  covering  it  with  gelatin  and  then  exposing  it  to  the  fumes 
of  formalin  for  a  few  hours.  This  method,  however,  proved  to  be 


*  According  to  Halliburton,  the  addition  of  0.5  per  cent,  formalin  stops 
gastric  digestion  absolutely  and  the  addition  of  .05  per  cent,  delays  it  consider- 
ably. 


PRESERVATION   BY   HEAT  821 

impracticable,  since,  despite  the  short  exposure  to  formalin,  the 
meat,  after  lying  for  several  months,  shrunk  and  became  as  hard  as 
stone.  Likewise,  an  experiment  of  Ehrlich  in  preserving  meat  in 
an  8  per  cent,  formaldehyde  solution  failed.  Horse  meat  when 
treated  with  an  8  per  cent,  formaldehyde  solution  took  on  an  unap- 
petizing appearance  and  an  odor  of  roast  goose.  Beef  treated  with 
formaldehyde  emitted  no  disagreeable  odor,  but  became  inedible 
after  a  very  short  treatment. 

For  other  trade  preservatives  which  carry  high-sounding  names 
for  the  purpose  of  concealing  their  simple  composition,  consult  the 
investigations  of  Polenske  in  "Arbeiten  aus  dem  Kaiserlichen 
Gesundheitsamte,"  Vols.  5,  6  and  8,  and  the  investigations  of  Kam- 
tnerer  in  "  Miinchener  Forschungsberichte,"  Yol.  2. 

2.— Preservation  by  Heat. 

The  bactericide  effect  of  high  temperatures  can  be  successfully 
utilized  in  the  preservation  of  meat  intended  for  long  keeping  only 
when  the  meat  which  has  been  subjected  to  heat  is  packed  in  such  a 
manner  that  subsequent  infection  is  excluded.  This  condition  is  ful- 
filled in  the  preparation  of  so-called  corned  beef,  the  manufacture  of 
which  is  conducted  on  the  largest  scale  by  American  and  Australian 
firms,  in  order  to  make  possible  the  utilization  of  the  great  quanti- 
ties of  meat  from  America  and  Australia  in  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Since  the  introduction  of  canned  meat  into  Germany  has  been  pro- 
hibited, it  has  been  prepared  on  a  commercial  scale  in  this 
country. 

For  preparing  corned  beef,  the  meat  is  comminuted,  freed  from 
bones  and  fatty  tissue,  placed  in  a  large  pickling  vat,  and  after  it 
has  been  thoroughly  salted,  is  boiled  in  large  receptacles.  Afcer 
boiling,  the  meat  is  spread  out  on  large  tables,  sorted  and  packed  in 
cans,  and  under  steam  pressure  is  packed  in  boxes  which  are  at 
once  hermetically  sealed.  The  sealed  cans  are  placed  in  boiling 
water  for  from  three  to  six  hours,  according  to  their  size,  and  are 
punctured  while  still  hot  in  order  to  allow  the  escape  of  air  or 
superfluous  fat.  The  hole  is  then  immediately  closed  by  soldering, 
in  order  to  allow  the  cans  to  be  placed  again  for  a  few  hours  in 
boiling  water. 

Recently,  mutton  and  pork  have  been  preserved  by  the  same 
method  used  in  preparing  corned  beef  and  sold  under  the  names. 
"  corned  mutton  "  and  "  corned  brown." 


622  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

GENERAL  JUDGMENT  OF  CANNED  MEAT. — In  canned  meats  we 
Lave  to  do  with  meat  products  in  which  the  destruction  of  patho- 
genic organisms,  which  may  be  present  in  the  meat,  may  be  accom- 
plished by  means  of  the  preserving  method  adopted.  It  is  true  that 
in  the  case  of  canned  meat  there  can  never  be  any  certainty  that  the 
animals  from  which  the  meat  was  obtained  were  healthy.  From 
recent  reports  from  America,  it  appears  that  the  "  canners  " — that  is,, 
animals  which  are  worked  up  in  the  preparation  of  canned  meat— 
"belong  to  the  poorest  quality  and  are  frequently  diseased  (Kiihnau). 
Furthermore,  from  American  reports  concerning  the  extensive  out- 
breaks of  disease  among  American  troops  in  Cuba,  as  a  result  of 
eating  canned  meat,  it  appears  that  in  America,  the  chief  exporting 
country  of  canned  meat,  this  material  is  not  always  harmless,  as  pre- 
pared. The  cause  of  the  harmful  property  of  the  meat  in  question 
can  not  be  determined  from  the  reports.  With  regard  to  foreign 
canned  meat,  however,  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  we  are 
dealing  with  products  the  method  of  preparation  of  which  is  known 
in  general,  but  can  not  be  controlled  in  individual  cases.  In  the 
finished  product  it  can  be  determined  whether  the  material  was  so 
well  boiled  before  the  closure  of  the  cans  that  pathogenic  organisms 
in  the  meat  must  have  been  destroyed.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is 
no  means  of  determining  whether  chemical  substances  are  present 
in  the  canned  meat  which  are  not  at  all  or  with  difficulty  destroyed 
by  heat.  The  unfortunate  experience  which  was  had  in  feeding 
American  troops  on  canned  meat  compels  us  to  assume  that  harm- 
ful properties  may  be  present  in  canned  meat  not  only  as  a  result  of 
defective  boiling,  but  also  as  a  result  of  the  utilization  of  defective 
material ;  for  example,  material  already  in  process  of  decomposi- 
tion. For  this  reason,  according  to  the  present  status  of  the  ques- 
tion, canned  meat  must  be  classed  along  with  sausage  with  regard 
to  its  sanitary  judgment,  and  must  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

INJURIOUS  CANNED  MEAT.— It  is  to  be  assumed  that  canned  meat 
possesses  harmful  properties  if  the  cans  are  swelled  or  soldered 
twice.*  Likewise,  it  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  meat  is  harmful  if 
the  gelatin  which  surrounds  the  meat  does  not  exhibit  a  firm  char- 
acter, but  possesses  a  disagreable  odor  of  putrefaction.  The  pres- 
ence of  gas  in  the  can  and  the  liquefaction  of  the  gelatin  indicate 


*  According  to  a  circular  letter  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Ministries  of  Medical 
Affairs,  Commerce  and  Interior,  no  violation  of  the  law  of  June  25,  1887,  con- 
cerning traffic  in  substances  containing  lead  and  zinc  is  found  in  traffic  in. 
conserve  cans  which  are  soldered  with  material  containing  lead. 


PRESERVATION   BY   HEAT  823 

putrefactive    processes   in    the   meat   and   an   injurious   character 
(page  756). 

DRIED  MEAT. — In  South  America,  South  Eussia,  Eoumania  and 
other  countries,  meat  is  preserved  by  drying  in  the  air.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  cut  into  narrow  strips.  Before  being  eaten  the  strips 
are  softened  in  water.  The  Kalmucks  dry  meat  by  cutting  it  into 
small  strips  and  dry  it  in  the  air  or  over  a  small  smoking  fire.  The 
process  of  drying  is  of  great  importance  in  the  preservation  of  fish. 
In  South  America  meat  is  either  dried  after  a  previous  salting 
("  tasajo,"  "  charque,"  jerked  beef)  or  dried  beef  is  prepared  with- 
out salt  ("  charque  dulce  ").  Tasajo  is  quite  an  important  article  of 
trade.  In  the  Saladeros  of  the  La  Plata  States  and  in  the  Brazilian 
province  Rio  Grande,  the  meat  of  nearly  1,500,000  cattle  is  annually 
worked  up  into  this  product.  The  chief  consumption  of  tasajo 
occurs  in  Brazil,  Rio  de  Janiero,  Cuba  and  the  Antilles.  In  Brazil, 
tasajo  is  cut  into  pieces  and  cooked  together  with  black  beans  to 
make  the  national  dish  "feijaoada."  The  exportation  of  this 
material  to  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy  has  thus  far  met  with  failure 
uri  account  of  the  rancid  taste  of  the  dishes  prepared  with  tasajo 
(Knntb). 

<:  CARNE  PURA."--  The  attempt  to  introduce  South  American 
and  Australian  meat  in  powdered  form— "  carne  pura  " — has  thus 
far  met  with  but  little  success  on  account  of  the  high  prices  of  the 
preparation  and  the  pungent  odor  which  at  first  inheres  in  the  meat 
powder.  Carne  pura  is  prepared  by  drying  raw  meat  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  40°  C.  The  albumen  thereby  remains  soluble  (Hoffmann). 

MEAT  EXTRACT. — The  preparation  of  meat  extract  was  the  first 
and  most  decidedly  successful  attempt  to  make  the  great  meat 
product  of  America  utilizable  in  the  Old  World.  Previously,  mil- 
lions of  sheep  and  cattle  had  been  slaughtered  merely  for  the  wool, 
hides  and  bones.  For  obtaining  meat  extract,  the  meat  is  cut  in 
machines  and  digested  under  high  pressure.  The  meat  broth  thus 
obtained  is  passed  into  fat  separators  and  thence  into  clarifying 
kettles,  in  which  the  albumen,  fibrin  and  magnesium  phosphate  are 
separated.  Hereupon  the  extracted  mass  is  placed  in  an  evaporat- 
ing apparatus,  from  which  it  is  drawn  off  by  various  filtering  pro- 
cesses into  large  receptacles  intended  for  shipping.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  extract  into  small  cans  suitable  for  retail  trade  takes 
place  at  the  import  towns. 


PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

The  oldest  meat  extract  factory  (Liebig's  meat  extract)  is  in 
Fray-Bentos  in  Uruguay.  This  factory  utilizes  400  to  500  cattle 
daily,  producing  therefrom  about  1,500  kg.  of  extract. 

Liebig's  meat  extract  possesses  the  consistency  of  a  soft  extract 
or  a  thick  salve.  It  has  an  acid  reaction,  is  hygroscopic,  and  readily 
dissolves  in  water.  The  meat  extract  frequently  contains  granular 
material  (creatin  and  potassium  phosphate).  The  color,  odor  and 
taste  vary  according  to  the  age  and  sex  of  the  animals  used  in  pre- 
paring the  extract.  According  to  Liebig,  the  meat  of  steers 
furnishes  an  extract  of  darker  color  and  possesses  a  taste  which,  in 
the  concentrated  extract,  resembles  that  of  game,  but  is  agreeable 
in  dilute  solution.  The  extract  from  the  meat  of  cows  is  of  a  milder 
taste,  lighter  color  and  is  considered  better  by  many  individuals. 
The  meat  of  animals  under  four  years  of  age  is  not  suitable  for  the 
preparation  of  extract,  for  extract  thus  prepared  is  like  pap  and  has 
the  insipid  taste  of  veal.  Since  the  separation  of  cows  and  steers  is 
not  possible,  the  color  and  taste  vary  according  as  the  meat  of 
steers  or  cows  predominates  in  the  daily  output.* 

Recently,  fluid  extracts  (Maggi,  Cibils,  Kemmerich  and  Koch) 
h'ave  also  been  placed  on  the  market. 

NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  MEAT  EXTRACT.— Meat  extract  is  merely 
&  condiment  and  possesses  no  nutritive  value  (Eubner).  Frentzel, 
in  cooperation  with  Toriyama,  found  that  in  dogs  fed  chiefly  on  fat 
and  starch,  a  quantity  of  nitrogen  corresponding  to  60  per  cent,  of 
the  extractives  of  the  meat  extract,  remained  in  the  body.  These 
authors,  however,  were  unable  to  decide  whether  the  nitrogen  was 
utilized  as  a  reserve  material  or  whether  the  meat  extract,  like  gel- 
atin, operated  only  in  protecting  protein. 


3.— Preservation  by  Cold. 

YALUE  OF  PRESERVATION  BY  COLD. — Cold  is  unquestionably  the 
best  method  of  preserving  meat.  It  causes  no  alteration  in  the  meat 
either  with  regard  to  taste  or  nutritive  value.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  improves  the  quality  of  the  meat  considerably.  Under  the  pro- 
longed action  of  sarcolactic  acid,  meat  acquires  an  unusually  tender, 


*  With  regard  to  horse  meat,  Liebig  says  the  meat  broth  from  horse  meat, 
when  steamed,  forms  membranes  over  the  surface,  like  that  of  milk,  which  are 
renewed  as  often  as  removed.  Moreover,  the  extract  is  thick  and  slimy,  does  not 
dissolve  perfectly  in  water  and  always  tastes  of  fat. 


PRESERVATION   BY   COLD  825 

soft  character,  tlie  true  table  maturity  required  by  pampered  pal- 
ates. No  hygienic  scruples,  as  in  the  case  of  the  utilization  of 
chemical  materials,  can  be  entertained  with  regard  to  the  rational 
application  of  cold,  and,  finally,  the  effectiveness  of  cold,  as  a  preser- 
vative for  meat,  is  almost  unlimited.  As  a  sample  of  the 
incomparable  preserving  power  of  cold,  we  may  mention  the  fact 
that  the  Jakutes  still  feed  their  dogs  on  the  meat  of  mammoths 
which  have  remained  for  thousands  of  years  in  the  ice  of  the  Lena. 

EFFECT  OF  Low  TEMPERATURES  ON  PUTREFACTIVE  BACTERIA. — 
It  must  be  considered  as  a  demonstrated  fact  that  low  temperatures 
•can  not  destroy  the  organisms  of  putrefaction.  Pictet  and  Joung 
had  perfectly  negative  results  in  exposing  anthrax  bacilli,  Bacillus 
subtilis,  and  other  bacteria  in  wooden  boxes  for  twenty  hours  to  a 
temperature  of — 70°  C.,  then  surrounding  them  with  liquid  carbonic 
acid  at  a  temperature  of — 70°  to  — 76°  C.,  and,  finally,  exposing  them 
for  another  twenty  hours  to  a  temperature  of  — 76°  to  — 130°  C.  by 
evaporation  of  liquid  carbonic  acid.  Colemann  and  Mikendrick 
likewise  failed  to  destroy  bacteria  in  their  experiment  concerning 
the  effect  of  cold  on  decomposable  substances.  They  placed  meat 
in  hermetically  sealed  or  at  least  bacteria-proof  vessels  (by  the  use 
of  cotton  plugs)  in  a  chamber  with  a  temperature  of  — 56°  to  — 63°  C. 
for  a  period  of  at  least  six  hours.  After  the  meat  was  brought  into 
ii  warm  room,  slight  decomposition  took  place  after  ten  to  twelve 
hours  and  complete  putrefaction  after  a  few  days. 

From  these  and  other  experiments  it  appears  that  bacteria, 
especially  putrefactive  bacteria,  possess  a  quite  unusual  resisting 
power  against  low  temperatures.  This  resistance  does  not  in  any 
way  militate  against  the  preservative  effect  of  cold.  "While  it  is  not 
] possible  to  destroy  putrefactive  bacteria  by  cold,  we  may  still  pre- 
vent their  multiplication  by  means  of  low  temperatures  and  may 
keep  them  in  a  dormant  condition  and  prevent  the  development  of 
their  proteolytic  power. 

Pathogenic  bacteria  are  as  little  affected  by  low  temperatures 
as  putrefactive  bacteria.  Their  virulence  persists  unattenuated 
<lespite  the  long  exposure  to  excessive  cold. 

Havemann  investigated  a  large  number  of  non-pathogenic  and 
pathogenic  bacteria  with  regard  to  their  powers  of  growth  at  low 
temperatures  and  found  that  numerous  micro-organisms,  including 
molds,  yeasts  and  bacteria,  thrive  on  meat,  milk  and  gelatin  at  a 
temperature  of  7°  C.,  such  as  usually  prevails  in  good  cellars  and 
Ice  chests.  At  this  temperature  the  growth  of  the  majority  of 


826  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

organisms  was  only  slightly  checked,  so  that  the  colonies  did 
not  become  visible  to  the  naked  eye  until  after  five  to  seven 
days.  Growth  was  completely  prevented  only  in  the  case  of 
the  cholera  bacillus,  typhoid  bacillus  and  the  cocci  of  erysipe- 
las. The  vitality  of  these  micro-organisms,  however,  was  not 
destroyed  by  exposure  for  several  weeks  to  the  temperature  above 
mentioned. 

FREEZING  AND  SIMPLE  COOLING  OF  MEAT. — There  are  two  ways 
of  preserving  meat  by  means  of  low  temperatures,  namely,  freez- 
ing and  preservation  at  a  temperature  somewhat  above  0°  C. 

Meat  may  be  kept  indefinitely  by  freezing.  Frozen  meat,  how- 
ever, possesses  the  disadvantage  that  in  thawing  out,  water  vapor 
and  putrefactive  bacteria  may  be  deposited  upon  the  surface  of  the 
meat  and  thereby  greatly  affect  its  keeping  property.  In  trans- 
oceanic traffic  in  meat  and  in  provisioning  garrisons,  however,  on 
account  of  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  meat  must  be  pre- 
served, freezing  can  not  be  dispensed  with,  despite  the  disadvan- 
tages of  this  process.  Ment- transporting  steamers  ply  between 
Australia  and  England,  carrying  freezing  rooms  in  which  the  meat 
of  4,000  cattle,  14,000  sheep  and  a  large  number  of  rabbits  may  be 
stored  (Heiss). 

FROZEN  MEAT  AS  AN  ARMY  SUPPLY. — The  French  Ministry  of 
War  instituted  experiments  to  determine  whether  frozen  meat 
could  be  used  as  an  army  supply.  These  experiments  showed  that 
frozen  meat  may  be  preserved  as  long  as  eight  months  without 
any  alteration  of  its  original  character.  Great  difficulties,  however, 
were  encountered  in  transporting  meat  to  the  point  of  consump- 
tion. Frozen  meat  when  surrounded  by  peat  dust  endures  a  rail- 
road journey  of  four  days  even  at  a  high  external  temperature. 
On  the  other  hand,  transportation  by  wagon  operates  unfavorably 
on  the  keeping  property  of  the  meat.  For  this  reason  it  was- 
decided  to  furnish  only  garrisons  with  frozen  meat.  It  is  stated 
that  in  times  of  peace  large  freezing  rooms  have  been  constructed 
in  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of  kilos  of  meat  may  be  kept  or 
used  periodically  and  replaced. 

Grassmann  reports  concerning  investigations  which  were  made 
with  the  meat  of  two  steers,  three  hogs  and  three  sheep,  in  the 
military  freezing  establishment  a,t  Thorn.  The  objects  of  these 
experiments  were  to  determine  the  time  required  for  the  thorough 
freezing  of  slaughtered  meat  when  hung  up  in  the  freezing  room. 


PRESERVATION   BY   COLE  827 

the  length  of  time  that  frozen  meat  will  keep,  and  whether  any 
alterations  occur  in  the  meat  during  its  preservation. 

Steers  were  quartered,  hogs  halved  and  sheep  left  whole.  The 
meat  was  placed  in  the  freezing  establishment  on  November  27- 
On  November  28  the  temperature  in  all  the  kinds  of  meat  had 
sunk  below  0°  C.,  and  remained  at  about  — 4°  C.  until  August  of  the 
following  year.  Mutton  was  frozen  first  and  beef  most  slowly. 
The  following  alterations  were  demonstrated  in  the  meat :  In 
February,  the  beef  acquired  a  darkish  surface  and  the  pork  a  gray 
external  surface.  At  a  depth  of  1  to  1 J  mm.  under  the  surface, 
however,  the  meat  was  juicy  and  of  a  bright  red  color.  More- 
over, a  grayish-white  deposit  (excreted  meat  salts)  was  observed 
over  the  surface  of  all  the  meat.  In  March,  mold  fungi  appeared 
on  the  beef,  but  they  were  readily  removed  by  rubbing  the  meat 
and  improving  the  ventilation. 

In  August,  when  the  meat  was  taken  from  the  freezing  rooms 
and  distributed  among  the  troops,  it  was  found  that  it  not  only 
cooked  well,  but  that  it  possessed  a  good  flavor  and  could  not  be 
distinguished  from  fresh  meat.  It  required  only  half  as  much  time 
as  fresh  meat  in  cooking,  furnished  a  good  broth,  and  proved  to  be 
especially  tender  and  juicy  in  a  roasted  condition. 

After  four  months  the  meat  had  lost  in  weight  as  a  result  of 
evaporation  of  the  water  to  the  extent  of  8.8  per  cent,  (beef),  7.4 
per  cent,  (pork),  and  11.5  per  cent,  (mutton) ;  and  after  nine  months 
the  meat  had  decreased  in  weight  17.8  per  cent,  (beef),  12.8  per  cent, 
(pork),  and  23.4  per  cent,  (mutton).  Grassmnnn  also  observed  that 
in  thawing  out  considerable  meat  juice  escaped  from  the  meat, 
and  this  is  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  the  cell  walls  may  have  been 
ruptured.  No  other  unfavorable  alterations  or  decrease  in  nutri- 
tive value  took  place  in  the  frozen  meat. 

In  the  freezing  rooms  of  the  Hamburg  Cold  Storage  Plant, 
experiments  with  frozen  meat  have  given  satisfactory  results.  The 
same  may  be  said  for  the  freezing  rooms  intended  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  fish,  game,  fowls,  eggs  and  milk  (Kiihnau). 

As  stated  by  Hofmann,  freezing  is  not  adapted  to  inland  trade 
on  account  of  the  disadvantages  above  mentioned.  For  this  trade 
the  only  rational  method  of  preserving  meat  is  to  keep  it  at  3°  to 
5°  C.  in  rooms  with  an  average  moisture  content  of  70  to  75  per 
cent.  Under  such  conditions,  however,  the  low  temperature  alone 
is  not  sufficient  to  prevent  all  decomposition  of  the  meat.  Putre- 
factive organisms  may  become  located  on  the  meat  and  may  exhibit 
a,  slight  growth  even  at  the  lower  temperature.  In  order  to  destroy 


828  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

the  conditions  for  the  undesirable  multiplication  of  these  organisms, 
it  is  necessary  to  dry  the  surface  of  the  meat  and  to  maintain  it  in. 
a  dry  condition.  On  dry  surfaces — and  in  sk  ughtered  animals 
decomposition  regularly  begins  on  the  surface  (page  753) — all  vital 
activity  of  putrefactive  bacteria  ceases  under  low  external  tempera- 
tures. The  aim  of  architects  and  engineers  should,  therefore,  be 
directed  to  devising  cold  storage  establishments  which  produce  not 
only  cold,  but  dry  air.  Even  under  these  conditions,  the  meat 
remains  undecomposed  for  only  a  few  weeks.  This,  however,  is 
quite  sufficient  for  the  demands  of  the  meat  traffic. 

SOURCES  OF  COLD. — For  producing  lower  temperatures  we  have 
several  artificial  means  at  our  command,  the  simplest  of  which  is 
in  the  form  of  natural  or  artificial  ice,  and  the  more  complicated 
forms  are  found  in  ingeniously  constructed  cold  air  and  cold  vapor 
machines.  The  latter  alone  satisfy  all  the  requirements  of  hygiene 
and  the  technique  of  preservation,  and  should,  therefore,  be  intro- 
duced as  extensively  as  possible.  Cooling  by  means  of  ice  is 
adapted  only  for  household  purposes,  for  retail  dealers  in  large 
cities,  and  also  for  slaughterhouses  in  small  cities,  on  account  of 
its  simplicity  and  cheapness.  In  such  slaughterhouses  the  cost  of 
cooling  machines  would  be  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  advantages 
derived. 

(a)  Refrigeration  by  Means  of  Ice. 

The  most  primitive  form  of  the  application  of  cold  consists  in 
simply  laying  materials  to  be  preserved  upon  the  ice.  This  is  also 
the  poorest  form,  since  the  materials  to  be  preserved  are  cooled  only 
on  one  side,  rather  than  on  all  sides,  and,  instead  of  being  dry,  they 
are  artificially  moistened  as  a  result  of  the  melting  of  the  ice.  More- 
over, in  the  use  of  natural  ice,  there  is  the  danger  of  the  transmis- 
sion from  the  ice  to  the  meat  of  pathogenic  bacteria  the  viability  of 
which  has  not  been  destroyed  by  freezing.  The  Royal  Government 
President  at  Potsdam  issued  a  public  warning  against  the  careless 
use  of  natural  ice,  in  which  the  following  statements  were  con- 
tained : 

"  As  a  result  of  investigations  in  the  Imperial  Health  Office,  it 
was  determined  that  the  ice  used  in  Berlin  for  domestic  purposes, 
even  when  of  good  external  appearance,  often  contains  numerous 
dangerous  micro-organisms  quite  capable  of  development.  It  is 
probable,  therefore,  that  the  diseases  observed  after  the  ingestiou. 


PRESERVATION   BY   COLD  829 

of  drinks  whicli  have  been  cooled  by  throwing  in  pieces  of  ice  are 
not  so  much  due  to  the  coldness  of  the  drink  as  to  the  pathogenic 
organisms  which  are  present  in  the  ice.  The  same  danger  may  arise 
in  the  case  of  solid  food  materials  which  have  been  cooled  by  lying 
on  such  ice." 

A  better  method  of  cooling  by  means  of  ice  is  found  in  the  vari- 
ous devices  in  which  the  ice  does  not  come  into  immediate  contact 
with  the  materials  to  be  preserved,  but  is  separated  from  them  by 
a  division  wall.  The  meat  is  thereby  not  cooled  directly,  but  indi- 
rectly, by  the  surrounding  air,  and  a  moistening  of  the  food  materials 
by  melting  ice  is  avoided.  We  possess  such  devices  on  a  small 
scale  in  ice  chests,  also  on  a  large  scale  in  cold  storage  plants  in 
which  natural  ice  is  used.  The  ice  is  placed  between  two  double 
walls  on  the  side  or  in  the  middle  of  the  cooling  room.  In  the 
so-called  Brainard  system,  the  ice  is  placed  upon  the  ceiling  of  the 
preserving  room  upon  a  corrugated  metal  sheet. 

The  following  statements  concerning  cooling  plants  in  which 
natural  ice  is  used  are  taken  from  a  description  by  Wittenbrink. 
The  plant  consists  essentially  of  three  rooms — an  ice  room,  cooling 
room,  an  antechamber ;  the  latter  connects  the  outside  world 
immediately  with  the  cooling  room.  The  cooling  room  and  ice  room 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  division  wall.  The  ice  room 
lies  higher  than  the  cooling  room.  The  cold  air  passes  from  the 
ice  room  into  the  cooling  room  through  slits  which  may  be  opened 
or  closed,  as  required.  The  cold  air  immediately  descends  to  the 
floor,  removing  the  heat  and  moisture  from  the  meat,  which  hangs 
at  about  the  height  of  a  man,  and  again  rises  and  escapes  through 
a  chimney  or  ventilator  in  the  ceiling.  The  ventilation  of  the  room 
is,  therefore,  excellent,  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall,  as  well  as. 
the  external  surface  of  the  meat,  are  said  to  be  dry  at  all  times. 
The  plant  is  opened  for  business  only  twice  daily,  one  hour  in  the- 
morning  and  evening.  The  ice  in  the  ice  room  keeps  even  through 
the  hottest  summers  until  winter. 

Wittenbrink  adds  to  his  description  the  statement  that  the  city 
of  Waldenburg  with  14,000  inhabitants  has  possessed  a  cooling 
plant  of  this  sort  for  three  years.  It  is  said  that  this  plant,  as  well 
as  similar  cold  storage  plants  in  Landeshut  and  Myslowitz,  have 
proved  perfectly  satisfactory  to  the  tradesmen.  The  meat  keeps  per- 
fectly fresh  for  several  weeks  and  the  plant  possesses  the  advantages 
of  great  simplicity  and  extraordinary  cheapness  of  operation. 

The  so-called  Brainard  system,  according  to  which  the  cold 
storage  plant  of  the  abattoir  in  Budapest  is  constructed,  is  intended 


830  PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

to  produce  the  greatest  possible  dryness  of  air  by  stacking  the  ice 
upon  a  corrugated  metal  sheet  over  the  cooling  room.  The  use  of 
corrugated  metal  furnishes  a  large  surface  for  condensation  on 
which  the  water  may  be  precipitated  and  readily  conducted  away 
In  the  grooves. 

VALUE  OF  COLD  STORAGE  PLANTS  WITH  NATURAL  ICE. — Accord- 
ing to  present  experience,  cold  storage  houses  in  which  natural  ice 
is  used  can  not  compare  with  artificial  cold  storage  plants  with 
regard  to  the  certainty  of  effectiveness.  Consequently  they  are 
generally  too  expensive,  despite  their  apparent  economy.  The 
greater  original  cost  of  artificial  cold  storage  plants  is  more  than 
offset  by  the  certainty  of  the  preservation  of  the  meat.  Cold  storage 
houses  using  natural  ice  in  connection  with  abattoirs  can  be  con- 
sidered only  as  makeshifts.  Various  cold  storage  plants  in  which 
natural  ice  is  used,  as,  for  example,  those  in  Schmiegel,  have 
^already  been  replaced  by  artificial  cold  storage  establishments. 

REFRIGERATOR  CARS. — Ice  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  cooling 
refrigerator  cars  intended  for  transporting  meat  by  rail.  In  this 
case  the  disadvantages  of  the  system  are  not  so  strongly  felt  as  in 
stationary  establishments,  since  the  revolution  of  the  wheels  fur- 
nishes a  driving  power  which  can  be  readily  utilized  for  ventilating 
the  interior  of  the  cars. 

Various  systems  are  in  use,  especially  the  system  of  Stras- 
chiripka  and  Tiffany,  the  system  of  Anderson,  Zimmermann  and 
Acclom,  in  which  the  air  is  drawn  in  through  the  ice  from  the  out- 
side, and  the  systems  of  Jaschka,  Wickes  and  Sohreiber,  in  which, 
Toy  means  of  ventilators  in  the  hermetically  closed  room,  the  air  is 
liept  in  constant  circulation  between  the  ice  room  and  the  cooling 
Toom. 

Schreiber's  refrigerator  cars  are  7  meters  long,  2  meters  high 
and  2.33  meters  wide.  The  double  floor  is  provided  with  a  layer  of 
sawdust.  The  side  walls  consist  of  three  layers  of  boards  and  the 
two  inner  walls  are  separated  from  each  other  by  cattle  hair  and 
are  coated  with  waterproof  paste.  The  whole  space  is  surrounded 
with  a  thick  layer  of  felt  which  is  held  in  place  by  a  layer  of  gal- 
vanized iron  which  constitutes  the  inner  wall  of  the  space.  The 
meat  is  hung  on  longitudinal  bars  in  such  a  manner  that  the  pieces, 
do  not  quite  come  in  contact  with  each  other.  Each  car  is  provided 
with  an  ice  chest  with  a  capacity  of  18  centners,  which  is  said  to  be 
sufficient  for  a  period  of  from  eight  to  ten  days.  Schreiber  states 


PRESERVATION   BY   COLD 


831 


that  it  is  possible  to  pack  200  centners  of  meat  in  such  cars.  The 
construction  of  Schreiber's  cars  is  otherwise  very  much  like  that  of 
the  cars  which  have  been  introduced  by  Wickes.  In  Wickes'  cars, 
a  larger  amount  of  ice  is  required  (30  to  35  centners  in  summer  for 


FIG.  254. 


Wickes'  refrigerator  car. 

five  days).     The  following  statements  are  taken  from  a  description, 
of  Wickes'  ice  car  : 

Through  a  suction  wall  which  is  placed  at  one  end  of  the  car, 
the  inner  air  of  the  car  is  drawn  into  a  suction  force  fan  and  pressed 

FIG.  255. 


Refris 


'rigerating  apparatus  for  transport  cars  according  to  Trapp. 
A,  axle;  B,  belt;  C,  driving  pulley;  D,  ventilator;  E,  receptacle  for 
chlorid ;  F,  air  shaft ;  tf,  ice  chest. 


or  calcium 


into  the  air  distributing  apparatus  of  the  ice  chest  through  a  wooden 
tube  which  lies  beneath  the  floor  of  the  car.  The  air  passes  from 
the  distributing  apparatus  into  the  ice  chest,  which  contains  45- 
centners  of  ice.  From  the  ice  chest  it  passes  through  a  series  o£ 


832  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

openings  into  the  cooling  room,  from  the  opposite  end  of  which  it  isv 
again  drawn  into  the  suction  funnel  near  the  ceiling  of  the  car  after 
it  has  come  in  contact  with  all  parts  of  the  room.  The  fan  is  driven 
by  power  obtained  from  a  friction  wheel  on  the  axle  of  the  car. 

Wickes'  cars  are  used  almost  exclusively  in  America.  In  1877, 
twelve  of  these  cars  were  introduced  into  Austria  and  also  proved 
satisfactory  there.  The  abattoir  veterinarian,  Trapp,  in  Strasburg, 
has  patented  a  new  cold  storage  apparatus  for  transport  cars. 
According  to  his  plan,  the  ice  chest  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
car,  the  air  is  drawn  down  over  the  ice  by  suction,  but  before  enter- 
ing the  cooling  room  is  dried  by  chlorid  of  lime.  The  current  of 
air  is  maintained  by  a  ventilator  which  is  driven  by  a  leather  disk 
wheel  on  the  axle  of  the  car.  While  the  car  is  in  motion,  the  air  i» 
constantly  drawn  down  from  above  by  the  ventilator  and  forced 
through  the  chest  containing  chlorid  of  lime,  in  which  it  gives  up 
its  water.  Before  the  air  enters  the  cooling  rooms  it  must  pass  by 
the  ice  chest  and  thus  it  becomes  cool  and  gives  up  its  water.  The 
air  after  having  been  thus  cooled  and  dried  passes  down  through 
the  ventilator  and  is  then  distributed  into  the  car  space,  where  it 
forces  the  air,  which  has  already  become  moister  and  warmer,  to 
assume  the  same  direction.  Trapp  asserts  that  any  good  freight 
car  is  adapted  to  the  utilization  of  his  cooling  and  drying  apparatus, 
which  may  be  improvised  at  any  time. 

(b)    Cold    Storage   Establishments  With   Mechanical 
Refrigerating  Apparatus. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  a  handbook  on  meat  inspection  to 
describe  details  of  the  various  machinery  which  has  been  utilized 
in  the  production  of  artificial  cold.  These  matters  are  of  special 
interest  to  the  technician  and  builder.*  The  most  essential  point 
for  the  sanitarian  is  to  learn  the  principles  upon  which  these 
artificial  devices  are  based.  With  regard  to  the  present  status  of 
the  technique  in  the  field  of  artificial  cold  storage  plants,  "  which  at 
the  present  time  have  assumed  a  great  and  unexpected  importance 


*On  this  subject,  consult  Lorenz,  Neuere  Kuhlmaschinen,  3d  ed.,  Munich 
and  Leipsic,  1901  ;  also  Stetefeld,  Die  Verwendung  von  Kuhlenmaschinen,  Ber- 
lin, 1901.  With  regard  to  the  operation  of  the  machines,  consult  Schwartz, 
Maschinenkunde  fur  den  Schlachthofbetrieb,  Berlin,  1901. 

See  also  A.  J.  Taylor,  Refrigeration,  Cold  Storage,  etc.,  1902;  U.  Selfi,  Machin- 
ery for  Refrigeration,  1900;  andH.  R.  Leask,  Refrigerating  Machinery,  etc.,  190 U 
—TRANSLATOR. 


PBESEEVATION   BY   COLD  833 

such  as  few  other  fields  of  technique  have  to  show,"  the  following 
account  is  taken  from  a  lecture  of  Schulze,  who  discussed  the  matter 
in  a  general  way  from  a  technical  standpoint,  but  who  referred  for 
more  accurate  information  to  the  writings  and  investigations  of 
Linde,  Zeuner,  Pictet  and  Schwarz. 

For  the  purpose  of  cooling  meat,  two  cold  producing  machines, 
have  been  most  extensively  utilized  : 

1.  The  cold  air  or  air  expansion  machines.     These  machines  are 
based  on  a  law  of  physics  that  compressed  air  becomes  considerably 
colder  by  expansion.     Thus,  for  example,  air  of  3,  3  and  4  atmos- 
pheric pressure  and  of  a  temperature  of  30°  C.  assumes  temperatures 
of  —25°,  —53°  and  —70°  C.  upon  expanding. 

2.  Cold  vapor  or  compression  machines.     These  machines  utilize 
vaporizing  substances,  such  as  sulphurous  ether,  methyl  ether,  sul- 
phurous acid  and  carbonic  acid,  but  chiefly  ammonia.     They  are 
based  on  the  law  that  fluids  extract  heat  from  surrounding  sub- 
stances upon  vaporizing.     The  vaporizing  substances  are  kept  in 
permanent  circulation  in  a  closed  system  of  tubes.     The  fluid  after 
being  vaporized   is   again  brought  back  in  a  fluid  form  and  the 
latent  heat  thus  freed  is  absorbed  by  water  of  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. 

The  technique  of  the  production  of  cold  in  the  vaporizing 
machines  is  described  by  Schultze  in  the  following  manner : 

Fluid  ammonia  is  forced  under  high  pressure  into  a  system  of 
wrought  iron  coiled  tubes,  the  so-called  vaporizer.  It  is  here  vapor- 
ized under  low  pressure  and  thereby  absorbs  the  latent  heat  neces- 
sary for  vaporization  from  the  surrounding  material,  air,  or  a  fluid 
(salt  water  or  chlorid  of  lime  water).  The  latter  is  thereby  greatly 
cooled.  From  the  system  of  tubes  in  the  vaporizer  the  gaseous 
ammonia  is  then  drawn  into  a  peculiarly-shaped  suction  and  force 
pump,  the  so-called  compressor.  Here  it  is  changed  under  pres- 
sure into  a  fluid  condition  and  is  then  forced  into  a  second  system 
of  coiled  tubes,  the  condenser,  in  which  the  heat  which  has  been 
developed  is  carried  away  by  flowing  water. 

The  fluid  ammonia  is  again  conducted  through  a  connecting 
tube  to  the  vaporizer  and  the  cycle  of  changes  begins  anew. 
According  to  Edelmann,  the  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid  machines 
have  proved  satisfactory  in  Germany.  However,  they  are  not  so 
certain  in  operation  as  the  machines  which  utilize  sulphurous  acid, 
since  they  operate  under  a  high  pressure  (10  to  14  and  60  to  70 
atmospheres),  while  the  pressure  in  the  sulphurous  acid  machines 
amounts  to  only  2  or  3  atmospheres.  Moreover,  the  latter  machines 


834  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

require  no  special  oiling,  since  sulphurous  acid,  on  account  of  its 
oily  nature,  furnishes  sufficient  lubrication  for  the  compressors. 
The  first  sulphurous  acid  machines  were  those  of  Pictet.  Their 
only  disadvantage  is  that  they  require  from  20  to  60  per  cent,  more 
energy  than  the  ammonia  compression  machines  of  Linde  for  the 
production  of  the  same  degree  of  cold,  according  to  the  various 
temperatures  of  the  cooling  fluid. 

Cold  Air  Machines. 

The  Bell-Coleman  machine  is  the  only  one  which  operates 
according  to  the  system  of  cold  air  machines.  Air  is  drawn  out  of 
the  cooling  room  and  subjected  to  a  pressure  of  2J  to  3J  atmos- 
pheres in  the  compression  cylinder.  The  air  is  thus  greatly  heated 
and  must  be  cooled  by  injecting  water.  In  order  to  dry  the  air 
again  it  must  be  passed  through  numerous  sieve-like  structures. 
The  compressed  air  is  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  5°  C.  in  a  system 
of  tubes  connected  with  the  expansion  cylinders.  The  air  escapes 
into  the  cooling  room  from  the  expansion  cylinders  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  — 40°  to  — 50°  C.  through  open  systems  of  tubes  furnished 
with  ventilating  holes.  The  Bell-Coleman  cold  air  system  has  been 
but  little  used  in  cold  storage  plants  in  Germany.  On  the  other 
liand,  it  is  extensively  utilized  on  meat  transport  ships. 

Cold  Vapor  Machines. 

Two  groups  of  these  devices  may  be  distinguished,  according  to 
the  method  of  using  the  cold  which  is  produced  by  the  vaporizing 
machines. 

a.  In  the  first  group  the  cold  is  transmitted  to  solutions  of  salt 
or  chlorid  of  lime,  which  are  conducted  through  systems  of  tubes 
into  the  cooling  room  and  thus  cool  the  air  in  this  room. 

"  b.  The  second  group  cools  the  air  directly  in  the  coiled  tubes  of 
the  vaporizer  and  conducts  the  cooled  air  into  the  cooling  room. 

In  the  vaporizing  machines  with  the  circulating  salt  solution, 
the  latter,  when  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  — 8°  to  — 10°  C.,  is 
pumped  into  a  system  of  iron  tubes  consisting  of  numerous  coils 
close  together  and  located  under  the  ceiling  of  the  room  which  is 
to  be  cooled.  After  the  cooling  effect  of  the  salt  solution  has  been 
utilized,  the  solution  flows  back  to  the  vaporizer  and  there  begins 
anew  its  circulation. 

The  cold  salt  water  effects  not  only  the  cooling,  but  also  a  dry- 
ing of  the  air  of  the  room  in  so  far  as  the  moisture  in  this  air  is  pre- 


PRESERVATION  BY  COLD  835 

<cipitated  on  the  cold  coils  in  the  form  of  rime  and  ice.  Cooling  rooms 
•constructed  on  this  plan  have  been  established  in  connection  with  a 
nnmber  of  abattoirs.  The  great  disadvantage  attached  to  this  system 
is  that  the  rime  and  ice  precipitated  on  the  cold  tubes  forms  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat,  and,  therefore,  hinders  the  cooling  action  of  the 
salt  solution,  or  entirely  overcomes  it.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to 
interrupt  the  circulation  of  the  salt  solution  and  to  allow  the  tubes 
to  thaw  out. 

This  difficulty  is  overcome  by  the  devices  classed  in  group  b. 
According  to  this  system,  the  agent  which  serves  for  transmitting 
the  cold  is  entirely  outside  of  the  cooling  room.  The  air  is  cooled 
and  dried  outside  of  the  cooling  room  in  special  apparatus  separated 
irom  each  other  and  is  then  forced  into  the  cooling  room  by  means 
of  ventilators.  The  great  advantage  of  such  an  arrangement  is  quite 
apparent.  In  the  first  place,  water  which  is  formed  by  thawing  and 
the  bacteria  which  gain  entrance  to  the  cooling  apparatus  are  carried 
outside  of  the  cooling  room  and  disposed  of. 

The  cold  storage  systems  of  Pictet,  Osenbriick  and  Linde 
operate  according  to  these  principles. 

In  the  "rain-cooling"  system  recommended  by  Pictet,  the  salt 
solution  falls  free  into  a  special  vessel  above  the  cooling  room  in 
the  form  of  fine  rain,  through  which  the  air  which  is  to  be  cooled  is 
driven.  The  cooled  air  is  conducted  through  shafts  in  the  wall 
from  the  vessel  above  the  room  in  which  the  meat  is  preserved, 
while  the  warm  air  rises  under  the  ceiling  in  the  cooler.  The  salt 
water  after  being  used  is  again  conducted  to  the  vaporizer.  Schultze 
characterizes  this  device  as  very  expensive. 

In  Osenbriick's  system,  the  salt  solution  which  has  been  cooled 
off  in  the  vaporizer  passes  into  one  or  more  cylindrical  vessels 
which  are  provided  with  an  iron  spiral  stairway  with  perforated 
steps.  'The  salt  solution  falls  down  slowly,  like  a  cascade,  while 
the  ah*  which  is  to  be  cooled  is  drawn  in  an  opposite  direction 
by  means  of  a  ventilator  and  is  then  conducted  into  the  cooling 
room. 

Linde's  ice  machine  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  a  number 
of  rotating  iron  disks  close  together  upon  a  common  axis  are  dipped 
into  the  salt  solution  which  immediately  surrounds  the  vaporizer, 
while  the  air  which  is  to  be  cooled  passes  over  the  parts  of  the 
disks  which  are  above  the  solution,  but  which  are  constantly  moist- 
ened. The  cooled  air  is  conducted  in  shafts  under  the  floor  or  over 
the  ceiling  of  the  cold  storage  plant  by  ascending  and  descending 
tubes  into  horizontal  distributing  tubes  on  the  ceiling  of  the  cooling 


PRESERVATION   OF  MEAT 

room.  It  is  claimed  that  by  means  of  Linde's  apparatus  the  air  is 
renewed  8  to  10  times  per  hour. 

The  above  described  artificial  devices  for  cooling  meat  make 
use  of  salt  solutions  as  agents  for  transmitting  cold  produced  in 
the  vaporizers.  The  interpolation  of  these  intermediary  substances 
causes  a  certain  amount  of  loss  which  is  avoided  in  the  Fixary  sys- 
tem. In  this  system  the  air  to  be  cooled  is  immediately  passed  over 
the  coiled  tubes  of  the  vaporizer.  Now,  in  order  to  make  it  pos- 
sible to  thaw  out  the  tubes  without  any  interruption  of  the  cooling 
process,  the  coiled  tubes  are  arranged  in  several  separable  systems 
which  are  inclosed  separately  and  furnished  with  regulating  valves. 
If  one  chamber  of  the  system  becomes  covered  with  ice  incrusta- 
tions, the  vaporization  in  it  is  interrupted  and  the  ice  is  melted  by 
means  of  warm  air  drawn  out  of  the  cooling  house.  The  transmis- 
sion of  cold  air  to  the  cooling  house  is  accomplished  as  in  the  sys- 
tems of  Osenbriick  and  Linde.  The  regulation  of  the  valves  and 
ventilators  is,  according  to  Schultze,  a  simple  matter,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  cold  by  this  system  is  greater  than  in  those  above 
described.  "For  the  air  is  cooled  off  in  a  very  energetic  manner 
with  the  most  complete  utilization  of  the  cold  produced  in  the  vapor- 
izer and  without  any  loss  of  energy  in  the  intermediary  substances. 
The  dryness  of  the  air  need  not  be  limited  by  the  saturation  point 
of  the  moisture  capacity  of  any  degree  of  temperature,  but  may  fall 
below  this.  Moreover,  the  air  may  be  renewed  by  introducing  fresh 
outside  air,  since  no  limit  is  set  to  the  movement  of  the  air  within 
the  cooling  room.  This  possibility  of  abundant  ventilation  is  a  great 
advantage  according  to  the  view  of  experts,  since  too  much  air  can 
not  easily  be  introduced  into  an  abattoir. 

Schultze  observes  also  that  cooling  devices  have  been  manufac- 
tured by  the  well-known  machine  manufacturer,  Kiedinger,  of  Augs- 
burg, which  operate  very  nearly  on  the  same  plan.  In  this  last- 
named  method,  however,  carbonic  acid  machines  are  used,  and  the 
cooling  is  accomplished,  not  immediately  on  the  tubes  of  the  vapor- 
izer, but  on  special  tubes  which  may  be  closed  and  which  are  filled 
-with  salt  water. 

APPENDIX. 
1.— Location  and  Structure  of  Cold  Storage  Plants. 

According  to  Hofmann,  the  following  points  must  be  considered 
;n  the  structure  of  cold  storage  plants : 


APPENDIX.  837 

1.  Easily  accessible  and  practical  unloading  places. 

2.  The  floors  must  be  easily  cleaned  and  the  greatest  cleanli- 
ness must  prevail. 

3.  Abundant  ventilation  arranged  so  as  to  affect  the  whole 
space. 

Schultze  calls  attention  to  another  point  which  has  not  been 
properly  considered  in  the  construction  of  many  cold  storage  plants  : 
The  construction  must  be  such  that  the  air  which  enters  the  refrig- 
erating room,  when  the  doors  and  passage  ways  are  open,  is  of  good 
quality  and  not  laden  with  bad  odors.  The  latter  condition  is  not 
fulfilled  when  the  cooling  room  is  in  immediate  connection  with  the 
animal  stalls.  In  order  to  secure  cleanliness,  Schultze  recommends 
that  the  windows  (with  double  or  three-fold  glass)  should  be  capable 
of  admitting  sufficient  light  to  enable  one  to  detect  any  filth.  In 
order  to  maintain  the  moisture  content  of  the  air  in  the  cooling 
rooms  at  the  same  degree,  it  is  desirable  that  freshly  slaughtered 
meat  should  be  allowed  to  cool  in  preliminary  cooling  rooms. 

Moreover,  in  the  construction  of  refrigerator  plants,  great  care 
should  be  exercised,  that  odorous  building  materials,  such  as  beams 
saturated  with  tar  or  carbolineum,  or  cement  material  saturated  with 
tar  (for  example,  tar  cork  building  brick,  tar  paper)  should  be  abso- 
lutely excluded,  since  meat  possesses  the  power  of  absorbing  and 
retaining  such  odors  (page  747).  The  failure  to  recognize  these 
facts  has  already  led  to  serious  errors  in  the  construction  of  a  pri- 
vate refrigerator  plant  in  Koburg,  as  well  as  in  the  refrigerating 
lialls  of  the  public  abattoirs  in  Liibeck,  Koln,  Zschopau,  Koslin  and 
Hiesa. 

Mechanical  transportation,  such  as  was  established  by  Moritz 
in  the  abattoir  at  Leipsic,  must  be  considered  the  best  means  for 
carrying  pieces  of  meat  into  the  refrigerator  room. 

Over  every  slaughtering  place  there  is  a  sliding  pulley  which  is 
carried  on  a  track  which  runs  transversely  through  the  hall.  The 
forward  and  backward  movement  of  the  sliding  pulley  is  produced  by 
means  of  a  wire  cable  which  is  attached  to  either  end  of  the  sliding 
pulley  and  is  wound  around  a  drum  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  hall. 
The  drum  is  operated  by  a  vertical  shaft  with  conical  cog  wheels  and 
a  winch  located  at  the  place  of  slaughter.  The  second  cable  is 
attached  to  the  sliding  pulley  in  such  a  manner  that  by  the  aid  of 
another  windlass  a  hook  which  hangs  from  the  body  of  the  pulley 
may  be  let  down  and  drawn  up  again.  By  means  of  this  arrange^- 
ment  the  beef  animal  hanging  from  a  gambrel  furnished  with  a  long 
Jiook  may  be  drawn  up  and  transported  wherever  desired. 


838  PRESERVATION  OF  MEAT 

As  soon  as  the  cattle  have  been  slaughtered  at  the  different 
killing  places,  they  are  immediately  transported  to  the  opposite  side 
of  the  slaughtering  hall  by  means  of  the  sliding  pulley,  in  order  to 
remove  them  from  malodorous  material,  such  as  intestinal  contents. 
They  are  then  let  down  on  tracks  which  run  longitudinally  along 
the  hall,  and  are  transported  directly  to  the  cooling  room. 

On  the  tracks  are  peculiarly-shaped  cars  provided  with  an 
arrangement  for  receiving  the  gambrels  with  the  two  halves  of  beef. 
As  soon  as  the  sliding  pulley  with  the  two  halves  of  beef  takes  its 
position  over  one  of  the  tracks,  the  car  is  pushed  under  the  gambrel 
by  means  of  a  forked  pole.  The  car  receives  the  weight  of  beef  upon 
a  device  intended  for  holding  the  gambrel,  while  the  hook  of  the 
sliding  pulley  disengages  itself  by  its  own  weight.  The  car  is  so 
easily  moved  that  one  person  can  readily  propel  it  with  its  burden 
(two  halves  of  beef)  into  the  refrigerating  room. 

One  defect  which  is  much  complained  of  in  poorly  arranged 
refrigerating  rooms  is  the  appearance  of  a  mouldy  odor  in  the  refrig- 
erated meat.  Popp  determined  that  the  defective  construction  of 
the  walls  of  the  refrigerating  room  was  the  cause  of  this  trouble. 
In  such  rooms  he  found  that  the  cement  wall  is  moist  and  contami- 
nated with  numerous  bacteria  which  produce  a  mouldy  odor  in 
bouillon  cultures  and  on  the  cement.  In  refrigerating  rooms  fur- 
nished with  zinc  walls  but  few  bacteria  were  to  be  demonstrated. 
Popp,  therefore,  recommends  impervious  and  smooth  wall  surfaces 
in  order  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  bacteria  or  gases  produced 
by  them  into  the  air  of  the  refrigerating  rooms.  That  air  actually 
penetrates  through  walls  was  demonstrated  by  Popp  in  a  building 
in  which  a  layer  of  tar  asphalt  was  placed  behind  the  cement  wall. 
The  odor  of  tar  appeared  in  the  room  after  a  few  weeks.  Schilling 
called  attention  to  other  causes  of  the  mouldy  odor  in  cold  storage 
plants  (introduction  of  freshly  slaughtered  meat,  freshly  prepared 
sausage,  pickled  meat  in  brine,  livers  and  lungs).  In  removing  the 
moldy  odor,  Schilling  had  excellent  results  from  the  use  of  formalde- 
hyde fumes.  In  the  refrigerating  plant  in  Gottingen,  whenever  a 
moldy  odor  appeared,  two  Tollens'  formaldehyde  lamps  were  set  in 
operation  for  a  few  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  air  became 
dry  and  pure,  without  the  appearance  of  any  disagreeable  effect  in 
the  meat.  The  preservation  of  pickled  meat  in  the  ventilating  rooms 
is  to  be  forbidden,  since  vaporization  of  the  pickling  fluid  may  pro- 
duce undesirable  effects  upon  other  meat  which  is  preserved  in  the 
refrigerating  plant.  Schwarz  recommended  for  preventing  this 
trouble  the  establishment  of  a  special  separate  pickling  room  in. 


APPENDIX  839 

refrigerating  plants,  with  which  the  rooms  for  cutting  up  the  pickled 
meat  may  be  advantageously  connected. 


2.— The  Necessity   and  Advantages  of  Cold  Storage    Plants. 

/ 

When  we  consider  the  tendency  of  meat  to  decompose,  no 
further  argument  is  necessary  to  show  that  refrigerating  plants  are 
an  absolutely  necessary  feature  of  public  slaughterhouses.  Behrend 
rightfully  says :  "  The  cold  storage  plant  forms  an  accumulator 
which  eliminates  the  constant  difference  between  the  supply  and 
consumption  of  meat."  No  abattoir  without  a  cold  storage  plant  is 
a  principle  which  is  recognized  in  a  pleasing  manner  in  the  majority 
of  the  recent  larger  abattoirs  and  in  some  of  the  smaller  abattoirs. 
Slaughterhouses  of  old-fashioned  construction  which  were  without 
the  advantage  of  refrigerating  rooms  are  now  being  furnished  with 
modern  cold  storage  plants.  As  a  proof  of  the  expediency  of  cold 
storage  plants,  we  may  mention  the  following  results  obtained  from 
experiments  which  Hengst  instituted  in  the  cold  storage  plant  of  the 
abattoir  at  Leipsic,  concerning  the  keeping  power  of.  meat  in 
midsummer.  The  experiments  were  made  on  the  hindquarters  of 
cattle,  calves,  sheep,  and  hogs.  It  was  shown  that  the  hindquarters 
of  cattle  had  lost  1.8  kg.;  those  of  calves,  0.5  ;  those  of  sheep,  0.3,  and 
those  of  hogs,  0.5  kg.  No  further  loss  of  weight  occurred  during  the 
experiment  (in  the  case  of  the  calf  and  hog  quarters  after  two  weeks, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  cattle  and  sheep  quarters  after  four  weeks). 
With  regard  to  the  keeping  power  of  the  meat,  it  was  demonstrated 
that  the  calf  and  hog  quarters  began  to  show  evidence  of  decompo- 
sition after  fourteen  days  and  the  beef  quarters  after  about  twenty- 
four  days.  No  such  phenomena  were  demonstrated,  however,  in  the 
mutton  quarters,  even  after  four  weeks.  The  process  of  decomposi- 
tion on  the  cross  section  of  the  beef  musculature  was  for  the  most 
part  caused  by  bacilli.  The  decomposition  products  were  almost 
odorless  and  were  confined  to  the  surface,  while  the  underlying 
parts  of  the  meat  exhibited  a  perfectly  normal  appearance  and  the 
normal  meat  odor.  The  meat  had  not  deteriorated  in  palatability 
as  a  result  of  standing  in  the  cold  storage  plant,  either  in  a  raw, 
boiled,  or  roasted  condition.  It  seemed,  on  the  contrary,  to  have 
improved  in  this  respect. 

From  these  experiments  it  appears  that  meat  preserved  in  cold 
storage  plants  is  much  improved  in  its  keeping  properties,  and  that 
the  palatability  and  juiciness  of  the  meat  are  increased  rather  than 


840  PRESERVATION   OF   MEAT 

diminished.  With  regard,  however,  to  the  loss  of  weight  which  the 
meat  suffers  during  the  first  few  days  in  a  cold  storage  plant,  it  is 
scarcely  greater  than  the  loss  caused  by  the  action  of  the  air  under 
ordinary  conditions. 


XYII. 

BOILING,  STEAM    STERILIZATION    AND    THE 
HARMLESS  DISPOSAL   OF  MEAT. 


1.— Boiling. 

EFFECT  OF  HIGH  TEMPERATURES  ON  THE  HARMFUL  PROPERTIES 
OF  MEAT. — Boiling  is  an  important  factor  in  the  hygiene  of  meat, 
for  it  is  possible  by  means  of  boiling  to  destroy  certain  injurious 
properties  which  attach  to  raw  meat,  to  render  dangerous  meat 
harmless,  and  to  make  it  utilizable  as  human  food.  In  the  discus- 
sion of  the  animal  parasites  of  meat  (Cysticerci  and  Trichina), 
attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  they  may  be 
destroyed  with  certainty  by  boiling.  Similarly,  heating  the 
meat  to  a  high  temperature  may  be  characterized  as  an  effective 
hygienic  measure  for  use  in  the  case  of  a  large  number  of  infectious 
diseases. 

We  know  from  careful  experiments  that  animal  and  vegetable 
parasites,  however  resistant  to  lower  temperatures,  are,  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  readily  destroyed  by  high  temperatures. 
Cysticerci  die  at  temperatures  of  45°  to  50°  C.,  trichina  at  69°  C., 
and  all  animal  parasites  at  the  coagulation  temperature  of  albumen. 
This  varies  for  the  different  kinds  of  albumen,  but  is  not  higher  in 
any  case  than  70°  C.  Plant  parasites  (pathogenic  bacteria)  usually 
require  higher  temperatures  for  their  certain  destruction.  Spores, 
particularly,  are  able  to  withstand  even  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  Fortunately,  however,  in  the  pathogenic  bacteria  which 
occur  in  meat  we  have  to  deal  with  spores  only  in  exceptional  cases 
(in  blackleg,  malignant  edema,  tetanus  at  the  point  of  inoculation 
and  occasionally  anthrax  on  the  surface  of  meat  after  skinning).  As 
a  rule,  pathogenic  bacteria  are  present  in  meat  in  the  vegetative 
form.  Vegetative  forms,  however,  without  exception,  die  at  tem- 
peratures below  that  of  the  boiling  point  of  water. 

The  important  hygienic  effect  of  boiling  was  long  since  demon- 
strated empirically  by  the  fact  that  measly  and  trichinous  pork  may 

841 


842  BOILING,   STEAM   STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

be  eaten  in  a  boiled  condition  without  bad  effects.  For  exampler 
Marchi,  in  Florence,  found  only  1  Tcenia  solium  among  35  taenia 
which  he  collected  during  a  certain  period,  while  during  the  same 
period  not  less  than  13,000  measly  hogs  were  imported  into  Florence 
and  were  consumed  in  that  city.  In  southern  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Italy,  France  and  England,  trichinous  hogs  are  eaten, 
without  harmful  results  because  they  have  been  previously  cooked. 
The  energy  and  capital  which  are  thus  saved  become  apparent 
from  the  statement  that  Berlin  is  compelled  to  pay  750,000  marks 
yearly  for  protection  against  trichina.  Berlin,  however,  employs 
only  250  trichina  inspectors,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  King- 
dom of  Prussia  there  are  28,000 ! 

Moderately  high,  or  even  high  temperatures  are  insufficient  to 
destroy  injurious  substances  of  a  chemical  nature,  such  as  the  toxic 
metabolic  products  of  bacteria.  Kitasato  demonstrated  that  ths 
metabolic  products  of  the  tetanus  bacillus  are  changed  into  harm- 
less combinations  under  the  influence  of  a  temperature  of  65°  C. 
for  a  few  minutes.  Similarly,  Fischer  and  Enoch  found  that  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  fish  toxin  does  not  withstand  boiling,  and  Yan  Ermen- 
gem  demonstrated  that  sausage  poison  (toxin  of  botulism)  is  ren- 
dered inert  by  a  boiling  temperature.  We  know  from  the  history 
of  meat  poisoning,  however,  that  toxic  substances  from  the  septic 
bacteria  are,  as  a  rule,  not  destroyed  by  boiling.  Thus,  in  an  out- 
break of  meat  poisoning  in  L ,  near  Bregenz,  Griessbeckerzell, 

Middelburg,  Frankenhausen  and  Cotta,  it  was  shown  that  not  only 
boiled  meat,  but  also  the  meat  broth  was  harmful.  In  an  outbreak 
of  meat  poisoning  in  Katrineholm,  those  persons  who  ate  large 
quantities  of  the  meat  broth  were  most  seriously  affected,  and,, 
iinally,  in  Darkehmen  it  was  shown  that  only  the  meat  broth  was 
poisonous. 

The  case  is  similar  with  putrefactive  bacteria.  Decomposed 
meat  is  harmful  even  in  a  boiled  condition,  as  shown  by  experience 
and  experiments  instituted  to  determine  this  point. 

Accordingly,  it  would  be  unjustifiable  to  characterize  boiling  as 
a  universal  hygienic  measure  for  preventing  the  harmful  results  of 
eating  meat,  as  may  be  claimed  for  the  boiling  of  water  and  milk  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  injury  to  health  as  a  result  of  the  inges- 
tion  of  these  drinks. 

HEAT  CONDUCTING  POWER  OF  MEAT. — In  the  destruction  of 
animal  parasites  and  bacteria  by  boiling,  we  have  to  consider  care- 
fully a  peculiarity  of  meat  which  under  certain  circumstances  makes. 


BOILING  843  • 

boiling  a  measure  of  problematic  value.  Meat  is  a  poor  conductor 
of  heat.  According  to  experiments  conducted  by  Landois,  meat,  in 
the  stricter  sense,  the  musculature,  is  a  much  poorer  conductor  of 
heat  than  other  animal  tissues,  which,  in  and  of  themselves,  are 
characterized  by  their  poor  conductive  power.  Landois  found  that 
bones  were  the  best  conductors,  the  following  materials  being 
arranged  in  the  order  of  their  conductivity :  Blood  cakes,  spleen, 
liver,  cartilage,  tendons,  muscles,  elastic  ligaments,  etc.  According 
to  Glage,  the  fat  tissue  is  a  better  conductor  than  the  musculature. 
It  is  thus  explained  why  heat  penetrates  so  slowly  into  meat  that 
the  boiling  point  of  water  is  not  reached  in  the  central  layers  of  the 
meat  even  after  long  continued  boiling,  and  that  finally  the  parts  of 
the  meat  lying  in  contact  with  bones  acquire  higher  temperatures 
than  the  parts  lying  more  distant  from  the  bones. 

Perroncito  demonstrated  that  in  large  pieces  of  meat,  such  as 
hams  weighing  8  kg.,  the  temperature  in  various  central  parts  of  the 
material  did  not  reach  more  than  84°  C.,  even  after  three  hours' 
boiling. 

Bupprecht  found  that  boiling  for  45  minutes,  as  is  customary 
in  lower  Saxony,  did  not  produce  a  higher  temperature  than  75°  CL 
and  this  only  in  thin  pieces  oi  meat.  In  blutwurst,  the  temperature 
rose  only  to  66°  C.  during  the  same  period  ;  in  tongue  sausage  and 
headcheese  to  62.5°  C.;  in  schwartenmagen,  only  to  58.75°  C. 
Kupprecht  determined  the  temperature  of  thoroughly  boiled  ham- 
at  65°  C.,  while  that  of  pork  boiled  in  the  usual  manner,  together 
with  vegetables,  was  the  same.  Meat  dumplings,  so  much  liked  in 
Saxony,  reach  a  temperature  of  not  more  than  58.75°  C.  when 
prepared  in  the  usual  manner,  and,  finally,  sausages  which  are 
quickly  roasted  attain  a  temperature  of  only  28.75°  C. 

According  to  Kiichenmeister,  large  pieces  of  so  called  fresh 
boiled  pork  are  heated  to  a  temperature  of  not  more  than  60°  C., 
after  the  usual  half-hour  period  of  boiling — in  the  inner  layers,  not 
more  than  55°  C. — and  require  boiling  for  several  hours  in  order  to 
reach  a  temperature  of  77°  to  80°  C. 

According  to  a  statement  of  Leuckart,  bratwurst  and  cutlets 
attain  a  temperature  of  62.5°;  roast  pork  75°,  when  prepared  in  the 
usual  manner;  and  only  65°  C.  when  prepared  by  the  English 
method. 

Wolffhugel  and  Hiippe  demonstrated  that  the  temperature  in 
the  interior  of  large  pieces  of  meat  never  rises  to  100°  C.,  even  after 
several  hours'  boiling  or  roasting.  This  temperature  was  reachedL 
only  once,  even  in  the  superficial  layers. 


844  BOILING,   STEAM  STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

The  following  results  were  obtained  in  the  experiments  of 
Wolffhiigel  and  Hiippe : 

1.  A  leg  of  veal,  weighing  14.25  kg.,  73  cm.  long,  43  cm.  wide 
and  17  cm.  thick,  was  roasted  for  3^  hours  in  a  roasting  tube  of  a 
cooking  machine   at   a  temperature   of  103°   C.     A  thermometer 
introduced  into   the   meat    indicated    temperatures    of    71°,    76° 
and  89°  C. 

2.  A  smoked  ham,  of  4.5  kg.  weight,  36  cm.  long,  22  cm.  wide 
and  10  cm.  thick,  was  boiled  in  a  cooking  vessel  in  salt  water  for 
4  hours  at  a  maximum  temperature  of  102°  C.     The  thermometer 
indicated  temperatures  of  75°,  77°  and  78°  C.  in  the  center  of  the 
meat. 

3.  A  piece  of  veal,  weighing  3  kg.,  25  cm.  long,  13  cm.  wide 
and  12  cm.  thick,  was  roasted  in  the  roasting  tube  of  a  cooking 
machine   for  3   hours.      The  thermometer  in  the  roasting  tube 
reached  155°  C.     The  highest  temperatures  in  the  meat  were  93°, 
96°  and  98°  C. 

4.  A  piece  of  veal,  weighing  3  kg.,  20  cm.  long,  18  cm.  wide 
and  13  cm.  thick,  was  roasted  in  the  roasting  tube  of  a  cooking 
machine  for  3  hours  and  showed  internal  temperatures  of  93°  and 
98°  C. 

5.  A  piece  of  beef,  weighing  3  kg.,  25  cm.  long,  16  cm.  wide  and 
9  cm.  thick,  was  placed  in  boiling  water  and  boiled  for  2J  hours. 
The  thermometer  in  the  water  registered  105°  C.,  while  in  the  meat 
temperatures  of  91°  and  92°  C.  were  reached. 

6.  A  piece  of  beef,  weighing  3  kg.,  37  cm.  long,  16  cm.  wide  and 
8  cm.  thick,  was  laid  in  cold  water  and  boiled  for  2J  hours.     The 
temperatures  determined  in  the  meat  were  95°  and  96°  C. 

By  the  use  of  steam  under  pressure  (in  a  Nageli  steaming  ves- 
sel), Wolffhiigel  and  Hiippe  produced  temperatures  above  100°  C. 
(102°-109°  C.)  in  meat  inclosed  in  conserve  cans  when  the  cans  were 
not  large,  but  held  about  three-quarters  of  a  pound. 

By  means  of  a  thermometer  constructed  for  the  purpose  and 
which  was  introduced  into  the  deep-lying  portions  of  pieces  of  meat, 
Petri  tested  the  penetration  of  heat  into  large  pieces  of  meat  and 
obtained  the  following  results  :  In  a  shoulder  piece  weighing  4,430 
gm.,  the  thermometer  introduced  into  the  interior  of  the  meat  after 
3|  hours'  cooking  showed  that  the  temperature  of  the  meat  was  84° 
and  of  the  bones  85.5°  C.  After  remaining  4  hours  in  a  roasting 
oven,  shoulders  of  hogs  showed  temperatures  of  79.5Q  and  91.5°  C., 
and  in  the  case  of  a  ham  which  had  likewise  been  roasting  4  hours, 
the  temperatures  were  62.5  and  86°  C. 


BOILING  845 

Hertwig  instituted  detailed  experiments  with  regard  to  the  pene- 
tration of  high  degrees  of  temperature  into  meat  while  boiling  in 
a  Becker-Ulmann  boiling  apparatus.* 

In  order  to  obtain  results  utilizable  in  practice,  Hertwig,  in  his 
experiments,  did  not  proceed  according  to  the  weight  of  the  pieces 
of  meat,  but  according  to  the  thickness.  He  used  pieces  cf  meat  of 
any  desired  length,  but  of  the  thickness  of  only  6  to  12  cm.  The 
pieces  of  meat  were  laid  in  the  hot  water,  which  in  the  larger  vessels 
showed  a  temperature  of  94°  and  in  the  smaller  100°  C.,  but  which 
after  receiving  the  meat  was  cooled  down  to  71°  and  81°  C.  By 
introducing  steam  the  former  temperature  was  reproduced  within  a 
period  of  45  to  50  minutes.  After  this  was  accomplished,  the  vessel 
was  closed  and  was  again  opened  after  the  lapse  of  2  hours.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  in  the  larger  vessel  was  then  87.5°  C.  and 
in  the  smaller  92°  C.,  or  7°  to  8°  C.  lower  than  at  first.  The  tem- 
perature in  the  interior  of  the  pieces  of  meat  in  the  larger  vessel 
stood  at  86°  and  in  the  smaller  at  91.5°  C.  It  was,  therefore,  only 
slightly  lower  than  that  of  the  surrounding  water. 

BESULTS  OF  BOILING  EXPERIMENTS. — From  the  experiments  which 
have  been  instituted  concerning  the  penetration  of  high  tempera- 
tures into  meat  in  boiling,  it  appears  that  we  are  able  by  means  of 
rational  and  sufficiently  prolonged  boiling  and  roasting  to  produce 
with  certainty,  even  in  the  interior  of  the  meat,  temperatures  above 
70°  C.,  or  above  the  coagulation  point  of  albumen.  By  the  term 
rational  boiling  in  this  connection  is  understood  the  use  of  pieces 
of  meat  not  to  exceed  6  to  12  cm.  in  thickness.  The  boiling  period 
should  be  2J  hours  by  the  ordinary  method  of  boiling,  and  2  hours 
in  the  Becker-Ulmann  apparatus,  reckoned  from  the  moment  the 
water  reaches  the  boiling  point. 

The  temperatures  thus  obtained  are  more  than  sufficient  to 
destroy  cysticerci  and  trichina ;  for  these  parasites  die  at  45°  to  49° 
C.  and  60°  to  70°  C. 

From  the  experiments  above  described,  it  is  also  apparent  thair 
by  means  of  rational  boiling  we  are  able  to  produce  in  the  interior 

*  The  Becker-Ulmann  boiling  apparatus,  which  was  used  in  these  experiments 
and  has  been  introduced  into  several  hospitals,  barracks  and  other  institutions 
for  cooking  on  a  large  scale,  consists  of  a  double  walled  wooden  chest  surrounded 
by  tile,  in  which  there  are  three  larger  and  three  smaller  chambers,  the  so-called 
pots,  for  receiving  the  water  and  meat.  The  spaces  between  the  walls  of  the 
chest  are  filled  with  poor  heat  conductors.  Each  chamber  is  furnished  with  a 
closely  fitting,  double-walled  cover.  On  the  floor  of  each  chamber  there  is  a 
steam  pipe,  by  means  of  which  the  meat  or  the  surrounding  water  is  heated. 


S46  BOILING,   STEAM  STERILIZATION,  ETC. 

of  the  meat  temperatures  which  lie  above  85°  and  which  are  suffi- 
cient to  destroy  the  virulence  of  the  vegetative  forms  of  most  patho- 
genic bacteria,  including  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

There  are  two  defects,  however,  which  attach  to  boiling,  even 
ivhen  conducted  in  a  rational  manner ;  viz.:  (1)  the  fact  that  the  tem- 
peratures produced  in  the  interior  of  the  meat  always  vary  within 
certain  limits,  and  (2)  the  fact  that  we  possess  no  easy  and  con- 
venient method  for  determining  when  the  temperature  in  the  interior 
of  the  meat  has  risen  above  85°  C. 

"Without  the  aid  of  special  apparatus  we  are  only  able  to  recog- 
nize that  the  meat  has  been  heated  to  a  temperature  above  70°  C. 
and  we  may  know  this,  as  already  stated,  by  the  discoloration  of  the 
musculature. 

The  defects  just  named  may  be  obviated  by  steam  sterilization. 

CHANGES  IN  THE  WEIGHT  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  MEAT  AS  A 
RESULT  OF  BOILING. — It  has  long  been  known  that  meat  loses  in 
weight  during  boiling  and  gives  up  a  portion  of  its  extractives  into 
the  boiling  water.  More  detailed  information  on  these  points  is 
furnished  by  the  investigation  of  Ferrati  and  Nothwang. 

Ferrati  found  that  the  loss  of  weight  was  different  at  different 
temperatures,  as  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Veal  Pork 

Per  cent.     Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Half  done  (60*  C.) 28.3             26.8  21.6 

Well  done  (70°  C.)... 31.3              39.2  32.0 

Well  done  (90°  C.) 47.3              47.3  41.1 

Temperatures  above  100°  C.  caused  a  further  loss  of  weight 
^which  increased  with  the  elevation  of  the  temperature. 

Ferrati  demonstrated,  furthermore,  that  meat  in  rigor  mortis 
suffered  a  greater  loss  of  weight  than  meat  which  had  not  passed 
into  rigor.  The  viscera  were  affected  very  differently  by  high  tem- 
perature. At  a  temperature  of  100°  C.,  the  heart  loses  most  in 
weight  (52.15  to  58.48  per  cent.) ;  next  in  order  come  the  kidneys 
(31.47  to  37.77) ;  liver  (30.71  to  30.76) ;  and  the  lungs  (15.04  to  18.49 
per  cent.). 

From  the  investigations  of  Nothwang,  it  appears  that,  in  boil- 
ing and  steaming  fresh  meat,  between  50  and  60  per  cent,  of  the 
extractives  and  about  35  per  cent,  of  the  phosphoric  acid  pass  over 
into  the  broth.  Pickled  meat  loses  some  of  its  extractives  and 
anhydrous  phosphoric  acid  in  boiling  and  steaming,  so  that  the 


STEAM   STERILIZATION  847 

total  loss  in  weight  from  pickling  and  boiling  exceeds  that  which 
ordinarily  occurs  in  boiling  and  steaming.  The  changes  in  weight 
shown  by  fresh  meat  in  pickling,  boiliDg  or  steaming  are  best  pre- 
sented in  the  following  table  : 

Fresh  Pickled  Boiled  Steamed 

100  69.9  ....  49.5  47.4 

100  ....        67.3  ....  50.3  ....        43.4 

1JO  78.1  ....  51.5  49.3 

Noack  demonstrated  in  19  beef  animals  a  loss  from  boiling  of 
39.2  per  cent,  and  in  25  hogs  an  average  loss  of  344  per  cent. 


2. — Steam  Sterilization  of  Meat. 

VALUE  OF  THE  METHOD. — In  another  place,  I  have  called  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  we  have  entered  into  a  new  and  economically 
very  important  phase  of  practical  meat  hygiene,  since  Hertwig 
demonstrated  that  by  the  use  of  steam  under  pressure  in  suitable 
apparatus,  it  is  possible  within  a  comparatively  short  time  to  heat 
with  certainty  all  parts  of  meat  to  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  It  is 
thus  actually  possible,  as  Hertwig  says,  "  to  preserve  as  valuable 
food  material  for  man  large  quantities  of  meat  which  have  thus 
far  gone  to  the  knackers  as  practically  worthless,"  for  all  objections 
which  may  be  raised  against  the  reliability  of  boiling  infected  meat 
fall  to  the  ground  in  the  use  of  the  method  in  question. 

METHOD.- — Hertwig  in  his  experiments  employed  a  steam  disin- 
fector  constructed  by  Rohrbeck,  in  which  a  new  principle,  the 
so-called  method  of  pressure  differences,  was  utilized.  The  appara- 
tus possesses  a  device  for  the  rapid  cooling  of  steam,  whereby  the 
latter  is  condensed,  and  at  the  same  time  part  of  the  latent  heat  of 
the  steam  set  free  by  condensation  is  given  off  to  the  objects  in  the 
apparatus.  By  prolonged  cooling,  a  minus  pressure  arises  in  the 
steam  chamber  which  causes  the  gases  to  escape  from  the  meat. 
Freshly  introduced  steam  can  thus  readily  enter  into  all  parts  off 
tbe  meat  which  is  to  be  disinfected.  The  disinfector  consists  of  an 
iron  double  cylinder  2.62  meters  long  and  1.68  meters  in  diameter. ( 
The  open  ends  may  be  closed  air-tight  by  means  of  iron  doors. 
Removable  iron  grates  are  arranged  one  above  the  other  in  the 
boiler,  and  the  pieces  of  meat  are  laid  upon  them,  side  by  side. 
Under  each  grate  there  is  a  roof-like  zinc  sheet,  sloping  toward 
either  end  of  the  apparatus  and  serving  to  receive  the  dripping 


848 


BOILING,    STEAM   STERILIZATION,   ETC. 


"broth  and  to  allow  it  to  run  into  zinc  troughs  on  the  floor  of  the 
boiler. 

In  Berlin  the  apparatus  is  connected  with  the  steam  system  of 
the  slaughterhouse,  in  which  the  boiler,  as  a  rule,  registers  a  pres- 
sure of  2  to  2J  atmospheres.  In  the  disinfector  itself,  a  pressure 
of  1  atmosphere  is  sufficient.  In  the  experiments,  however,  the 
pressure  was  never  made  so  great,  but  operations  were  usually  car- 
ried on  with  i  or  |  of  an  atmospheric  pressure,  the  latter,  however, 
for  only  a  short  period. 

FIG.  256. 


sea 


Rohrbeck's  steam  disinfector. 

The  steam  enters  from  above  and  can  be  admitted  directly  from 
the  boiler  or  may  first  be  passed  into  the  double  wall  (mantel)  and 
may  be  conducted  thence  into  the  disinfector.  By  means  of  a 
special  valve,  it  is  possible  to  introduce  the  steam  only  ID  to  the 
mantel,  whereby  the  apparatus,  after  the  steaming  operation  is 
finished,  may  be  operated  as  a  dry  chamber.  The  steam  escapes  from 
the  floor  of  the  boiler  through  several  openings  which  lead  into- 
steam  pipes  furnished  with  stop  cocks. 

For  small  institutions,  Bohrbeck  has  prepared  meat  sterilizers- 
with  direct  heat,  which  cost  only  600  to  1,200  marks  and  require 
-but  little  space  and  may  be  heated  by  gas  or  coal  as  desired. 


STEAM   STERILIZATION  849 

Duncker  (Zeit.  fur  Fleiscli  u.  Milchhyg.,  Vol.  1)  made  the  fol- 
lowing report  of  Hertwig's  experiments  : 

Before  the  meat  was  placed  on  the  grates  it  was  cut  up  in  the 
usual  manner  by  a  butcher  into  pieces  weighing  about  3  to  6  kg., 
and  measuring  from  12  to  15  cm.  The  lungs,  livers  and  other  vis- 
cera were  occasionally  incised,  but  only  when  they  were  greatly 
enlarged  and  thickened  as  a  result  of  pathological  processes.  After 
the  meat  Ind  been  laid  upon  the  grates,  a  tested  maximum  ther- 
mometer was  introduced  into  specially  selected  pieces  of  meat  under 
a  strict  observation  of  all  necessary  precautions.  Furthermore,  in 
the  center  of  several  pieces  of  meat  which  appeared  to  be  the  most; 
difficult  ones  to  steam,  a  contact  thermometer,  especially  constructed 
for  these  experiments,  was  placed,  which,  when  a  temperature  of 
100°  C.  was  reached,  caused  a  bell  to  ring  outside  of  the  boiler.  The 
cords  attached  to  the  thermometers  were  wound  with  wire,  which 

FIG.  257. 


0, 

Contact  thermometer,     a,  spiral  coil;  &,  alloy;  c,  apertures  in  the  metallic  case. 

was  introduced  through  the  walls  of  the  boiler  and  was  connected 
with  an  electric  battery  and  the  numbered  signal  bells.* 

In  this  way  it  can  be  instantly  known  when  a  temperature  of 
100°  C.  has  been  produced  in  the  interior  of  the  pieces  of  meat.  In 
order  that  the  highest  temperature  reached  in  the  steam  chamber 
may  be  controlled,  another  tested  maximum  thermometer  is  hung 
in  this  chamber. 

RESULTS  FROM  EXPERIMENTS. — The  experiments  thus  conducted 
with  regard  to  the  penetration  of  heat  into  meat  showed  that  uni- 
formly lean  meat  is  difficult  to  boil  thoroughly.  Even  in  larger 
pieces  of  such  meat,  however,  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  was  reached 
after  the  lapse  of  2J  hours.  On  the  other  hand,  such  pieces  as  are 

*  The  contact  thermometer  consists  of  a  metal  case  in  which  one  pole  of  the 
electric  coil  or  spiral  is  separated  from  the  other  pole  by  an  alloy  which  melts  at 
a  temperature  of  100°  C.  (Fig.  257).  As  soon  as  this  temperature  is  reached  in 
the  alloy  plate,  the  poles  come  into  contact,  the  electric  current  is  closed,  and 
the  signal  bell  is  set  in  action. 


850 


BOILING,   STEAM   STERILIZATION,    ETC. 


ordinarily  found  on  the  market  require  a  much  shorter  time  for 
thorough  steaming. 

On  the  basis  of  these  experiments,  Hertwig  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  in  order  to  secure  a  rapid  and  certain  heating  of  the  meat  to 


FIG.  258. 


Henneberg's  meat  steamer. 

a  temperature  of  100°  C.,  it  is  necessary  that  the  meat  be  first  cut. 
into  pieces  12  to  15  cm.  thick  and  3  to  6  kg.  in  weight. 

It  should  also  be  observed  that  meat  treated  in  a  steam  steri- 
lizer is  very  juicy  and  possesses  a  more  agreeable  odor  ariid  tasta 


STEAM   STERILIZATION  851 

ilian  that  wliicli  lias  been  cooked  in  water.  The  odor  and  taste 
are  more  like  those  of  roasted  meat,  so  that  even  beef,  which,  when 
cooked,  is  not  so  eagerly  purchased  as  pork,  finds  a  ready  sale  when 
steamed. 

HENNEBERG'S  MEAT  STEAMER. — Further  experiments  in  the 
direction  of  those  by  Hertwig  have  shown  that  the  method  of  pres- 
sure difference,  which  is  utilized  in  the  apparatus  of  Rohrbeck,  is 
not  a  necessary  requirement  for  the  complete  and  certain  steaming 
of  meat.  Thorough  steaming  may  be  accomplished  also  in  single- 
walled  sterilizers.  An  apparatus  of  this  simpler  sort  has  been  con- 
structed by  Henneberg,  and  on  account  of  its  low  price  (1,100  to 
1,500  marks)  has  already  been  distributed  quite  widely. 

CONSTRUCTION. — The  apparatus  consists  of  a  boiling  vessel 
proper  (Fig.  258,  a)  which  is  closed  above  in  a  steam-tight  manner 
with  a  cover,  b.  In  order  that  this  cover  may  be  easily  lifted,  it  is 
balanced  by  means  of  a  chain,  pulley  and  a  balanced  weight,  which 
latter  runs  in  the  column,  /.  The  floor  of  the  boiling  vessel  is 
double-walled  and  the  space  between  the  walls,  c,  is  provided  with 
a  direct  steam  pipe,  d,  as  well  as  a  pipe  for  carrying  off  the  con- 
densation, e.  The  rest  of  the  apparatus  consists  of  a  safety  valve,  g, 
and  a  manometer,  the  removable  wire  basket,  it  air  cock,  k,  and  dis- 
charge cock,  ?. 

The  apparatus  is  operated  in  the  following  manner  :  In  the  first 
place,  the  boiling  vessel,  a,  is  filled  with  pure  water,  so  that  the  bot- 
tom is  entirely  covered,  and  then  the  seasoning  necessary  for  the 
meat  broth  is  added.  Thereupon  the  meat  sprinkled  with  salt  and 
condiments  is  distributed  uniformly  in  the  wire  basket,  i.  The 
cover,  b,  is  closed  tightly,  and  then,  by  opening  the  steam  valve,  d, 
the  water  of  the  boiler  is  brought  to  a  boiling  point.  The  steam 
thus  produced  arises  and  surrounds  the  meat,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  air  contained  in  the  boiling  vessel  escapes  through  the  air 
cock,  k.  As  soon  as  the  steam  begins  to  escape  through  the  cock, 
k,  the  latter  is  closed,  whereupon  a  pressure  soon  arises  in  the  boil- 
ing vessel,  which  may  be  read  on  the  manometer,  and  the  upper 
limit  (|  of  an  atmosphere)  is  regulated  by  the  safety  valve,  g.  The 
meat  is  thus  exposed  to  the  action  of  pure  water  steam  under  a 
pressure  of  |  of  an  atmosphere,  corresponding  to  a  temperature  of 
118°  to  120°  C.  The  juice  which  percolates  out  of  the  meat  is  col- 
lected in  the  bottom  of  the  boiling  vessel  and  forms,  when  mixed 
with  the  water  anci  concentrated,  a  palatable  meat  broth,.  After  the 


852  BOILING,  STEAM   STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

steaming  process  is  completed,  the  steam  valve,  d,  is  closed,  and  as 
soon  as  the  pressure  in  the  boiling  vessel,  a,  is  again  down  to  0,  the- 
air  cock,  Jc,  is  opened  and  then  the  cover,  b.  The  meat  is  then: 
removed,  eiliier  from  the  wire  baskets  in  separate  pieces,  or  the- 
baskets  together  with  the  meat  are  taken  out  of  the  apparatus.  For 
this  purpose  the  baskets  are  furnished  with  suitable  handles.  The 
bouillon  is  ladled  out  in  the  usual  manner.  It  is  not  desirable 
that  the  broth  be  drawn  off  through  the  cock,  £,  since  the  fat  would 
thereby  be  irregularly  distributed  in  the  different  portions  of  the 
broth. 

According  to  Liebe,  2^  hours  on  an  average  is  sufficient  for 
heating  even  larger  pieces  of  meat  throughout  to  a  temperature  of 
100°  C. 

BUDENBERG'S  DISINFECTOR. — This  apparatus  occupies  a  hori- 
zontal position,  and,  like  Bohrbeck's  disinfector,  is  furnished  with 
grates  placed  one  above  the  other.  The  apparatus  is  so  constructed: 
that  it  may  be  used  simultaneously  as  a  destructor  and  meat  steamer, 
for  it  makes  possible  the  application  of  a  steam  pressure  of  2.| 
atmospheres.  Against  the  use  of  one  and  the  same  apparatus  for 
the  destruction  of  material  which  has  been  absolutely  excluded  from 
the  market,  on  the  one  hand,  and  for  the  steaming  of  food  intended 
for  human  consumption,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  certain  scruples 
which,  although  of  an  aesthetic  nature,  can  not  be  suppressed.  .  The 
utilization  of  separate  apparatus  for  each  of  these  processes  is 
unquestionably  to  be  preferred. 

HARTMANN'S  MEAT  STERILIZER. — The  firm  of  E.  A.  Hartmann,  in 
Berlin,  manufactures  a  meat  steamer  which  is  not  operated  by  direct 
boiler  steam,  but  which  changes  water  in  the  apparatus  itself  into- 
steam.  The  impurities  of  boiler  steam  are  thus  prevented  from  com- 
ing into  contact  with  the  meat. 

Careful  experiments  by  Olt,  Abel  and  Glage  have  shown  that 
conditionally  dangerous  meat  in  pieces  weighing  2  to  3  kg.  and 
measuring  10  cm.  in  thickness  may  be  thoroughly  boiled  and  steri- 
lized by  subjection  to  steam  for  two  hours  in  Hartmann's  sterilizer 
under  a  pressure  of  \  an  atmosphere. 

Hartmann's  meat  sterilizer  consists  of  a  metal  cylinder  in  a 
horizontal  position,  provided  with  a  heating  surface.  The  steaming 
baskets  intended  for  receiving  the  meat  are  placed  in  the  apparatus 
by  hand  or  by  a  sliding  grate.  The  lower  part  of  the  apparatus, 
which  is  intended  for  the  introduction  of  the  boiling  water,  is  sepa- 


STEAM   STERILIZATION  853 

Tated  by  a  transverse  wall.  After  the  apparatus  has  been  closed 
by  screwing  on  the  front  cover,  steam  from  the  boiler  is  introduced 
upon  the  heating  surfaces  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  high  tem- 
perature. The  water  is  thereby  heated  and  the  air  in  the  appara- 
tus is  driven  out  by  the  steam  through  an  air  cock  placed  in  the  roof 
of  the  apparatus.  After  the  air  is  blown  out,  the  air  cock  is  closed 
and  the  meat  is  steamed  under  pressure. 

According  to  Kuhnau,  boiling  in  the  Hartmann  apparatus  is 
most  successfully  accomplished  when  the  apparatus  is  filled  with 
water  up  to  }2  the  height  of  the  lower  transverse  wall  and  when  the 
boiler  steam  is  introduced  into  the  heating  boxes  under  pressure  of 
4  to  5  atmospheres.  The  discharge  of  the  cold  air  requires  under 
these  conditions  25  to  30  minutes.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  air 
is  all  blown  out  when  steam  escapes  from  the  air  cock  in  a  uni- 
formly white  stream.  The  time  required  for  steaming  pieces  of 
meat  weighing  2  to  3  kg.,  measuring  10  cm.  in  thickness,  is,  on  the 
average,  2  hours,  after  closing  the  air  cock.  In  the  case  of  large 
old  cattle,  it  is  desirable  to  steam  the  meat  for  £  hour  longer,  while 
in  calves  and  young  pigs,  the  period  of  steaming  may  be  shortened 
£  hour.  The  steam  pressure  may  be  increased  to  |  of  an  atmos- 
phere during  the  first  quarter  of  an  hour  and  may  be  maintained  for 
the  remaining  1|  hours  at  J  an  atmosphere. 

PRACTICAL  EULES  FOR  THE  STEAM  STERILIZATION  OF  MEAT. — 
The  experiments  of  Abel  demonstrate  that  pork  may  be,  as  a  rule, 
somewhat  more  easily  steamed  than  beef.  On  the  other  hand, 
pieces  which  inclose  plates  of  bone,  much  fat,  and  which  are 
inclosed  with  uninjured  rind,  and  also  pieces  of  poor  meat,  are  diffi- 
cult to  steam.  Abel,  therefore,  recommends  that  shoulder  pieces, 
hams,  very  fat  meat  with  the  uninjured  rind  and  poor  muscle  meat 
should  be  steamed  in  pieces  weighing  not  more  than  2  kg.  Hams 
must  always  be  split,  while  thin  pieces  of  meat  (flanks  and  rib 
pieces)  may  weigh  as  much  as  5  kg.  (Kuhnau).  Glage  found  that 
pieces  of  meat  which  lie  upon  one  another  and  are  closely  pressed 
together  do  not  become  thoroughly  steamed.  The  pieces  of  meat 
should,  therefore,  not  be  in  contact.  After  the  steaming  process  is 
completed,  the  steam  should  be  discharged  as  quickly  as  possible, 
for  the  sooner  the  apparatus  is  opened  the  brighter  gray  the  color 
and  the  more  appetizing  the  appearance  of  the  meat.  Glage  deter- 
mined that  the  gray  coloration  of  the  meat  began  at  the  temperature 
of  60°  C.  The  meat  becomes  light  or  whitish  gray  on  the  surface 
and  is  flabby  and  soft.  The  firmer  consistency  which  indicates  the 


854  BOILING,   STEAM  STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

coagulation  of  albumen  and  which  occurs  simultaneous7y  with  the- 
darker  gray  coloration  of  the  blood  and  muscle  pigment  shows  that 
the  meat  has  been  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  70°  to  75°  C. 
Glage  characterizes  such  pieces  of  meat  as  "  well  boiled."  Kiihnau, 
on  the  basis  of  temperature  determinations,  gives  the  following 
criteria  for  insufficiently  and  perfectly  steamed  meat : 

1.  Cut  surface,  grayish-red;  meat,  tough  ;  bloody  meat  juice  ; 
temperature,  60°  to  70°  C. 

2.  Cut  surface,  gray  (grayish-white)  ;  meat,  firm  ;  reddish  meat 
juice ;  temperature,  70°  to  80°  C. 

3.  Cut  surface,  gray  (grayish- white) ;  meat,  tender  ;    colorless 
meat  juice  ;  temperature,  80°  C. 

The  latter  meat  is  to  be  characterized  as  thoroughly  cooked. 

Loss  OP  WEIGHT  IN  MEAT  AS  A  KESULT  OF  STEAM  STERILIZA- 
TION.— According  to  P.  Falk,  the  loss  of  weight  in  beef  amounts  to 
53.75  to  64.4  per  cent,  (on  an  average,  60  per  cent.)  ;  and  in  pork, 
37.54  to  51.05  per  cent,  (on  an  average,  46.04  per  cent.).  Hengst 
also  found  the  loss  of  weight  in  beef  as  a  result  of  sterilization  to  be 
higher  than  50  per  cent.,  while  in  pork  it  was  somewhat  lower,  but 
always  three-sevenths  of  the  dressed  weight.  Liebe,  Eieck  and 
Noack  likewise  determined  considerable  losses  of  weight  in  steriliz- 
ing meat.  They  were,  however,  lower  than  those  which  were  found 
by  Falk  and  Hengst.  Eieck,  for  example,  found  the  average  loss 
in  21  beef  animals  to  be  43.1  per  cent.,  while  in  37  hogs  it  was  only 
16.7  per  cent.  Noack  found  an  average  loss  of  41.9  per  cent  in  97 
cattle,  34.5  per  cent,  in  191  hogs,  43.4  per  cent,  in  21  calves  and  44.5 
per  cent,  in  30  sheep. 

For  the  purpose  of  reducing  this  considerable  loss  in  weight 
during  the  steam  sterilization  of  beef,  Eohrbeck  proposed  that 
sterilization  be  practiced  with  a  lower  pressure  (from  one-tenth  to  n, 
maximum  of  one-fifth  atmosphere),  for  beef  lost  only  about  one-third 
of  its  weight  when  sterilized  by  steam  under  such  pressures  in  the 
Berlin  Central  Abattoir,  under  the  direction  of  Beissmann. 

3.— Harmless  Disposal  of  Meat  Absolutely  Excluded  From 

Sale. 

NECESSITY  FOR  THE  HARMLESS  DISPOSITION  OP  MEAT  CONFIS- 
CATED AT  SLAUGHTERHOUSES. — The  German  Veterinary  Council,  at 
its  fourth  meeting,  made  the  following  declaration  with  regard  to 
the  regulation  of  the  business  of  knackers  :  "  It  is  most  desirable 


DISPOSAL   OF   MEAT  855 

that  animal  cadavers  be  rendered  harmless  by  the  aid  of  chemical 
agents  or  by  a  high  degree  of  heat  (boiling,  burning).  Burying  is 
permissible  only  when  the  method  of  removal  just  mentioned  is  not 
practicable." 

The  statements  made  regarding  the  cadavers  of  animals  which 
have  died  a  natural  death  hold  true  for  organs  and  whole  animals 
which  are  absolutely  excluded  from  the  market.  In  the  discussion 
of  the  structure  and  internal  arrangement  of  abattoirs,  attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  more  care  than  heretofore 
should  be  given  to  the  harmless  removal  of  pathologically  altered 
organs,  especially  those  which  are  affected  with  animal  or  plant 
parasites,  and  that  the  Saxon  municipal  ordinance  of  January  16, 
1890,  forbidding  the  throwing  away  and  burial  of  tuberculous  parts 
in  dung  heaps,  deserves  all  consideration.  The  fact  was  also 
emphasized  that  in  small  abattoirs  in  which  the  number  of  con- 
demned parts  and  animals  is  but  small,  the  process  of  burning  is 
sufficient.  In  all  larger  institutions,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  introduce  devices  by  which  these  waste  products  may  be 
not  only  rendered  harmless,  but  may  also  be  utilized  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. These  arrangements  should  be  connected  with  abattoirs, 
since,  according  to  past  experience,  manifold  opportunity  is  offered 
on  the  way  to  the  knacker  for  underhand  dealing  with  highly 
spoiled  and  dangerous  meat  (compare  page  40). 

The  other  waste  products  which  are  found  in  abattoirs,  the 
contents  of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and  the  blood,  are  most  suit- 
ably utilized  according  to  the  method  of  Ploennies.  Ploennies 
peptonizes  cattle  and  sheep  blood,  which  is  not  utilized  for  food 
purposes,  with  the  aid  of  the  stomach  contents  of  slaughtered  hogs. 
The  peptonized  blood  is  then  mixed  with  the  dried  contents  of  the 
paunch,  of  slaughtered  ruminants  and  in  this  manner  a  valuable 
feeding  stuff  (peptone  feed)  is  prepared  from  waste  products  which 
were  formerly  almost  or  quite  valueless.  The  intestinal  contents 
from  the  stalls  of  the  abattoir  and  feces  containing  straw  are  worked 
over  by  Ploennies  by  mixing  them  with  unslacked  lime,  so  as  to 
form  a  firm  fertilizer  mass.  An  institution  for  the  preparation  of 
peptone  feed  has  already  been  established  at  the  Central  Abattoir 
in  Berlin. 

The  following  statements  may  be  made  concerning  the  various 
methods  for  the  harmless  removal  of  the  confiscated  waste  products 
in  abattoirs. 


856  BOILING,    STEAM   STERILIZATION,    ETC. 


(a)  Simple  Burning. 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  surest  means  of  removing  all  excluded 
Animal  parts,  but  is  at  the  same  time  the  most  irrational,  for  the 
fuel  value  thus  obtained  in  the  most  favorable  cases  from  the 
cadavers  is  very  slight.  Simple  burning  can  be  excused  only  in 
quite  small  institutions  in  which  the  establishment  of  special 
apparatus  would  not  be  profitable.  The  utilization  of  special  burn- 
ing ovens  in  large  abattoirs,  however,  is  quite  unsuitable.  In  such 
cases  the  burning  of  confiscated  meat  means  an  unwarrantable 
waste  of  valuable  material,  quite  aside  from  the  fact  that  consid- 
erable expense  for  fuel  is  incurred  in  burning  the  material. 

Incineration  may  be  accomplished  in  the  fire  box  of  a  steam 
boiler.  Feist  constructed  an  incineration  oven  in  an  anthrax  region , 
according  to  the  principle  of  lime  kilns.  The  use  of  this  apparatus 
has  proved  to  be  a  valuable  veterinary  measure.  The  incineration 
of  large  animal  carcasses,  however,  costs  about  16  marks.  A  special 
burning  oven  for  confiscated  meat  has  been  constructed  by  the  firm 
of  Kori  in  Berlin,  and  is  characterized  by  an  accessory  fire  box  for 
drying  the  material  to  be  destroyed.  Kori's  incinerating  ovens  for 
the  destruction  of  confiscated  meat  have  been  established  at  the 
abattoirs  in  Niirnberg,  Liegnitz,  Stralsund  and  St.  Petersburg.  The 
ovens  receive  pieces  of  meat  weighing  10  to  12  centners,  together 
with  the  contents  of  stomachs  and  intestines,  and  cost  from  1,500  to 
2,500  marks,  according  to  size.  The  incinerating  oven  of  Schaller 
and  Gorini  and  Venini  are  constructed  in  a  similar  manner. 

According  to  Weyl,  it  is  customary  in  England  to  burn  animal 
cadavers  in  Tryer's  Destructor.  These  destructors,  however,  are 
chiefly  valuable  for  the  incineration  of  rubbish. 

(b)  Chemical  Treatment. 

In  connection  with  the  operation  of  reducing  animal  carcasses 
in  a  purely  chemical  manner,  mention  is  made  in  the  literature  of 
the  subject  of  the  method  of  Porion.  He  constructed  a  distillatioi 
apparatus,  in  which  parts  of  carcasses  are  thrown,  together  with  the 
addition  of  potash  and  iron  filings  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
dry  distillation  and  also  to  obtain  as  final  products  animal  charcoal 
and  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.  This  method  has  enjoyed,  there* 
fore,  only  a  slight  extension,  since  it  is  not  very  profitable. 


DISPOSAL   OF   MEAT  857 

The  method  of  Rohkramer  is  a  chemical  thermic  one.  The 
material  to  be  worked  over  by  this  method  is  placed  in  sulphuric 
acid  and  heated  with  it  for  24  hours.  During  this  boiling,  a  homo- 
geneous, more  or  less  thick,  gruel  is  obtained  from  the  material  of  the 
carcasses,  from  which  the  upper  layer  of  fat  is  first  removed.  To 
the  remainder,  steamed  bone  meal  from  which  the  gelatin  has  been 
removed  is  added  in  order  that  the  superfluous  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  combined  and  the  phosphoric  acid  content  of  the  material 
increased.  After  a  short  time,  the  mass  assumes  a  sufficiently  thick 
consistency  to  be  dried  and  pulverized. 

Before  Bohkramer,  Sombart  used  a  still  simpler  method  of 
boiling  in  sulphuric  acid  for  the  destruction  of  anthrax  carcasses 
and  thereby  prepared  compost  from  the  cadavers  boiled  in  sulphuric 
acid. 

Boiling  in  sulphuric  acid  is  a  certain  and  profitable  method, 
and  is  absolutely  certain,  since  boiling  in  sulphuric  acid  destroys 
even  the  most  resistant  bacteria.  The  only  disadvantage  of  thi? 

method  is  the  danger  in  handling  the  sulphuric  acid. 

§ 

(c)  Steam  Sterilization  Under  High  Pressure. 

This  method  for  the  harmless  disposal  of  carcasses  should  be 
preferred  above  all  others.  It  not  only  satisfies  all  hygienic  require- 
ments, but  renders  possible  the  most  advantageous  utilization  of  the 
valuable  constituents  of  the  animal  body.  By  the  use  of  steam 
under  pressure,  temperatures  may  be  produced,  which,  on  the  one 
liand,  far  exceed  100°  C.  (up  to  150°  C.)  and  destroy  all  organic  life, 
even  the  most  resistant  bacterial  spores,  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
dissolve  the  organic  structures  of  tissues  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
component  elements  of  the  latter,  especially  albuminates,  salts  and 
substances  which  yield  gelatin  and  fat,  are  separated  from  one 
another. 

The  principle  of  steam  sterilization  under  high  pressure  is 
utilized  in  practice  in  various  forms. 

1.  TREATMENT  OF  CARCASSES  IN  SO-CALLED  DIGESTORS. — Digestors 
are  iron  cylinders,  several  meters  in  height  and  about  one  meter  in 
diameter.  They  are  constructed  according  to  the  principle  of  Papin's 
Digestor  and  resemble  gelatine  steamers,  which  have  long  been  in 
use  in  bone  gelatine  factories.  These  cylinders  receive  the  parts  of 
the  carcass  to  be  destroyed  after  the  latter  have  been  previously 
-comminuted.  Thereupon  this  material  is  subjected  to  live  steam 


858  BOILING,    STEAM   STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

under  a  pressure  of  2|  to  3  atmospheres.  The  statements  concern- 
ing the  length  of  the  period  of  steaming  vary  :  Reclain  asserts  that 
2  to  3  hours  are  sufficient.  In  Vienna  also  the  period  of  steam- 
ing under  pressure  is,  according  to  Toscano,  only  3  hours.  In  the 
Berlin  Fiscal  Knackers'  Establishment,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
parts  of  meat  to  be  destroyed  are  left  in  the  digestor  for  8  to  10 
hours  under  steam  pressure. 

After  the  material  has  been  thoroughly  steamed,  the  fat  and 
gelatin  water  are  drawn  off.  The  fat  is  conducted  into  clarify- 
ing pans,  where  it  is  purified  by  chemical  and  mechanical  means 
in  order  that  it  may  be  utilized  as  machine  oil  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap.  The  gelatin  water  is  likewise  clarified  and  then 
condensed.  According  to  Eeclam,  gelatin  may  be  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  printers'  rollers  and  for  a  finishing  material  in  cloth 
mills.  The  remainder  (parts  of  meat  and  bones  freed  from  fat 
and  gelatin)  are  placed  in  a  kiln  for  drying  and  are  pulverised 
by  means  of  a  grinding-and-sifting  apparatus.*  The  latter  may 
be  used  not  only  as  a  fertilizer,  but  also  for  feeding  hogs  and  fish. 
The  most  valuable  product  obtained  from  this  manipulation  of 
carcasses  is  the  fat.  This  may  have  a  value  of  40  marks  or  more 
per  100  kg.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gelatin  and  animal  meal  are 
in  part  either  absolutely  unsaleable  or  can  be  sold  only  with  diffi- 
culty (Resow).  If,  as  is  generally  assumed,  animal  meal  proves  to 
be  valuable  in  the  future  as  a  feeding  stuff,  the  profit  from  the 
manipulation  of  carcasses  will  be  considerably  greater  than  here- 
tofore. 

Beclam  states  that  in  Leipsic  the  artificial  fertilizer  establish- 
ment provided  with  digestors  can  profitably  haul  away  the  carcasses 
and  pay  a  small  sum  for  them.  This  sum  amounts  to  15  marks 
for  large  animals  in  a  poor  condition  and  55  marks  for  fat  animals. 

2.  THE  COPENHAGEN  METHOD  OF  DESTRUCTION. — In  Copen- 
hagen, there  is  a  special  institution  established  for  destroying  and 
utilizing  meat  which  has  been  confiscated  in  abattoirs.  The  meat 
to  be  destroyed  is  placed  in  the  upper  room  of  the  destruction 
establishment,  which  is  constructed  at  the  level  of  the  upper  edge 
of  the  cylindrical  destructors.  In  this  room  the  necessary  com- 
minution is  performed,  whereupon  the  meat  is  thrown  into  the 
destructors  and  is  steamed  under  a  pressure  of  3  to  5  atmos- 


*  Large  quantities  of  this  material  are  annually  sold  in  this  country.     The 
poultry  industry  alone  consumes  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pounds. — COVERT. 


DISPOSAL  OF  MEAT  859' 

pheres  for  4  or  5  hours  with  periodical  discharge  of  the  steam.. 
After  this  operation  is  completed,  the  fluid  which  is  collected  in 
the  destructors  is  drawn  into  a  large  cylindrical  boiler  occupying 
a  vertical  position  and  constructed  with  a  conical  bottom  in  such 
a  manner  th;it  the  cylindrical  part  lies  in  the  upper  room,  while 
the  conical  bottom  projects  into  the  lower  room.  After  the  fluid 
has  settled,  the  "soup"  is  drawn  off  through  a  cock  in  the  bot- 
tom and  the  fat  remaining  behind  is  boiled  with  water.  After  the 
fat  has  been  purified  in  this  manner,  it  is  drawn  off  into  vessels 
and  thus  furnishes  a  finished  trade  product,  utilizable  for  techni- 
cal purposes.  The  steam  obtained  by  blowing  off  the  destructor* 
and  from  boiling  the  meat  is  conducted  into  a  worm  in  a  recep- 
tacle filled  with  water.  The  steam  is  thus  condensed  and  the  fluid 
is  carried  off  into  the  sewer.  By  this  means  warm  water  is  obtained 
for  bathing,  washing  and  filling  the  vessels,  and  at  the  same  time  . 
bad  odors  from  the  boiling  processes  are  avoided. 

3.  THE  METHOD  OF  PODEWILS. — This  method,  which  has  been 
in  practical  use  for  18  years  in  Augsburg,  consists  of  cutting  up 
the  animal  carcasses  into  large  pieces  and  placing  them  in  a  heated 
rotating  drum.  This  drum  operates  as  a  high-pressure  steamer, 
drying  apparatus  and  pulverizing  machine.  The  parts  of  carcasses 
are  steamed  under  a  pressure  of  5  to  6  atmospheres  (corresponding 
to  a  temperature  of  150°  to  160°  C.),  and  after  the  fat  has  been  drawa 
off,  together  with  the  so-called  gelatin  broth,  it  is  dried  by  steam 
heat  and  simultaneously  pulverized.  The  extraction  of  the  fat  from 
the  carcasses  is  promoted  by  washing  the  cadaveric  mass  after  a  . 
period  of  2  hours'  steaming  by  means  of  hot  gelatin  broth  obtained 
from  a  previous  operation  of  the  apparatus,  and  this  process  is  con- 
tinued until  the  whole  apparatus  is  filled  up  to  the  level  of  the 
manhole.  By  means  of  a  valve  located  near  the  manhole  and  a 
connecting  pipe,  the  fat  is  then  forced  out  of  the  apparatus  in  #> 
pure  condition.  After  the  separation  of  the  fat,  the  gelatin  broth 
is  also  dried.  The  whole  process  takes  place  without  contact  with 
the  air  and  the  fumes  which  are  developed  are  condensed  in  water,, 
while  the  gases  which  can  not  be  condensed  are  passed  under 
fire.  The  parts  of  carcasses  introduced  into  the  apparatus  leave  it 
in  the  form  of  a  pulverizable,  dry  animal  meal. 

The  advantages  of  this  method,  according  to  a  statement  of 
the  inventor,  consist  (1)  in  the  complete  absence  of  odors ;  (2)  in 
a  favorable  action  of  the  rotation  of  the  drum  upon  the  commi- 
nution and  desiccation  of  the  material;  and  (3)  in  the  simultane- 


360 


BOILING,   STEAM  STERILIZATION,   ETC. 


•  ous  desiccation  of  the  so-called  gelatine  water,  whereby  all  dange\ 

associated  with  the  fluid  is  avoided. 

The  method  of  Podewils  has  been  introduced  into  the  abattoirs 

at  Barmen,  Kattowitz   and   Beuthen  in  Silesia,  and  Aarhus  and 
1  Odense  in  Denmark.     It  has  also  been  utilized  for  a  long  time  i^ 

FIG.  259. 


Podewils'  apparatus  for  reducing  carcasses. 


various  knackers'  establishments  (Augsburg,  Munich,  Graz,  Ham- 
burg, Friedberg  in  Hessen,  Dresden,  Cannstatt,  Hatzfeld,  near  Bar- 
men, and  Lausanne  in  Switzerland. 

PROFIT  FROM  THE  APPLICATION  OF  PODEWILS'  METHOD. — In  judg- 
ing the  profit  to  be  derived  from  the  application  of  Podewils'  method 
for  the  treatment  of  carcasses,  the  following  table,  published  by 
Vollers,  may  be  of  interest : 


DISPOSAL   OF   MEAT 


861: 


A    w    !?; 


O1OO»OOO»OOOOO»OOOO 
QO  t—  O  i>  O  »O  CO  ^  O  O  O  t—  t.C  O  C<* 
-r^  rH  O'i  TH  r-H  TH  T-H  r™i  T-H  CC  t~i  JO  Oi  C-i  T""i 


OO-rH-r-«OOi05C550000050 


i  - 

a  s 

AH 


^ff.^C   ^P    **'•*<»''*'•#  ."^li    ^  ••<*•<#•*•  ^    ^*-^# 


il 


illSlI 


OJ     05     M 

O    E-t    pq 
0    ^    pq 


OOOO 
^OCOO 


lls 


3    1    1    1    1  3    1    1    1    1    1    I    1    I    I 


I  I  I  i 


i-    o    r-          i-i- 


»OOiC 


1         1 


O5O 


862 


BOILING,    STEAM   STERILIZATION,    ETC. 


The  price  obtained  for  the  fat  is  40  to  42  marks  per  double 
centner,  and  for  the  fertilizer  11  to  12  marks. 

In  1894,  a  total  of  560,565  kg.  of  raw  material  was  utilized.  The 
profit  amounted  to  53,350  kg.,  or  9.04  pnr  cent,  fat,  with  a  value  of 
about  23,474  marks,  and  139,456  kg.,  or  24.5  per  cent,  of  the  mass  in 
fertilizer,  with  a  value  of  16,734  marks.  The  fat  obtained  by  Pode- 
wils'  method,  as  in  all  other  methods,  naturally  varies  according  to 
the  fat  content  of  the  material  used. 

FIG.  260. 


Kafill  dkanfector. 


4.  DE  LA  CROIX'S  SYSTEM,  NAMED  FOR  THE  VETERINARIAN  DE  LA 
C5ROIX,  DIRECTOR  or  THE  ABATTOIR  IN  ANTWERP. — The  apparatus 
constructed  by  this  veterinarian. has  been  introduced  also  in  Ger- 
many through  the  efforts  of  Lycltin  and  is  now  manufactured  by 
the  firm  of  Kietschel  £  Henneberg  in  Berlin  under  the  name 
"*  Kafill  Disinfector." 

The  apparatus  consists  of  three  cylinders  (Fig.  260).  The 
largest  cylinder  or  disinfector  proper  (the  first  cylinder  on  the  left 


DISPOSAL   OF   MEAT  863 

in  the  figure)  is  furnished  with  a  steam  chest ;  that  is,  it  is  con- 
structed with  double  walls  and  possesses  at  the  top  an  easily  remov- 
able cover  for  introducing  the  carcasses,  etc.  The  second  cylinder 
is  a  receiver,  in  which  all  of  the  fluid  portions,  fat  and  gelatin  broth 
extracted  from  the  carcasses  are  collected,  while  the  third  and 
smallest  cylinder  serves  as  a  condenser  for  the  fumes  and  gases 
which  are  drawn  off  from  the  other  cylinders.  The  sterilizer  is  con- 
nected with  a  steam  boiler  by  means  of  a  special  pipe  and  is  heated 
by  one  pipe  from  the  steam  boiler,  while  another  pipe  leads  to  the 
inside  of  the  sterilizer  by  means  of  three  branches  which  may  be 
closed  with  valves. 

Other  pipes  furnished  with  valves  branch  off  from  the  highest 
and  lowest  point  of  the  disinfector.  They  unite  and  pass  to  the 
receiver  in  the  form  of  curved  pipe.  The  connection  of  the  latter 
with  the  condenser  consists  in  a  transfer  pipe  which  can  not  be 
closed,  the  end  of  which  is  bent  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  is  per- 
forated with  small  holes  and  penetrates  into  the  water  in  the  con- 
denser. From  the  upper  end  of  the  condenser,  a  pipe  which  is  kept 
constantly  open  leads  to  the  fire  box. 

The  remainder  of  the  construction  of  the  receiver  and  con- 
denser is  alike.  It  consists  of  sprays,  gauges,  stop  cocks  and  dis- 
charge valves.  Moreover,  the  receiver  is  provided  with  special 
stop  cocks. 

After  the  apparatus  is  filled  in  the  proper  manner,  the  cover 
is  closed  steam-tight  and  the  apparatus  is  heated  by  opening  a 
valve  in  the  steam  chest.  The  dry  heat  in  the  interior  of  the  dis- 
infector is  thus  communicated  to  the  layers  of  meat,  so  that  the 
steam  which  operates  on  them  later  finds  a  material  which  is 
already  hot  and  produces  its  full  effect  without  condensing.  After 
this  preliminary  warming  process  has  been  carried  on  for  thirty 
minutes,  the  true  disinfection  process  is  begun  by  introducing 
steam  into  the  disinfection  cylinder.  The  steam  is  now  under 
the  full  pressure  of  the  steam  boiler  and  the  material  in  the 
disinfector  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  steam  for  six  to 
twelve  hours. 

5.  HARTMANN'S  EXTRACTION  APPARATUS. — This  apparatus  for  the 
destruction  of  carcasses  is  constructed  like  the  Kafill  Disinfector. 
This  new  apparatus,  like  the  Kafill  Disinfector,  consists  of  three 
vessels  connected  with  one  another  by  pipes ;  viz.:  (1)  a  vertical 
sterilizer  which  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  fat  extractor ;  (2)  a 
horizontal  cylinder  for  the  reception  and  evaporation  of  the  gelatin 


864  BOILING,   STEAM  STERILIZATION,   ETC. 

water ;  (3)  a  rectangular  wrought-iron  condenser  for  receiving  the 
fumes  from  the  other  two  vessels. 

Furthermore,  the  structure  consists  of  a  drying  apparatus  with 
rotating  catchers  and  two  steam-heated  iron  shoulders,  as  well  as  a 
Gruson  Excelsior  Mill. 

While  in  the  Kafill  Disinfector  destruction  is  brought  about 
by  direct  steam  from  the  boiler  after  the  preliminary  heating  of  the 
meat,  the  material  in  Hartmann's  apparatus  is  steamed  in  its  own 
water,  as  in  an  autoclave,  for  the  purpose  of  saving  expense.  It 
was  found,  however,  that  steaming  the  material  in  its  own  water 
required  a  longer  time,  and  was,  therefore,  more  expensive  than 
steaming  with  direct  steam  from  the  boiler.  For  this  reason  Hart- 
inann  has  abandoned  his  new  method  and  boils  the  material  with 
direct  steaming  during  the  first  half  of  the  boiling  period. 

The  time  required  by  this  method,  which,  like  that  of  the  Kafill 
Disinfector,  is  odorless,  is,  according  to  Colberg,  from  6  to  8  hours. 
After  the  process  is  ended,  the  clarified  fat  may  be  completely 
drawn  off  from  the  first  cylinder.  The  gelatin  water  in  the  second 
cylinder  is  then  steamed  until  a  thick  fluid  mass  remains.  The 
steaming  process  lasts  "  several  hours  "  and  takes  place  during 
sterilization  and  also  during  the  drying  and  pulverization  of  the 
residue  of  the  meat  and  bones. 

According  to  a  statement  of  the  manufacturer,  Hartmann's 
destroying  apparatus  has  been  introduced  into  12  institutions  dur- 
ing the  last  two  years  (1900-1901). 

The  dry  fertilizer  powder  amounts  to  about  12  per  cent,  of  the 
raw  material.  The  fat  obtained  in  24  experiments  amounted  to 
only  5.3  per  cent.,  but,  according  to  Colberg,  may  be  estimated  at  8 
per  cent,  on  an  average.  The  amount  of  gelatin  obtained  was  also 
8  per  cent.  In  Magdeburg,  36  marks  was  the  price  paid  for  fat  per 
double  centner  and  11  marks  for  the  gelatin.  The  value  of  a 
double  centner  of  fertilizer  was  estimated  at  8.5  marks. 

6.  OTTE'S  APPARATUS. — This  apparatus  is  said  to  accomplish 
steaming,  drying  and  pulverizing  in  one  apparatus,  as  in  Podewils* 
method.  The  whole  apparatus  consists,  likewise,  of  three  vessels, 
a  disinfector,  receiver  and  gelatin  steamer.  A  simple  digestor  is- 
also  used  as  an  accessory  apparatus  for  receiving  whole  carcasses. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  apparatus,  the  disinfector,  is  a 
double  walled  stationary  cylinder,  within  which  a  perforated  drum 
revolves  which  serves  to  receive  dissected  carcasses,  parts  of  meat 
and  other  animal  waste  products.  Inside  the  mantle  of  the  station- 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS  865 

ary  cylinder  are  peculiarly  arranged  shovels  and  brushes,  which,  by 
constant  motion  and  turning,  hasten  the  desiccation  of  the  animal 
meal  and  serve  to  empty  the  apparatus  completely  after  the  desicca- 
tion is  accomplished. 

In  order  to  operate  the  apparatus,  the  mantle  of  the  cylinder  is 
first  heated  by  steam  under  a  pressure  of  from  4  to  6  atmospheres 
and  the  drum  is  turned.  After  a  short  time  the  steam  is  admitted 
into  the  interior  of  the  cylinder,  whereby  the  cooking  process  is 
begun.  In  the  meantime  the  revolution  of  the  cylinder  is  continued 
for  about  one  hour.  The  drum  is  then  allowed  to  remain  quiet 
until  the  extraction  of  the  fat  and  gelatin  is  completed,  after  about 
3  hours.  The  fluids  which  drip  through  the  perforated  drum  are 
forced  into  the  receiver.  As  soon  as  the  dripping  ceases,  the  outer 
mantle  of  the  cylinder  is  heated  for  the  purpose  of  drying  the 
extracted  cadaveric  masses.  The  perforated  drum  is  also  moved 
backward  and  forward.  It  is  said  that  after  about  five  hours  the 
whole  contents  of  the  drum  become  dry  and  maybe  ground  through 
the  perforations  by  means  of  edge  rollers. 

It  should  also  be  noted  that  there  is  a  steaming  vessel  in  use 
for  the  technical  utilization  of  confiscated  meat  in  the  abattoir  at? 
Zwickau,  and  Rohrbeck  and  Budenberg  recommended  their  disin- 
fectors  also  for  the  harmless  destruction  of  animal  carcasses. 

Concluding  Remarks. 

Veterinarians  will  deserve  the  great  gratitude  of  stock  raisers 
if  they  earnestly  strive  to  introduce  devices  everywhere,  but  chiefly 
in  abattoirs,  whereby  not  only  a  certain  destruction  of  whole 
animals  and  parts  excluded  from  consumption,  but  also  an  advan- 
tageous technical  utilization  of  this  material  may  be  accomplished. 
By  this  means  a  considerable  portion  of  the  national  wealth  will  be 
saved  instead  of  wasted  and  the  great  loss  which  agriculture 
suffers  through  the  condemnation  of  whole  animals  or  parts  of 
Animals  will  be  diminished. 

Appendix. 

Enforcement  of  Section  21  of  the  Imperial  Meat  Inspec- 
tion Law. 

By  an  Imperial  decree  of  February  16, 1902,  it  was  ordered  that 
Section  21  of  the  Meat  Inspection  Law  should  go  into  force  October 


8CG  BOILING,    STEAM   STERILIZATION,    ETC. 

1,  1902.  This  paragraph  forbids  the  utilization  of  materials  and 
also  methods  of  procedure  in  the  commercial  preparation  of  meat, 
which  may  lend  the  products  an  injurious  property  or  which  are 
calculated  to  conceal  harmful  or  inferior  quality.  In  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  February  18,  1902,  the  materials 
the  utilization  of  which  is  forbidden  from  and  after  October  1, 1902, 
are  named. 

The  decree  of  February  16,  1902,  with  regard  to  the  partial 
enforcement  of  the  law  concerning  the  inspection  of  food  animals 
and  meat  of  June  3,  1900  : 

We,  Wilhelm,  by  grace  of  God  German  Emperor,  King  of  Prussia,  etc. ,  in 
the  name  of  the  Emperor  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Council,  decree  on 
the  basis  of  Section  30,  line  2,  of  the  law  concerning  the  inspection  of  food 
animals  and  meat,  of  June  3,  1900,  the  following  : 

Section  21  of  the  law  concerning  the  inspection  of  food  animals  and  meat  of 
June  3,  1900,  shall  go  into  force  October  1,  1902.  Simultaneously,  the  provisions 
of  Section  26,  No.  1,  Section  27,  No.  1.,  and  Sections  28  and  29,  shall  go  into  force 
so  far  as  they  concern  violations  of  Section  21,  paragraphs  1  and  2,  of  a  prohibition 
issued  on  the  basis  of  Section  21,  paragraph  3. 

WILHELM, 
Count  von  Posadowsky. 

The  proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  reads  as  follows  : 

Proclamation  concerning  injurious  and  deceptive  additions  to  meat  and  ita 
products,  February  18,  1902. 

On  the  basis  of  Section  21  of  the  law  concerning  the  inspection  of  food 
animals  and  meat  of  June  3,  1900,  the  Federal  Council  has  rendered  the  following 
decisions : 

The  provisions  of  Section  21,  paragraph  1,  of  the  law  apply  to  the  following 
materials,  as  well  as  to  preparations  containing  such  materials  : 

Boric  acid  and  its  salts  ;  formaldehyde  ;  hydroxidsand  carbonates  of  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths ;  sulphurous  acid  and  its  salts  as  well  as  hyposulphites ; 
fluoric  acid  and  its  salts  ;  salicylic  acid  and  its  combinations ;  salts  of  hydro-  , 
chloric  acid. 

This  applies  also  to  coloring  materials  of  all  kinds,  except  that  it  shall  not 
be  construed  to  mean  the  prohibition  of  the  utilization  of  a  yellow  coloration  of 
oleomargarine  and  the  coloration  of  sausage  casings  in  so  far  as  this  utilization 
does  not  violate  other  provisions. 

COUNT  VON  POSADOWSKY. 

Berlin,  February  18,  1902. 


INDEX 


Abattoir;  see  Slaughterhouses. 

—  veterinarians,  appointment  of,  54. 
Abdominal  glands,  183. 
Abnormal   physiological    conditions, 

237. 

Accidents,  741. 
Achlya  nowicM,  707. 

-  prolifera,  707. 
Acid  fermentation,  745. 

in  game,  746. 

Actinomyces  bovis,  342,  654. 
Actinomycomata,  656. 
Actinomycosis,  275. 

—  general  account,  654-662. 

—  of  the  muscles,  366. 

—  of  the  tongue,  276. 

—  in  the  horse,  660. 

—  in  sheep,  660. 

—  in  man,  660. 
Adenoma  of  liver,  297. 

Adipose  tissue,  abnormal  coloration 
of;  see  also  Fat,  245. 

-  appearance  of,  184, 202. 
Adulteration,  102. 

—  of  sausage  with  flour,  770. 

—  with  other  material,  782. 

—  German  law  concerning,  783. 
Agamodistomum,  404. 

Age,  criteria  for  judging,  221,  226. 

-  of  cattle,  222. 

—  deer,  225. 

—  ducks,  228, 

—  fowls,  227. 

—  geese,  227. 

—  hens,  227. 

—  horses,  221. 

—  partridges,  228. 

—  pheasants,  228. 

—  pigeons,  228. 

—  sheep,  224. 

—  slaughtered    animals,    determina- 
tion of,  221. 


Age  of  swine,  225. 

—  turkeys,  227. 

Air  bladder  mesentery,  289. 

Air  expansion  machines,  833. 

"  Albumina,"  mixed  with  sausage, 
780. 

Alcohol  as  a  preventive  of  meat  pois- 
oning, 714,  717. 

Alimentary  canal,  normal  appearance 
of,  168. 

Alkalimeter,  800. 

"  Alkermessaft "  for  coloring  meat, 
787. 

Allantiasis,  758. 

Ammonium  acetate,  820. 

Amphistomum  conicum,  281,  398. 

Amyloid  degeneration,  257. 

Amylum,  demonstration  of,  777. 

Anasarca,  273. 

Anchylostomum  bovisy  282,  283. 

—  longemucronatum,  410. 
Anderson,  Zimmermann  and  Acclom 

system  of  refrigerator  cars,  830. 
Anemia,  367. 

Angiomatosis  of  the  liver,  291. 
Anguillula  aceti,  477. 
Animal  meal,  858. 
Anoplocephala  mamillana,  281,  395. 

—  perfoliata,  281,395. 

—  plicata,  281,  395. 
Anthrax,  577-585. 

—  bacilli,  capsules  of,  579. 

resistance  to  high  temperature, 

584. 

—  bacillus  and  cadaver  bacillus,  dif- 
ferentiated, 580. 

—  differential  diagnosis,  582. 

—  procedure  with  meat  in  cases  of, 
583. 

Antigrisein,  820. 

Antisepsis,  importance  of,  548. 

Aphthous  fever,  586. 


867 


868 


INDEX 


Apiosoma  bigeminum,  535. 
Arsenic,  380. 

Asafetida,  odor  of  in  meat,  384. 
Ascaris  capsularis,  407. 

—  lumbricoides,  281,  406. 

—  megalocephala,  281,  406. 
Aspergillosis,  326. 
Aspergillus  fumigatus,  326. 

—  niger,  326. 
Aspiration  of  blood,  331. 

—  of  stomach  contents,  330. 

—  pneumonia,  324. 
Atelectasis,  320. 
Atrophy,  251. 

Australian  meat  preserve,  814. 
Austria-Hungary,     meat     inspection 

in,  30. 

Autointoxication,  379,  385. 
Avian  diphtheria,  705. 

—  tuberculosis,  651. 
Axillary  glands,  179. 
Azo-dyes  for  coloring  meat,  787. 
Azoturia ;  see  Ischuria. 

Bacillus  anthracis,  578. 

—  botulinus,  761,  762. 

—  bovis  morbificans ,  732. 
renalis,  307,  559. 

—  cellulceformans,  752. 

—  chauviei,  675. 

—  coli  communis,  682,  731,  733,  734. 

—  crassus  bovis,  559. 
pyogenes  bovis,  559. 

—  cyanogenes,  748. 

—  enteritidis,  314,  315,  729,  730,  731, 
733,  752. 

—  fcetidus  lactis,  682. 

osis  ovis,  678. 
hagicus,  574. 

—  liquefaciens  pyogenes  bovis,  559. 

—  mallei,  595. 

—  mesentericus,  749,  752. 

—  neapolitanus,  682. 

—  prodigiosus,  748. 

—  proteus  vulgaris,  753. 

—  pseudo-tuberculosis,  653. 

—  pyocyaneus,  807. 

—  pyogenes  bovis,  559. 

-  fcetidus,  559. 

—  subtilis,  825. 

—  suipestifer,  697. 

—  suisepticus,  694. 


Bacillus  tetani,  576. 

—  tuberculosis,  607. 

avium,  651. 

Backsteinblattern,  691. 
Bacon,  black  coloration  of,  254L 

—  pigmentation  of,  269. 

—  German  and  American,  220, 
Bacteria,  chemism  of,  551V 

—  demonstration  in  meat,  740. 

—  on  meat,  748. 

—  resistance  to  heat,  551 . 
Bacteriology  and  meat  inspection,  548L 
Bacterium  coli;  see  Bacillus  soli. 
Balbiania  gigantea,  532. 
Balbianidae,  532. 

Barbone  disease,  674. 

Barmenit,  810. 

Barrows,  232. 

Beech  chips  for  producing  smoke,  8071 

Beech  nuts,  effect  on  bacon,  187. 

Beef  bladder  worm,  419. 

—  usual  location  of,  427. 
Beef,  character  of,  200. 

—  bones,  204. 

—  classification  of,  148. 

—  fat,  203. 

Belgium,  meat  inspection  in,  30,  33.. 

Berlinit,  811. 

Bierwurst,  773. 

Bile  ducts,  inflammation  of,  297. 

Bilharzia  crassa,  405. 

Biliary  peritonitis,  287. 

"Blackberry  red,"  787. 

Blackleg,  674-677. 

—  bacillus,  675. 

—  diagnosis,  676. 

—  symptoms,  675. 
Bladder,  diseases  of,  309. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 

—  worms,  419. 
Bleeding,  defective,  742. 

—  normal,  131. 

—  obtained  by  different  methods  of 
slaughter,  138. 

Bloating,  741. 

Blood,  anomalies  of,  367. 

—  aspiration,  331. 

—  bread,  168. 

"Blood  color,"  for  coloring  meat,  787V 
Blood,  normal  appearance  of,  167. 

—  food,  value  of,  168. 

—  quantity  of,  131,  139. 


INDEX 


869 


"Blood  sausage,  772. 
—  spot  disease,  574. 

—  vessels,  diseases  of,  341. 
Bloody  urine,  537. 
Blunzen,  poisoning  from,  759. 
Boars,    cryptorchid    and    castrated, 

odor  of  meat  of,  247. 
Boiling  meat,  841. 
Boiling,  effect  of  high  temperatures 

upon  dangerous  meat,  841. 

-  effect  of  high  temperatures  upon 
parasites,  841. 

—  effect  of  high  temperatures  upon 
toxins,  842. 

—  effect  on  weight  and  composition 
of  meat,  846. 

Bolt  hammer,  13S. 

Bones,  actinomycosis  of,  353. 

—  diseases  of,  350. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  176. 

—  tuberculosis  of,  351. 

—  weight  of,  177. 
Boophilus  bovis,  536. 

Borax,  use  in  pickling  meat,  803. 
Boric  acid,  application  in  preserva- 
tion of  meat,  809. 

-  demonstration  in  meat,  811. 

—  effect  on  man,  812. 

—  in  trade  preparations,  810. 

—  preservative  effect  of,  811. 
Boroglycin,  810. 
Bothriocephalus  latus,  418. 
Botryomyces,  662. 
Botryomycosis,  662-665. 

—  of  the  muscles,  366. 

-  of  the  udder,  316. 
Botulism,  758. 

—  bacteriology,  761. 

—  occurrence,  759. 

—  etiology,  760. 

—  mortality,  763. 

—  pathology,  762. 

—  prophylaxis,  764. 
Braasot;  see  Braxy. 
Brain,  diseases  of,  348. 
Bratwurst,  772. 
Braxy,  677-679. 
Breslau  bacillus,  732. 
Brilliant-berolina  in  sausage,  detec- 
tion of,  789. 

Brine,  composition  of,  803. 

—  effect  on  microorganisms,  802. 


Brine  for  preserving  meat,  800. 

—  syringes,  800. 
Bronchial  glands,  182. 
Broncho-pneumonia  of  calves,  670. 
Brown  coloration  of  skeleton,  252. 
Briihwurst,  772,  773. 

—  water  content  of,  774. 

—  starch  in  the  preparation  of,  774. 

—  flour  in  the  preparation  of,  775, 779. 
Buck  sheep,  odor  of  meat  of,  248. 
Budenberg  disinfector,  852. 
Buffalo  meat,  200. 

—  bones,  204. 

—  plague,  674. 

—  skeleton,  205. 

Bulls,  odor  of  meat  of,  248. 
Burning  condemned  meat,  856. 
Butchering,  art  of,  122. 
Butchers'  jelly,  391. 

Cachexia,  369. 

Cadaver  bacilli,  575,  580. 

Cadaverin,  553. 

Calcareous  concretions,  539-546. 

—  deposits,  254. 

—  fibrous  tubercles  in  liver,  299. 
Calcification  of  peritoneum,  285. 
Calf  diphtheria,  679. 

—  dysentery,  681. 
"Calf  feet,"  772. 
Calves,  inspection  of,  159. 
Camphor,  odor  of  in  meat,  384. 
Canned  meat,  822. 

—  injurious  decomposition  of,  756. 

—  introduction  of,  85. 

—  judgment  on,  822. 

Carcass,  treated  in  digesters,  857. 

—  utilization  of,  40. 
Carceag,  537. 
Carcinoma,  265. 

Carmin  for  coloring  meat,  787. 

—  detection  of,  789. 

"  Carmin  substitute  "  in  meat,  detec- 
tion of,  789. 
Carnat,  814. 
Carne  pura,  823. 
Carrion,  744. 

Caseous  lymphadenitis,  652. 
Casting  apparatus,  140. 
Castration  of  female  animals,  233. 
Cat,  skeleton  of,  208. 
Cattle  inspection,  157. 


870 


INDEX 


Cattle  ticks,  536. 

Caviar,  adulteration  of,  783. 

—  American,  783. 

—  Elbe,  783. 

—  Russian,  783. 

Cephenomyia  rufibarbis  in  pharynx 
of  stag,  279. 

—  stimulator  in  pharynx  of  roebuck, 
279. 

—  trompe  in  pharynx  of  reindeer,  279. 
Cerebrospinal  meningitis,  348. 
Cervelatwurst,  772. 

Cervical  glands,  179. 
Cestodes,  394. 
Charque,  833. 

—  dulce,  823. 

Cheiracanthus  hispidus;  see  Gnatho- 

stomum  hispidum. 
Chemical  preservatives,  800. 
prohibition  of  use  of,  866. 

—  utilization    of   condemned    meat, 
856. 

Chemismof  bacteria,  551. 

Chemistry  of  the  musculature,  196. 

Chicken  pox,  524. 

Chlorin  flavor  of  meat,  747. 

Cholemia,  375. 

Cholin,  553. 

Chromosot,  814. 

Circulatory  disturbances,  258,  336. 

Cirrhosis  of  the  liver,  292. 

Clam  poisoning,  767. 

nature  of,  768. 

recognition  of,  768. 

Classification  of  beef,  148. 

in  Berlin,  150. 

in  Vienna,  150. 

in  Paris,  149. 

in  London,  148. 

—  of  food  animals,  234. 

—  —  mutton,  151. 

pork,  151. 

veal,  151. 

"  Clean  "  animals,  10. 
Cloudy  swelling,  255. 
Clump  liver,  291. 
Cocci,  549. 
Coccidia,  521. 

—  in  rabbit  liver,  521. 
hog  liver,  522. 

• sheep  intestines,  524 

Coceidiumfuscum,  272. 


Coccidium  oviforme,  272,  309,  52U 

—  perforans,  523. 

—  tenellum,  523. 

Cochineal  for  coloring  meat,  787. 

—  detection  of,  788. 
Ccenurus  cerebralis,  348,  395. 

—  serialis,  395. 

Cold  air  machines,  833. 
Cold  as  a  preservative,  824. 
"  Cold  butchering,"  113,  132. 
Cold,  effect  of  on  putrefactive  bac- 
teria, 825. 

—  effect  of  on  pathogenic  bacteria*. 
825. 

—  for  preserving  meat,   sources  of,. 
828. 

—  cars,  830. 

—  storage,  Fixary  system,  836. 
plants,  necessity  and  value  of, 

839. 
with  artificial  contrivances,. 

832. 

with  ice.  828-. 

value  of,  830. 

various  systems  of,  830. 

position  and  structure  of ,  836- 

—  vapor  machines,  833. 

with    circulating  salt  solu- 
tion, 833. 
Coloring  fish  gills,  102. 

—  material,  kinds  of,  787. 

directions  for  detecting,  790. 

—  matters,  prohibition  of  use  of,  866. 

—  meat,  786. 
purpose,  786. 

—  sausages,  judgment  of,  791 . 

—  Imperial  Health  Office,  position  of, 
793. 

Colpitis,  pernicious,  313. 

Compression  machines,  833. 

Condemnation  of  meat,  84,  115,  155. 

Condemned  meat,  harmless  method* 
of  disposal,  854. 

Cooking  meat,  841. 

Cooking,  effect  on  weight  and  com- 
position of  meat,  846. 

Cooling  meat,  826. 

Copenhagen  method  of  destruction, 
858. 

Copper  in  oysters,  769. 

Corallin  for  coloring  sausage  casings^ 
787. 


INDEX 


871. 


Corn,  effect  on  bacon,  187. 
Corned  beef,  821. 
Corned  brown.  821. 

-  mutton,  821. 
Cotton  seed  oil  in  lard,  782. 
Courtoy  and  Coremans'  method  for 

demonstrating  horse  meat,  216. 
Cow  pox,  591. 
Crangon  vulgaris,  784. 
Crab  plague,  708. 
Crayfish  plague,  708. 

—  spot  disease,  708. 
Crustacea  as  food,  125. 

—  poisoning,  766. 
Cryptogenetic  pyemia,  563. 
Cryptorchids,  232. 

Curcuma    paper   for    demonstrating 

boric  acid,  811. 
Customs,  inland,  86. 

—  officials,  86. 

Cutis,  erythrisms  of,  268. 

—  solutions  of  continuity,  268. 
Cysticerci,  calcified,  543. 

—  degeneration  of,  433. 

—  in  sausages,  demonstration  of,  430. 

—  methods  of  killing,  434-438. 
by  acids,  438. 

by  freezing,  437. 

by  heat,  434. 

long  preservation,  437. 

pickling,  435. 

—  unusual  findings  of,  423. 
Cysticercus  bovis  in  the  liver,  298. 
in  the  lung,  328. 

in  the  heart,  341. 

in  the  brain,  348. 

general  account,  419. 

—  cellulosce,  8. 

caseation  and  calcification,  446. 

infestation  by,  447. 

location  of,  448. 

in  the  liver,  298. 

in  the  lung,  328. 

in  the  heart,  341. 

in  the  lymph  glands,  346. 

in  the  brain,  348. 

general  account,  442-453. 

—  disease  in  man,  8,  452. 

—  inermis;  see  Cysticercus  bovis. 

—  ovw,  417. 

—  pisiformis,  398. 

—  tenuicoUis,  9. 


Cysticercus  tenuicollix  in  the  liver,  298. 

in  the  lung,  328. 

in  the  peritoneum,  291. 

general  account,  395,  450. 

Cystitis,  309. 

Cytodites  nudus,  273,  335. 

Davainea  tetragona,  283,  395. 

Death,  natural,  743. 

diagnosis    and     judgment     of 

meat  in,  743. 
Deception  in  labels,  100. 
Decomposing  meat,  alkaline  reaction- 

of,  755. 

Decomposition,  demonstration  of ,  754. 
in  canned  meat,  756. 

—  judgment  of,  757. 

—  of  meat,  751. 

influence  of  air  on,  753. 

partial,  753. 

—  toxins,  754. 

isolation  of,  754. 

Deer,  skeleton  of,  207. 
Degenerations,  254. 
De  la  Croix  system  for  treating  car- 
casses, 862. 

Demodex  phylloides  suis,  390, 
Denmark,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 
Deposits  of  lime,  254. 

—  of  pigment,  252. 
Diamond  skin  disease,  691. 
Differentiation  of  meat  and  organs  of 

different  animals,  166. 
Digesters  for  treatment  of  carcasses, 

857. 

Diphtheria  of  calves,  679. 
-  relation  to  human  diphtheria,  681. 

—  of  fowls,  705-707. 
Dipterous  larvae,  390. 
Dipylidium  caninnm,  395. 
Discomyces  equi,  662. 
Diseases,  most  important,  128. 
Dispharagus  uncinatus,  407. 
Dissolutions  of  continuity,  251. 
Distomatosis,  401. 
Distomes,  development  of,  403. 
Distomum  hepaticum,  328,  399. 

—  lanceolatum,  402. 

—  magnum,  405. 

—  pancreaticum  in  pancreas,  300,  405. 
Dog,  bones  of,  207. 

—  fat  of,  203. 


872 


INDEX 


Dog,  skeleton  of,  207. 

Dogs  slaughtered  for  food,  125. 

Double  liver,  291. 

Double-loin  calves,  201. 

Dourine,  538. 

Drepanidotcenia  lanceolata,  394. 

—  setigera,  394. 

Dresel's  preserving  salt,  810. 
Dressed  weight,  188. 

rules  for  determining,  190. 

Dried  meat,  823. 

Dropsy,  cellular,  370. 

Drugs,  odorific,  effect  on  meat,  384. 

Dry  pickled  beef,  803. 

Dyestuffs  in  meat,  demonstration  of, 

787. 
Dysenteria  hemorrhagica  coccidiosa, 

523. 
Dysentery  of  calves,  681-683. 

Ecchymoses,  258. 

Ecchinococci  in  the  myocardium,  340. 

—  in  the  liver,  298. 

—  in  the  lymph  glands,  346. 

—  general  account.  501. 

—  calcification  of,  544. 

—  death  of,  508. 
Echinoeoccus  alveolaris,  508. 

—  cysticus  fertilis,  504. 
sterilis,  504. 

—  disease  in  man,  9,  499. 

—  granulosus,  504. 

—  hydatidosus,  504. 

—  imdtilocularis,  336,  501,  508. 

—  —  in  man,  510. 

—  polymorphus,  501,  503,  505. 

—  unilocidaris,  503. 
Echinorynchus  gigas,  406. 
Eckhart's  preserving  salt,  810. 
Edema,  272, 

—  bacillus,  574. 

—  malignant,  574. 
Egyptian  meat  regulations,  10. 
Electricity  as  an  aid  in  pickling,  801. 
Emaciation,      differentiation       from 

poorness,  243. 

—  judgment  on,  244. 
Emergency  slaughter,  63,  73,  710. 

-  percentage  of    injurious   meat 
from.  711. 

difficulty  in  judging  meat  from, 

735. 


Emergency  slaughter,  bacteriological 

study  of  meat  in  cases  of,  739. 
Emphysema,  320. 

—  mesenterial,  288. 
Endocarditis,  338. 

—  bacterial,  563,  693. 
Endocardium,  diseases  of,  337. 
England,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 
English  patent  method  of  slaughter- 
ing, 130. 

Enteritis,  hemorrhagic,  of  calves,  571. 

—  infectious,  712. 

Entozoa  and  inspection,  statistics  of,  8. 

—  in  intestines,  281. 

—  in  the  lungs,  329,599. 
Eosin  for  coloring  meat,  787. 
Epicardium,  diseases  of,  336. 
Epithelioma    contagiosum  of    fowls, 

524. 

Erysipelas  of  swine,  683. 
Eserin,  381. 

Esophagus,  diseases  of,  279. 
Esox  lucius,  418. 
Ether,  odor  of  in  meat.  384. 
Eustrongylus  gigcis,  309,  407. 
Expansion  machines,  833. 
Extractives  of  meat,  196. 

Farcy;  see  Glanders. 

Fasciola;  see  Distomum. 

Fat,  anatomy  and  physiology  of,  186. 

—  decomposition  of,  749. 

—  importance  of,  188. 

—  influence  of  feed  on,  187. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  184,  202. 
Fatness,  means  of  judging,  186. 
Fats,  differentiation  of,  202. 
Fattened  condition,  185. 

Fatty  abscesses,  257. 

—  degeneration,  255. 

—  infiltration,  2o6. 

—  metamorphosis,  185,  256. 

—  necrosis,  multiple,  288. 
Feeding,  influence  on  fat,  187. 
meat,  195. 

odor  of  meat,  245. 

Feijaoada,  823. 

Fenugreek,     influence    on    odor    oC 

meat,  246. 

Fermentation  of  meat,  745. 
Fertilizer  factories,  42. 
Fetuses,  meat  of,  241. 


INDEX 


873 


Fetuses,  judgment  on,  242. 
Fibrillar  rupture  of  muscles,  356. 
Filaria  hemorrhagica,  407. 

—  immitis,  407. 

—  megastoma,  281,  407. 

—  microstoma,  281,  407. 

—  papillosa,  291. 

—  pectinifera,  407. 

—  scutata  esophagea  bovis  in  esopha- 
gus of  cattle  and  sheep,  279,  407. 

—  strongylina,  281,  407. 

—  uncinata;    see  '  Dispharagus    un- 
cinatus. 

Fir  chips  for  producing  smoke,  807. 
Fish,  125. 

—  decomposition  of,  766. 
detection  of,  766. 

—  diseases,  525,  707. 

—  influence  of  as  feed  for  animals,245. 
"  Fish  meat  "  degeneration,  257,  358. 

-  parasites,  398,  418,  525. 

—  poisoning,  766. 

—  pox,  525. 

Fishy  meat,  245,  247. 

Flaxseed,  influence  on  the  odor    of 

pigeon  meat,  247. 
Flour,  adulteration  of  sausage,  770. 

—  in  sausage,  judgment  on,  779. 

legal  considerations,  779. 

Flukes,  398. 

—  in  muscles,  404. 
Fluorin  sodium  silicate,  820. 
Food  animals,  122. 
Foot-and-mouth  disease,  121,  586. 

—  diagnosis,  589. 

—  sequelae  of.  590. 

—  virus  of,  587. 
Formalin,  820. 

Fowl  cholera,  672,  703,  705. 

—  plagues,  703,  707. 
Fowls,  inspection  of,  87. 
Fractures,  351. 

France,  meat  laws  in,  29,  30. 
Freezing  meat,  826. 
Freibanks,  28,  46. 

—  history  of,  49. 

—  distribution  in  Germany,  49. 
Frozen  meat  as  army  ration,  826. 
Fuchsia  for  coloring  meat,  787. 
detection  of,  788. 

(ralactococcus  albus,  315. 


Galactococcus  flavus,  315. 

—  versicolor,  315. 
Game,  inspection  of,  87. 
Gastroenteritis,  279. 
Gastrophlius  in  pharynx  of  horse,  278. 
-  equi,  281,  394. 

—  hcemorrhoidalis,  281,  394. 

—  nasalis,  281,  394. 

—  pecorum,  281,  394. 
Gaustadt  bacillus,  732. 
Gelatin  water,  858. 

German  Imperial  law  concerning 
traffic  in  food,  condiments  and 
manufactured  articles  of  May  14, 
1879,  95-99. 

—  commentary  on,  99-117. 
German  Imperial  law  for  control  of 

rinderpest,  121. 

German  Imperial  law  for  the  preven- 
tion and  suppression  of  animal 
plagues,  117-121. 

German  Imperial  meat  inspection  law 
of  June  3, 1900,  63-71. 

—  commentary  on,  71-95. 
German    Imperial    meat    inspection 

law,  enforcement  of,  865. 
German    meat     regulations     before 

Thirty  Years'  War,  12. 

after  Thirty  Years'  War,  21. 

German  quarantine  decrees,  163. 
Germany,  meat  inspection  in,  34,  63. 
Glanders,  594-601. 
Glanders  bacillus,  595. 

—  tubercles,  599. 
Glauber  salts,  810. 

Glycogen,  determination  according 
to  Lebbin,  217. 

—  in  horse  meat,  210. 

—  in  veal,  239. 

—  in  fetuses,  242. 
(hiatlwstomum  hispidum,  281,  407. 
Goat,  fat  of,  203. 

-—  bones,  206. 

—  meat,  differentiation  of,  201. 
Goose  septicemia,  707. 
Granular  eruption,  270. 
Granulations,  infectious,  267. 
Greek  meat  regulations,  11. 
Groenbarden  oysters,  769. 

Hair  follicle  mite  of  hog,  390. 
Haplococcus  reticulatus,  477. 


874 


INDEX 


Hare,  skeleton  of,  208,  209. 

—  venereal  diseases  of,  398. 
Hartmann  extraction  apparatus,  863. 

—  meat  sterilizer,  852. 
Hautgout,  198,  745. 
Head,  inspection  of,  157. 
Head  cheese,  772. 

"  Head  meat,"  167. 
Heart,  diseases  of,  336. 

—  inspection  of,  157. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  174. 

—  tumors  of,  339. 

Heat  as  a  preservative,  821. 

—  penetration  into  meat,  842. 
experiments  to  determine,  842. 

results  of  experiments,  845. 

Helminthiasis  of  dogs  and  meat  in- 
spection, 9. 
Hematosporidia,  533. 
Hematuria  of  cattle,  310,  537. 
Hemin  crystals  in  horse  meat,  210. 
Hemoglobinemia,  374. 
Hemoglobinuria,  374,  537. 
Hemorrhages,  258. 

—  course  of,  259. 
Hemorrhagic  septicemia,  669. 

—  general  account,  671. 
Hemosiderin,  260. 
Henneberg  meat  steamer,  851. 
Hepatitis,  297. 

Herring,  effect  on  bacon,  187. 
Heterakis  inflexa,  407. 

—  maculosa,  407. 

—  vesicularis,  407. 
Hippo  phagy,  123. 
Hirnleberwurst,  772. 
Hog,  bladder  worm,  442. 

—  bones  of,  207. 

—  cholera,  696-703. 

anatomical  findings,  698. 

bacteriology,  697. 

clinical  symptoms,  697. 

diagnosis,  700. 

etiology,  699. 

judgment  concerning,  702. 

-  fat  of,  203. 
Hogs,  inspection  of,  159. 
Holland,  meat  inspection  in,  30. 
Holomyaria,  406. 
Horns,  development  of,  239. 
Horse,  fat,  202. 

—  bones,  204. 


Horse  meat,  123,  199. 

declaration  for,  88. 

diarrhea  caused  by,  124. 

and  beef,  differentiation  of,  210^ 

and    beef,    differentiation    of,. 

Niebel's  method,  2 10. 
and    beef,    differentiation    of,. 

modified  Niebel's  method,  214,  216. 
demonstration     according     to 

Hasterlik,  219. 

extract,  824. 

Horses  as  food,  123. 

—  inspection  of,  88,  157. 
Hyaline  degeneration,  257. 

of  muscle  in  hogs,  360. 

Hydremia,  369. 
Hydrophobia,  593. 
Hydrops,  258. 
Hypertrophy,  252. 
Hypostasis  in  pleura,  333. 

4 'Ice  balls"  530. 
Ice  houses,  829. 

value  of,  829. 

Ichthysm,  766. 
Ictero-hematuria,  537. 
Icterus,  375. 
Iliac  glands,  183. 
Imitations,  101. 

Immature  veal,   judgment  concern- 
ing, 241. 

recognition  of,  238. 

Immaturity,  237. 

—  in  calves,  238. 
Infectious  diseases,  267,  547. 

etiology  of,  549. 

transmissibility  of,  114. 

Inflammation,  261. 

—  croupous,  263. 

—  diphtheritic,  263. 

—  hemorrhagic,  264. 

—  interstitial,  264. 

—  oral  mucosa,  273. 

—  parenchymatous,  264. 

—  productive,  261. 

—  purulent,  263. 

—  serous,  262. 

—  with  putrid  exudations,  264. 
Inflation,  effect  on  keeping  quality  of 

meat,  794. 

—  of  meat,  793. 

forbidden,  19,  797. 


INDEX 


875. 


Inflation,  judgment  on,  796. 
-  purpose  of,  793. 

—  recognition  of,  795. 

—  technique  of,  794. 

—  of  lungs,  794. 
Infusoria,  537. 
Inguinal  glands,  181. 
"Injected  livers, "809. 

*4  Injurious  to  health,"  definition  of 
term,  112. 

—  experiments    to    determine     this 
property,  113. 

Insects  on  meat,  747. 
Inspection,  before  slaughter,  126. 

—  after  slaughter,  153. 

—  of  diseased  organs,  156. 

—  course,  156. 

—  of  imported  meat,  71, 160. 

—  chief  points  in,  155. 
• —  compulsory,  45. 

—  districts,  64. 

—  post  mortem,  65. 

—  exceptions  to,  74. 

—  repetition  of,  88. 
Inspectors,  appointment  of,  53,  77. 

—  assistant,  56. 

—  empirical,  57. 

—  examination  of,  58. 

—  appeal  from,  59. 

—  compensation,  53. 

—  fees,  53. 

—  hours  of  service,  55. 

—  number  of   animals    which  they 
can  inspect  in  one  day,  56. 

—  training  of,  50. 
Intestinal  contents,  169. 
Intestines,  diseases  of,  279. 

—  septic  diseases  of,  572. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 
Intoxications,  379. 
Invasion  diseases,  389. 

lodin  number  of  fat,  188,  219,  783. 

—  reaction  for  glycogen,  214. 
Iridescence  in  meat,  363. 
Ischiatic  glands,  184. 
Ischuria,  black,  in  horse,  374. 
Italy,  meat  inspection  in,  28,  30,  33. 
Ixodes  bovis,  536. 

Jauerschewurst,  773. 

Japan,  meat  inspection  in,  33. 

Jaundice,  appearance  of  fat  in,  245. 


Jerked  beef,  323. 

Jewish  meat  regulations,  10. 

Jewish  method  of  slaughter,  131,  132, 

138,  140,  142. 
Joints,  diseases  of,  353. 
Juniper  berries  for  producing  smoke, 

807. 
—  bushes  for  producing  smoke,  807. 


Kafill  disinfector,  862. 

Karnit,  787. 

Keeping  quality  of  meat,  798-799. 

Kerosene,  odor  of  in  meat,  384. 

Kidney,  degenerations  of,  301. 

—  induration  of,  304. 

—  infarctsin,  301. 

—  infectious  granulations  of,  308. 

—  inflammation  of,  302. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 

—  lime  and  pigment  deposits  in, 

—  malformation  of,  301. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  174. 

—  purulent  inflammation  of,  303. 

—  nephritis  in,  302. 

—  tumors  in,  308. 

-  "white  spot  "  in,  304. 
Killing  ax,  134. 

Kleinschmidt's  spring  bolt,  136. 
Knacker's  establishment,  40. 

—  privileges,  40. 
Knackwurst,  773. 
Kochwurst,  772,  773. 

—  water  content  of,  773. 
Kogler's  spring  bolt,  136. 
Kosher  meat,  133. 
Kiirten's  spring  bolt,  137. 


Lactic  acid  in  muscles,  194. 
Lameness  of  newborn  animals,  564  — 
566. 

—  of  calves,  570. 
Laminosioptes  cysticola,  273. 

Lard  adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil. 

782. 

Larynx,  diseases  of,  319. 
Laws,  enforcement  of,  94. 

—  German  Imperial  of  1900,  63. 
--  commentary  on,  71. 

—  German  law  on  foods,  etc.,  of  May- 
14,  1879,  95. 

—  court  decisions,  105. 

—  on  suppression  of  animal  plagues,., 


876 


INDEX 


Laws,  rinderpest,  121. 

Lead  poisoning,  383. 

"  Leather  meat,"  167. 

Lebbin's  method  for  determination  of 

glycogen,  217. 
Leberwurst,  772. 
Leptomitus  lacteus.  707. 
Leucomaine,  387,  768. 
Leukemia,  371. 
Licked  beef,  391. 
Lime  concretions,  539-546. 

-  deposits,  254. 

Linguatula;  see  Pentastomum. 
Linseed  oil,  effect  on  fat,  188. 
Lipoma  in  fat  tissue,  288. 
Lithotheria,  311. 

Live  weight  of  animals,  189. 
Liver,  abscess  of,  297. 

—  adenoma  of,  297. 

—  appearance  of,  171. 

-  atrophy  of,  293. 

—  cadaverous  alterations  in,  300. 

—  calcareous-fibrous  tubercles  in,  299. 

—  cirrhosis  of,  296. 

—  coccidiosis  of,  299. 

—  degenerations  of,  294. 

—  diseases  of,  291. 

—  hemorrhages  of,  294. 

—  infectious  granulations  of,  298. 

—  inflammations  of,  296. 

—  inspection  of,  157. 
—  in  Texas  fever,  294. 

—  necrosis  of,  295. 

—  pigmentation  of,  293. 

—  rupture  of,  293. 

—  tumors  of,  297. 
Lobster  poisoning,  767. 
Lota  vulgarly  418. 
Lumbar  glands,  183. 

Lung,  deposits  of  lime  in,  321. 

—  diseases,  of,  320. 

—  inspection  of,  157. 

—  mycosis  of,  325. 

—  non-glanderous  tubercles  in,  328. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  173. 

—  tumors  in,  327. 
Lungwurst,  772. 
Lupinosis,  376. 
Lymphadenitis,  342. 

Lymphatic  glands,  appearance  of,  177. 

—  diseases  of,  342. 

—  tuberculosis  of.  343. 


Lymphoma,  345. 

Lyssa  of  dog  tongue,  176. 

Malaria,  bovine,  537. 
Male  animals,  odors  of,  247. 
Malformations,  250. 
Malignant  catarrhal  fever,  667. 

—  edema,  574. 
Marnmitis;  see  Mastitis. 
Mange,  121. 
Marennes  oysters,  769. 

Marennin,  a  coloring  matter  in  oys- 
ters, 769. 

Masticatory  muscles  as  seat  of  cysti- 
cerci,  427. 

Mastitis,  etiology  of,  314. 

—  septic,  572. 
Measle  worms,  419. 

Measly  beef,  judgment  of,  441. 
Measly  cattle,  regulations  concerning, 

—  meat,  sale  of,  17,  19. 

—  pork,  procedure  with,  453. 
Meat,  abnormal  odor  of,  245. 

—  absorption  of  water  by,  770. 
as  affected  by  the  addition  of 

flour,  771. 

—  as  food,  2. 

—  as  medium  for  bacteria,  198. 

—  bacteria  in,  748. 

—  classification  of  according  to  food 
law  of  Germany,  115. 

—  "combining  power"  of,  770. 

—  consumption  of,  3. 

—  contamination    during  slaughter, 

745. 

from  insects,  747. 

—  cuts  and  classification,  145. 
of  beef,  146. 

of  mutton,  151. 

of  pork,  151. 

of  veal,  151. 

—  decomposing,  751. 

—  definition  of,  77. 

—  demonstration  of  abnormal  odor. 

248. 

—  differentiation  of,  115,  199. 

—  extract,  215,  823. 

nutritive  value  of,  824. 

of  Liebig,  824. 

of  Maggi,  824. 

of  Koch,  824. 

of  Kemmerich,  824. 


INDEX 


877 


Meat  extractives,  196. 

—  fitness  for  table,  197. 
for  food,  81,  83. 

—  industrial  utilization  of,  75. 

—  influence  of  feed  on,  195. 

—  inspection  and  entozoa,  8. 

—  inspection,  detection  of  epizootic 
outbreaks  by,  6. 

history  of,  9. 

in  antiquity,  9. 

in    Germany     before     Thirty 

Years'  War,  12. 

since  Thirty  Years'  War,  21. 

other  countries,  28. 

in  cities,  36. 

rural  districts,  37. 

municipal  ordinances,  60. 

-  nature  of,  1. 

-  present   status   of   in   various 
countries,  29. 

Germany,  34. 

-  problems,  1. 

value  of  for  agriculture,  5. 

—  judgment  on  odorous,  249. 

—  mincing  establishments,  42. 

—  nutritive  value  of  fat  and  poor,  191. 

—  percentage  composition,  192. 

—  poisoning,  712. 
etiology,  729. 

list  of  outbreaks,  713. 

prophylaxis,  728. 

—  post-mortem  alterations  in,  745. 

—  power  of  conducting  heat,  842. 

—  meat  preserve,  814. 

—  rations  in  German  army,  4. 

—  signs  of  disease  in,  76. 

—  toughness  of,  197. 

—  traffic,  German  prohibitive  decrees 
against  various  countries,  163. 

supervision  of,  50. 

scientific  experts,  50. 

—  compensation  and  appoint- 
ment, 53. 

fees,  53. 

abattoir  veterinarians,  54. 

hours  of  service,  55. 

Mediastinal  glands,  182. 

Melanin  on  peritoneum,  288. 

Melanosis,  252. 

Mercaptan  in  decomposing  meat,  755. 

Mercuric  poisoning,  382. 

Merluccius  vulgaris,  786. 


Meromyaria,  406. 
Mesenterial  emphysema,  288. 
Mesenteric  glands,  184. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 
Mesogonimus  wester  manni,  405. 
Metals,    harmful,    admixture     with 

meat,  747. 

Metamorphosis,  fatty,  255. 
Metaplasi8e,254. 
Metastases  in  pyemia,  560. 
Methemoglobin  in  sausage,  791. 
Metritis,  septic,  571. 
Mettwurst,  772. 
Micrococcus  ascoformans,  662. 

—  botryogenus,  662. 

—  candicans,  808. 

'  -  mastitidis  gangrcenosce  ovis,  315. 

—  tetragenus,  315. 
Miescheridse,  528. 
Miescher's  sacs,  528-531. 

—  calcified,  540. 
Milk  fever,  386. 

Minced  meat  poisoning,  764. 

—  cases,  765. 

—  occurrence,  765. 
-  prophylaxis,  766. 

—  symptoms,  765. 

Mohammedan  meat  regulations,  12. 
Moniezia  alba,  395. 

—  benedeni,  395. 

—  expansa,  281,  394. 

—  neumanni,  395. 

—  planissima,  395. 
Moorseele  bacillus,  731. 
Morbus  maculosus,  573. 
Mosaic  food  laws,  10. 
Mouth,  diseases  of,  273. 
Mucoid  degeneration,  257. 
Multiple  hemorrhages,  355. 
Mummified  fetus,  311. 
Municipal  regulations,  60. 
Muscarin,  553. 

Muscle,  distomes,  404. 

—  rigor,  194. 

—  power  of  fixing  water,  195. 
Muscular  degenerations,  357. 
Musculature,  chemical  properties  of*, 

196. 

—  diseases,  355. 

—  histology  of,  194. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  192. 

—  pale  condition  of,  364. 


S78 


INDEX 


Musculature,  physical  characters  of, 

194. 

Mussels,  poisonous,  768. 
Mutton,  cuts  of,  151. 

-  differentiation  of,  201. 
Myocardium,  diseases  of,  340. 
Myosin,  194,  196 
Myositis,  364,  530. 
Mytilism,  768. 
Mytilotoxin,  768. 
Myxobolus  cyprini,  526. 

-  pfeifferi,  525. 
Myxofibroma,  334. 
Myxosporidia,  525. 

Nagana,  537. 

Nasal  cavity,  diseases  of,  318. 

Jfavicula  ostrearia,  eaten  by  oysters, 

769. 

Nebelah,  133. 
Necrosis,  260. 

—  bacillus,  296,  680. 

Necrotic  skin  disease  of  hogs,  693. 
Ne  mat  hel  mint  hes,  405. 
JNernatodes,  405. 

Nematode  tubercles  in  intestines,  dif- 
ferentiation of,  284. 

—  in  wall  of  intestines,  281. 
Nephritis  of  various  forms,  301-308. 
Nerves,  diseases  of,  349. 

Nettle  fever,  693. 

Neuridin,  553. 

Neurin,  553. 

Neuroma,  334,  349. 

New  Zealand  meat  preserve,  814. 

NiebePs    method    of    demonstrating 

horse  meat,  210. 
Normal    appearance   of    meat    and 

organs  of  animals,  166. 
Norway,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 
Notification  of  disease,  79. 
Nutmeg  liver,  293. 
Nux  vomica,  380. 

Ochronosis,  252. 

Odorific  drugs,  effect  on  meat,  384. 

Odors,  absorption  by  meat,  747. 

—  demonstration  of,  248. 

—  in  meat,  245. 

of  male  animals,  247. 

•  CEsophagostomum  columbianum,  283. 

—  inflatum,  283. 


CEstrus  boms,  390. 

—  development  of,  391. 

—  in  esophagus  of  cattle,  279. 

—  ovis,  394. 
Oidium  astaci,  708. 

—  lactis,  3 15. 

Oleomargarine  factories,  42. 
Oligemia,  367. 

Omentum,  inspection  of,  158. 
Oncorhynchus  quinnat,  786. 
Oppermann's  cervelatwurst  salt,  810. 
Organic  diseases,  268. 

Originals,  232. 

Osmazom,  196. 

Osteomalacia,  350. 

Osteomyelitis,  350,  563. 

Otte  apparatus  for  treating  carcasses, 

864. 
Oyster  poisoning,  768. 

etiology,  769. 

prophylaxis,  769. 

—  containing  copper,  769. 

Palcemon  squilla,  784. 

Palisade  worms,  410. 

Panaris  of  cattle,  680. 

Pancreas,  diseases  of,  300. 

Papilloma  polyposum  omasi,  285. 

Parasites,  animal,  267. 

general  account,  389-546. 

—  meat  infected  with,  417. 
Parenchymatous  degeneration,  255. 
Parturient  paralysis,  386. 

—  paresis,  386. 

Passing  animals  for  slaughter,  80. 
Pathogenic  bacteria,  morphology  of, 
549. 

—  biology  of,  550. 
Pathology,  general,  250. 
Pearl  disease,  335,  615. 
Pelvic  glands,  183. 
Pentastomum,  281. 

—  alterations  caused  by,  517. 

—  distribution,  516. 

—  denticulatum,  514. 

—  tcenioides,  319,  499. 

general  account,  513. 

Pepper  amylum,  777. 
Perforative  peritonitis,  286. 
Pericarditis  traumatica,  555. 
Pericardium,  diseases  of,  337. 
Peritoneum,  diseases  of,  285. 


INDEX 


879 


Peritoneum,   normal  appearance  of, 

175. 
Peritonitis,  286. 

—  biliary,  287. 

-  perforative,  281. 
Perlsucht;  see  Pearl  disease. 
Pernicious  anemia,  368. 

-  colpitis,  313. 
Petechiae,  258. 
Petechial  fever,  573. 
Pharyngomyia  picta  in  pharynx  of 

stag,  279. 

Pharynx,  diseases  of,  278. 
Phlegmon  of  subcutis,  273. 
Phoenician  meat  regulations,  11. 
Phosphorescent  meat,  749. 

—  etiology  of,  750. 
Photobacterium  balticum,  750. 

—  fischeri,  750. 

—  indicum,  750. 

—  luminosum,  751. 

—  pfluegeri,  750,  751. 

—  phosphor escens,  750. 
Pickling  cellars,  41. 

—  demonstration  of,  804. 

—  effect  of,  801. 

on  composition  of  meat,  805. 

—  meat,  800. 

through    the    circulatory    sys- 
tem, 801. 

—  special  methods  of,  803. 

-  with  aid  of  electricity,  801. 
Pigment  deposits,  252. 
Pilocarpin,  381. 
Piroplasma  begeminum,  535. 
Pitchy  mange,  270. 
Pithing,  134. 

Plant  parasites,  547. 
Plerocerci,  413. 
Pleura,  diseases  of,  332. 

—  infectious  granulations  of,  335. 

—  normal  appearance  of,  175. 

—  tumors  of,  334. 
Pleuritis,  332. 

Plcuro-peritonitis  of  hogs,  287. 
Pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle,  121,  668. 
Pneumatosis  cystoides  intestinorum, 

289. 

Pneumomycosis,  325. 
Pneumonia,  322,  669. 

—  by  aspiration,  324. 

—  vercanous,  324. 


Podewils'    method    of    treating  car- 
casses, 859. 
Poisoning,  379. 

—  by  alkaloids,  379. 

—  minerals,  379. 

Poisons,      distribution      in     various 

organs,  383. 
Polyarthritis,  565. 

—  septica,  570. 
Poly  my  aria,  406. 
Poorness,  242. 
Popliteal  glands,  181. 
Pork,  classification,  151. 

—  differentiation  of,  202. 

—  measle  worm,  442. 
Portal  glands,  184. 
Post-mortem  changes  in  meat,  745. 
Pottassium  permanganate,  820. 
Potato    flour    mixed  with  sausages, 

771. 

Pox,  591. 

Precrural  glands,  181. 
Pregnancy  from  the   standpoint   of 

meat  inspection,  249. 
Prescapular  glands,  179. 
Preservation  of  meat,  798. 
Preservation  of  meat  by  chemicals, 

800. 

—  in  sterile  air,  798. 
Preservatives,  90,  798. 
Presssack,  772. 
Presternal  calcification,  354. 
Probat,  814. 

Proteus  virulentissimus,  585. 

—  vulgar  is,   568,  752. 
Protozoa,  520. 
Pseudo-farcy,  652. 
Pseudo-glanders,  600. 
Pseudo-leukemia,  345,  373. 
Pseudo-trichinse,  455. 
Pseudo-tuberculosis,  652. 
Psorosperm  sacs,  533. 
Ptomaines,  553. 
Purpura  hemorrhagica,  574. 
Purulent  processes,  generalization  of^. 

560. 

Putrefaction  of  meat,  752. 
Putrefactive  bacteria,  752. 
Putrescin,  553. 
Putrid  intoxication,  552. 
Pyelo-nephritis,  306. 
Pyemia,  55tf. 


880 


INDEX 


Pyemia,  slaughter   findings  in,  561, 
736. 

—  judgment  on,  562. 

—  special  forms  of,  563. 
Pyroligneous    acid     for     preserving 

meat,  807. 
Pyrosoma  bigeminum,  534. 

Quarantine  regulations  of  Germany 
against  foreign  countries,  163-165. 

Rabbit,  skeleton  of,  209. 

Rabies,  593. 

Rachitis,  350. 

Railroad  disease  of  cattle,  128. 

"  Raincooling  "  apparatus,  835. 

Rancid  fat,  749. 

—  odor  of  meat,  677. 

.Rape  seed,  influence  on  odor  of  meat 

of  fowls,  247. 

"  Red  dysentery  "  of  cattle,  523. 
Red  water  of  cattle,  537. 
Reducing  power  of  the  musculature, 

198,  806. 

Refrigeration;  see  Cold  storage. 
Refrigerator  cars;  see  Cold    storage 

cars. 

Reindeer  plague,  679. 
Removal  of  meat  in  illegal  manner, 

156. 

Renal  glands,  184. 
Residual  air  in  lungs,  173. 
Respiratory  apparatus,  318. 
Retentio  secundinarum,  553,  554,  556. 
Rhabditis,  408,  477. 
Rhachitis;  see  Rachitis. 
Rhinitis,  croupous,  318. 
Rigor  mortis,  194,  196,  197. 
Rinderpest,  665. 

Roebucks,  distinction  of  sex  in,  233. 
Rohkramer's  preserving  salt,  810. 
Rohrbeck  steam  disinfector,  847. 
Roman  meat  regulations,  11. 
Rosalin  for  coloring  meat,  787. 
Rotlauf ;  see  Swine  Erysipelas. 
Rouget  blanc,  693. 
Roumania,  meat  inspection  in,  30. 
Roumanian  cattle  plague,  537. 
Round  worms,  405. 
Roup,  705. 
.Russia,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 


Sacral  glands,  184. 

Safranin  for  coloring  meat,  787. 

Saitenwurst,  773. 

Sal-ammoniac  test  for  decomposition, 

755. 
Salicylic  acid  as  a  preservative,  819. 

—  toxic  action  of,  819. 
Saline  salt  II,  810. 
Salmon,  adulteration  of,  785. 
Salt,  effect  on  bacteria,  802. 
Salting  meat,  800. 
Saltpeter,  effect  on  man,  806. 

—  influence  on  color  of  sausage,  791. 

—  in  pickling  brine,  803. 

meat,  806. 

Salufer,  820. 

Sanitary  significance  of  organs  in- 
fested with  non-transmissible  para- 
sites, 417. 

Sanitat,  810. 

Sapremia,  552. 

—  judgment  on,  554. 
Saprin,  553. 
Saprolegnia  fero,  707.  . 

—  monoica,  707. 
Saprophytes,  552. 
Sarcocystis  miescheriana,  529. 

—  tenella,  532. 
Sarcolactic  acid,  196. 
Sarcoma,  265. 
Sarcophosphoric  acid,  196. 
Sarcosporidia,  527. 

—  in  esophagus,  279. 

Sausage,  adulteration  with  flour,  770. 

—  factories,  42. 

—  gray  coloration  of,  749. 

—  introduction  of,  85. 

—  kinds  of,  772. 

—  poisoning,  758. 
Schachten,  132,  140. 
Schechita,  133. 
Schlackwurst,  772. 
Schreiber  refrigerator  cars,  830. 
Schwartenmagen,  772. 
Schweinsberger  disease,  296. 
Sclerostomum  equinum,  309. 

—  pinguicola,  309,  415. 
Scotland,  meat  laws  of,  28,  31. 
Scour  of  calves,  681. 

Sepsis;  see  Septicemia. 

—  intestinalis,  712. 

Septic  intestinal  diseases  of  cattle,  572., 


IXDEX 


881 


Septicemia,  566. 

—  diagnosis  of,  569. 

-  etiology  of,  567. 

-  hemorrhagic,  671. 

-  of  geese,  707. 

—  slaughter  findings  in,  736. 
Serous  tuberculosis;  see  Pearl  Disease. 
Serum    manufacture    in    connection 

with  slaughterhouses,  42. 
Sex  of  slaughtered  animals,  recogni- 
tion of,  228. 

—  in  cattle,  228. 

—  in  deer,  233. 

—  in  hogs,  232. 

—  in  sheep,  231. 

Sexual  organs,  diseases  of,  310. 
Sheep,  fat  of,  203. 

—  bones,  206. 

—  inspection  of,  159. 

—  pox,  121,  592. 

"Shield "  in  boars,  167,  232,  269. 
Shooting  mask,  134,  135. 
Shrimps,  adulteration  of,  784. 

—  coloring  by  fuchsin,  785. 
Skeleton,  differences  in  different  ani- 
mal species,  204. 

—  diseases  of,  349. 

Skin,  normal  appearance  of,  166. 

—  used  for  sausage,  167. 

—  inspection  of,  157. 
Slaughter,  methods  of,  130. 
simple  bleeding,  132. 

-  pithing,  134,  143. 
stunning,  134,  144. 

—  advantages  of  different  methods, 
138. 

-  Jewish  method,  133. 

—  order  of  procedure  in,  145. 

—  English  patent  method,  130. 

—  ax,  134. 

—  mask,  134. 

Slaughterhouses  and  stock  yards,  42. 
and  accessory  industries,  41. 

—  French  room  system,  39. 

—  German  hall  system,  39. 

—  in  German  Empire,  37. 

—  in  Prussia,  37. 

—  in  large  cities,  38. 

—  in  rural  districts,  44. 

—  on  frontier,  163. 

—  structure  and  equipment  of,  38. 
Smelt  as  hog  feed,  246. 


Smoke,  effect  on  pathogenic  bacteria, 

808. 
Smoking  meat,  807. 

—  methods  of,  807. 

—  preservative  effect  of,  807. 

—  rooms,  41. 

Soap  manufacture,  858. 

Sooty  mange  of  young  pigs,  270. 

Sour  fermentation,  746. 

Sozolith,  814. 

Spain,  meat  inspection  in,  30. 

Spaying  cows,  233. 

—  hogs,  233. 

Spinal  cord,  diseases  of,  348. 
Spiradenitis  coccidiosa,  272. 
Spiropterareticulata,  291. 
Spleen,  appearance  of,  170. 

—  diseases  of,  346. 

—  inspection  of,  157. 

—  swelling  of,  347. 
Splenic  glands,  184. 
"Spoiled "  meat,  103-107. 
Sporozoa,  520. 

Spot  erysipelas  of  hogs,  691. 

Spring  bolt  apparatus  for  killing  Hogsv 

136. 
"  Stabil  "  for  coloring  meat,  787. 

—  for  preserving  sausages,  803. 
Stamping  inspected  animals,  155. 
Staphylococcus  albus,  559. 

—  bovis,  560. 

—  citreus,  559. 

—  mastitidis,  315. 

—  pyogenes  in  anemia,  369. 

aureus,  304,  315,  557,  561,  664. 

bovis,  559. 

flavus,  633. 

Starch,  addition  of  to  sausages,  771. 

—  and  the  water  content  of  sausages, 

W*fK 

775. 

—  and  the  loss  of  water  in  smoking 
and  drying,  775. 

—  demonstration  of  in  sausages,  777. 

—  histology  of,  778. 

—  quantitative  demonstration  of ,  778.. 
Stare's  conservator,  810. 

—  Sanitas,  810. 

—  sausage  salt,  810. 
Status  adiposus,  186. 

Steam  sterilization  of  meat,  847. 

—  loss  of  weight  during,  854. 

—  methods  of,  847. 


882 


INDEX 


Steam  sterilization  of  meat,  results  of 
experiments,  849. 

—  value  of,  847. 

—  under  high  pressure,  857. 
Steatosis  of  musculature,  364. 
Stephannrns  dentatus,  309. 
Stern's  preserving  salt,  810. 
Stockyards,  connection  with  slaugh- 
terhouses, 42. 

Stomach,  appearance  and  weight,  169. 

-  diseases  of,  279. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 
Stomatitis,  274. 

Straschiripk'a  and  Tiffany  system  of 

refrigerator  cars,  830. 
Streptococcus  erysipelatis ,  683. 

—  involutus,  587. 

—  mastitidis  contagiosa,  315. 

—  pyogenes,  557. 
Stroptothrix  cuniculi,  680. 
Stripperies,  42. 
Strongylidse,  408. 
Strongylus  armatus,  281,  291. 

in  lungs,  322,  329. 

in  blood  vessels,  341. 

-  capillaris,  325,  328,  411,  412. 

—  cernuus,  408. 

—  commutatus,  328,  410,  413. 

—  contortus,  281,  408. 

—  convolutus,  409. 

—  curticei,  281. 

—  dentatus,  283. 

—  filaria,  325,  328,  411. 

—  filUcolUs,  281,  410. 

—  follicularis,  283. 

—  harkeri,  281,  410. 

—  hypostomus,  408. 

—  inflatus,  408. 

—  micrurus,  325,  328,  410. 

—  oncoptiorus,  281,  409. 

—  ostertagi,  281,409. 

—  paradoxus,  328,  410,  414. 

—  radiatus,  408. 

—  retort  (xformis,  281,  410. 

—  sfrigosus,  410. 

—  ventricosus,  408. 

—  venulosus,  408. 

Strychnin  in  poisoned  animals,  381. 
Stunning  animals,  134. 
Subcutis,  edema  of,  272. 

—  fat  tissue  of,  272. 

—  urinous  infiltration  in,  273. 


Subiliac  glands,  181. 
Submaxillary  glands,  179. 
"Suffocated  "  meat,  747. 
Sugar  factory  oxen,  dropsy  in,  370. 
Suggillation,  258. 

Sulphurous  acid,  preservative  effect 
of,  815. 

—  as  a  preservative,  813. 

—  application  of,  813. 

—  demonstration,  815. 

—  in  minced  meat,  817. 

—  in  trade  preparations,  814. 

—  judgment  on,  816. 
Siilzwurst,  772. 
Suppurations,  556. 
Surra,  537. 

Sweden,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 
Swill,  effect  on  bacon,  187. 
Swine  erysipelas,  683. 

—  diagnosis,  688. 

—  distribution  by  meat  traffic,  686. 

—  resistance  of  bacilli  to  heat,  684. 

—  susceptibility  of  other  animals,  684. 

—  symptoms,  686. 

—  fever;  see  Hog  cholera. 

—  inspection  of,  159. 

—  plague,  694-696. 

—  diagnosis,  694. 

—  judgment  concerning,  695. 

—  plague  followed  by  pyemia,  566. 
Switzerland,  meat  inspection  in,  31. 
Syngamus  laryngeus,  320. 

—  trachealis,  320,  407 

Table  ripeness  of  meat,  197. 
Tcenia  ccenurus,  395. 

—  echinococcus,  501,  513. 

—  inermis,  420. 

—  marginata,  9,  395,  432,  519. 

—  mediocanellata,  420. 

—  saginata,  8,  420,  421,  426,  429,  432. 

—  serrata,  395. 

—  solium,  7,  8,  26,  425,  442,  451. 

—  tenella,  417. 
Tallow  factory,  42. 
Tallow-like  muscle  alteration,  364. 
Talmud  meat  laws,  11,  133. 
Tanbark  for  producing  smoke,  807. 
Tapeworms,  394. 

—  larval  stages,  395. 
Tartarus  stibiatus,  380. 
Tasajo,  823. 


INDEX 


883 


Terepha,  133. 

Testicles,  diseases  of,  310. 

—  in  sausages,  782. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 
Tetanus,  576. 

—  bacillus,  576. 

—  toxin,  577. 
Tetrarhynchus,  398. 
Texas  fever,  533-537. 
Thoracic  lymph  glands,  182. 
Thrombophlebitis  umbilicalis,  564,570. 
Throwing  animals,  methods  of,  140. 
Thymus  gland,  151. 
Thysanosoma  actinoides,  395. 

—  ovitta,  395. 

Tongue,  normal  appearance  of,  176. 

—  diseases  of,  273. 

—  pickling  of,  804. 

Toxigen  in  parturient  paralysis,  387. 
Toxins,  551,  553,  568,  754. 
Trachea,  diseases  of,  319. 
Transportation  of  animals,  127. 

—  and  rest  before  slaughter,  127. 
Transudation,  258. 
Traumatic  pericarditis,  555. 

—  pneumonia,  670. 
Trematodes,  398. 
Treuenit,  815. 

Trichina  calcification,  462,  541. 

—  degeneration  of,  465. 

—  diagnosis  of,  476. 

—  encapsulation  of,  465. 

—  false,  455. 

—  general  account  of,  454. 

—  in  American  pork,  32,  471,  498. 

—  in  dogs,  473. 

—  in  badger,  wild  hog,  cat,  bear,  fox, 
marten  and  pole  cat,  468. 

—  in  meat  preparations,  490. 

—  in  salt  pork,  496. 

—  inspection,  483. 

—  inspection  for  American  salt  pork, 
496. 

—  inspection  in  Prussia,  494. 

—  inspectors,  487. 

—  in  rats,  479. 

—  in  sucking  pigs,  473. 

—  morphology  of,  466. 

—  occurrence  of  468. 

—  preparations,  491. 

—  proper  muscles  to  examine,  488. 
Trichinosis,  455. 


Trichinosis  in  man,  478. 

—  and  raw  meat,  2. 

Trichiiious  pork,  method  of  procedure 
with,  482. 

Trigonella  foecum-grcecum,  influence 
on  odor  of  meat,  246. 

Triple  phosphate  crystals  in  decom- 
posing meat,  546. 

Troops,  condition  of  meat  for,  235. 

Trutta  salar,  785. 

Trypanosomata,  538. 

Tsetse  fly,  538. 

Tubercle  bacillus,  607. 

—  resistance  to  heat,  etc.,  609. 

—  virulence  of,  610. 
Tuberculosis,  general  account,    601- 

651. 

—  and  age  of  animals,  606. 

—  diagnosis  of,  618. 

—  experiments  to  determine  the  char- 
acter of  meat  in,  643. 

—  frequency  of,  605. 

—  German    regulations    concerning, 
647. 

—  in  birds,  651. 

—  in  different  organs,  622. 

—  in  different  species  of  food  animals, 
603. 

—  in  hogs,  619. 

—  in  lymph  glands  of  head,  277. 

—  in  slaughtered  animals,  623. 

—  intestinal,  285. 

—  of  the  muscles,  365. 

—  local  and  generalized,  620. 

—  obligatory  declaration   for    meat,. 
645. 

—  pathological  anatomy  of,  613. 

—  sanitary  judgment  of,  629. 

—  scientific  procedure  with  meat,  645. 

—  sterilization  of  meat,  644. 

—  symptoms  of,  611. 

—  transmission  of    bovine    form    to 
man,  629. 

—  treatment  of  fat,  645. 

—  virulence     of    meat    of    affected 
animals,  635. 

Tumors,  265. 

—  benign,  265. 

—  judgment  of,  266. 

—  malignant,  265. 
Turpentine,  odor  of  in  meat,  384. 
Tympanites,  741. 


884 


INDEX 


Tyrosin  deposits  in  smoked  pork,  545. 

Udder,  actinomycosis  of,  317. 

—  botryomycosis  of,  316. 

—  diseases  of,  313. 

—  edema  of,  313. 

-  tuberculosis  of,  316. 
Ulcus  pepticum,  280. 

Umbilical  vessels,  changes   in  after 

birth,  240. 
"  Unclean  u  animals,  10,  40. 

-  meat,  116. 

United  States  inspection  (see  also  the 

Introduction),  32. 
Uremia,  377. 
Uremic  gangrene,  377. 
Urethra,  diseases  of,  309. 
Urino-genital  apparatus,  diseases  of, 

301. 

Urinous  infiltration  of  subcutis,  273. 
Urticaria,  691-693. 

—  etiology,  692. 

—  treatment,  693. 
Uteri  in  sausage,  782. 
Uterus,  catarrh  of,  311. 

—  diseases  of,  311. 

—  inspection  of,  158. 

—  tumors  of,  312. 


Vaccination  with  cowpox,  591. 
Vaccine  establishments,  42. 
Vacuole  bacillus,  699. 
Vagina,  diseases  of,  312. 
Veal,  classification  of,  151. 

—  differentiation  of,  201. 
Vegetarianism,  2,  3. 
Veratrin,  381. 
Verminous  pneumonia,  324. 
Vinegar  eel,  477. 

Warble  fly  of  ox,  390. 

Water   absorbed  by  pounded    meat, 

770. 

Whale  oil  odor  in  meat,  245. 
Wheat  bread  added  to  sausage,  782. 
White  scour  of  calves,  681. 
Wickes'  refrigerator  cars,  831. 
Wooden  tongue,  277,  657. 
Worms,  394. 

Xanthosis,  253. 

Ziffer's  preserving  powder,  810. 

—  preserving  salt,  810. 
Zooglc&a  pulmonis  equi,  662. 


COLORED  PLATE. 


Pig.  1.  ANTHRAX  BACILLI. — Double  stain  according  to  Kletfc.  X  500 
diameters. 

Fig.  2.  TUBERCLE  BACILLI. — Double  stain  according  to  Ziehl-Gabbet. 
X  500  diameters. 

Fig.  3.  SWINE  ERYSIPELAS  BACILLI. — Gram  method,  subsequently 
stained  with  eosin.  X  500  diameters. 

Fig.  4.  PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. — a,  fresh  focus  of  inflammation ;  5,  older 
foci ;  c,  necrotic  focus  (without  sequestration  as  yet). 
Thrombi  are  shown  in  the  blood  and  lymph  vessels  in 
the  much  thickened  interlobular  tissue  of  the  freshly 
inflamed  foci. 


. 

•     / 


•- 


Ostertag-'s  "  Meat  Inspection  " 


CATALOGUE    OF 

William  R.  Jenkins  Co.'s 

Works   Concerning 

HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  SWINE,  Etc. 
1910 


(*)  Designates  New  Books. 

(f)  Designates  Recent  Publication*. 


ANDERSON.  "Yice  in  the  Horse"  and  other  papers 
on  Horses  and  Biding.  By  E.  L.  Anderson.  Size, 
6x9,  cloth,  illustrated 1  75- 

ARMSTEAD.     "The  Artistic  Anatomy  of  the  Horse." 

A  brief  description  of  the  various  Anatomical  Struc- 
tures which  may  be  distinguished  during  Life  through 
the  Skin,  By  Hugh  W.  Armstead,  M.D.,  F.B.CiS. 
With  illustrations  from  drawings  by  the  author. 
Cloth  oblong,  10  x  12£ 3  7& 

BACH.  "  How  to  Judge  a  Horse."  A  concise  treatise 
as  to  its  Qualities  and  Soundness ;  Including  Bits  and 
Bitting,  Saddles  and  Saddling,  Stable  Drainage,  Driv- 
ing One  Horse,  a  Pair,  Four-in-hand,  or  Tandem,  etc. 
By  Capt.  F. W.  Bach.  Size,  5  x  7£,  clo.,  fully  illus .  1  00 

BANHA  Af.    "  Tables  of  Veterinary  Posology  and  Thera. 

peutics,"  with  weights,  measures,  etc.     By  Geo.  A- 

Banham,    F.  B.  C.  V.  S.     New  edition.      Cloth,    size 

4x5  1-2,  192  pages 1  00 

BAUCHER.  "Method  of  Horsemanship."  Including 
the  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses.  By 
F.  Baucher.  (Temporarily  out  of  print). 

BELL.     (*)"The  Veterinarian's  Call   Book  (Perpetual)." 

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Veterinary  Review.  Completely  revised. 

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8-10 


BITTING.    "Cadiot's  Exercises  in  Equine  Surgery." 

See  "Cadiot." 

BRADLEY.         "Outlines      of     Veterinary    Anatomy." 

By  O.  Charnock  Bradley,  Member  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Veterinary  Surgeons ;  Professor  of  Anatomy 
in  the  New  Veterinary  College,  Edinburgh. 

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OADIOT.     "  Exercises  in  Equine  Surgery."     By  P.  J. 

Cadiot.  Translated  by  Prof.  A.  W.  Bitting,  D.V.M. 
EdiUd  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.V.M.  Size,  6  x  9#, 

cloth,  illustrated 2  50 

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by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M,D.,V.M. 

General  Surgery. — Means  of  restraint  of  animals, 
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ions, granulations,  cicatrices,  mycosis,  virulent 
diseases,  tumors. 

Diseases  Special  to  all  Tissues  and  Affections  of 
the  Extremities.— Diseases  of  skin  and  cellular  tis- 
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CHAPMAN.  "Manual  of  the  Pathological  Treatment 
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mechanical  means.  By  George  T.  Chapman.  Cloth, 
size  6x9,  124  pages  with  portrait 2  00 

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CLEAVELAND.        "  Pronouncing      Medical     Lexicon." 

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CLEMENT.  '<  Veterinary  Post  Mortem  Examina- 
tions." By  A.  W,  Clement,  V.S.  The  absence  in  the 
English  language  of  any  guide  in  making  autopsies 
upom  the  lower  animals,  induced  Dr.  Clement  to 
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Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  573  pages  2  75 

<JOX.       "  Horses  :     In    Accident    and    Disease."       The 

sketches  Introduced  embrace  various  attitudes  which 
have  been  observed,  such  as  in  choking;  the  disorder* 
and  aecidents  occurring  to  the  stomach  and  intestines ; 
affection  of  the  brain  ;  and  some  special  forms  of  lame- 
ness, etc.  By  J.  Koalfe  Cox,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
6  x  9,  23  full  page  illustrations ...1  50 

DALRYMPLE.  (*)" Veterinary  Obstetrics."  A  compen- 
dium for  the  use  of  advanced  students  and  Practi- 
tioners. By  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  M.  K.  C.  V.  B.t 
principal  of  the  Department  of  Veterinary  Science  in 
the  Louisiana  State  University  and  A.  &  M.  College; 
Veterinarian  to  the  Louisiana  State  Bureau  of 
Agriculture,  and  Agrioultural  Experiment  Stations. 
Second  edition  revised.  Cloth,  stee  6x9  1-4,162  pages, 
51  illustrations 2  50 

DALZIEL.  "  Breaking  and  Training  Dogs."  Part  I,  by 
Pathfinder.  Part  II,  by  Hugh  Dalziel.  Cloth, 
illustrated 2  50 

—  "The   Collie."    By  Hugh  Dalziel.    Paper,  illustrated. ...  50 

—  "The  Diseases  of  Dogs."    Causes,  symptoms  and  treatment. 

By  Hugh  Dalziel.  Illustrated.    Paper 50 

—  "  The  Fox  Terrier."    By  Hugh  Dalziel.    Paper,  50 ;  clo.l  00 

—  "The  Greyhound."   Cloth,  illus 1  00 

—  "  The  St.  Bernard."    Cloth,  illustrated 1  00 


DANCE.  "  Veterinary  Tablet."  By  A.  A.  Dance.  Chart, 
17  x  24,  mounted  on  linen,  folded  in  a  cloth  case  for 
the  pocket,  size  3  3-4  x  6  1-2.  Shows  at  a  glance  the 
synopsis  of  the  diseases  of  horses,  cattle  and  dogs ; 
with  their  cause,  symptoms  and  cure 75 

DE  BRUIN.     (*)" Bovine  Obstetrics."  By  M.  G.  De  Bruin 

Instructor  of  Obstetrics  at  the  Slate  Veterinary 
School  in  Utrecht.  Translated  by  W.  E.  A.  Wyman, 
formerly  Professor  of  Veterinary  Science  at  Clemson 
A.  &  M.  College,  and  Veterinarian  to  the  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Station.  Cloth,  size  6x9,  382 
pages,  77  illustrations 5  00 

Synopsis  of  the  Essential  Features  of  the  Work 

1.  Authorized  translation. 

2.  The  only  obstetrical  work  which  is  up  to  date. 

3.  Written  by  Europe's  leading  authority  on  the  subject. 

4.  Written  by  a  man  who  has  practiced  the  art  a  lifetime. 

5.  Written  by  a  man  who,  on  account  of  his  eminence  as- 
bovine  practitioner  and  teacher  of  obstetrics,  was  selected 
by  Prof.  Dr.  FrOhner  and    Prof.  Dr.    Bayer    (Berlin   and 
Vienna),  to  discuss  bovine  obstetrics  both  practically  and 
scientifically. 

6.  The  only  work  containing  a  thorough  differential  diag- 
nosis of  ante  and  post  partura  diseases. 

7.  The  only  work  doing  justice   to  modern   obstetrical 
surgery  and  therapeutics. 

8.  Written  by  a  man  whose  practical  suggestions  revolu- 
tionized the  teaching  of  veterinary  obstetrics  even  in  the 
great  schools  of  Europe. 

9.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  now  no  longer 
obscure  contagious  and  infectious  diseases  of  calves. 

10.  Absolutely  original  and  no  compilation. 

11.  The  only  work  dealing  fully  with  the  difficult  problem 
of  teaching  obstetrics  in  the  colleges. 

12.  The  only  work  where  the  practical  part  is  not  over- 
shadowed by  theory. 

...  A  veterinarian,  particularly  if  his  location  brings  him  in 
contact  with  obstetrical  practice,  who  makes  any  pretence  toward 
being  scientific  and  in  possession  of  modern  knowledge  upon  this- 
sxibject,  will  not  be  without  this  excellent  work,  as  it  is  really  a  very 
valuable  treatise.— Prof.  Roscoe  R.  Belt,  in  the  American  Veterinary 
Review. 

In  translating  into  English  Professor  De  Bruin's  excellent  text- 
book on  Bovine  Obstetrics,  Dr.  Wyman  has  laid  British  and  American 
veterinary  surgeons  and  students  under  a  debt  of  gratitude.  The 
works  represents  the  happy  medium  between  the  booklets  which  are 
adapted  for  cramming  purposes  by  the  student,  and  the  ponderous 
tomes  which,  although  useful  to  the  teacher,  are  not  exactly  suited  to- 
the  requirements  of  the  everyday  practitioner  .  .  .  We  can  strongly 
recommend  the  work  to  veterinary  students  and  practitioners.— The 
Journal  of  Comparative  Pathology  and  Therapeutics. 

DOLLAR.  f*i"  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Sheep,  Goats  and 
Swine."  By  G.  Moussu  and  Jno.  A,  W.  Dollar, 
M.K.C.V.S.  Size  6x9  1-2,  7%  pages,  329  illustrations 
in  the  text  and  4  full  page  plates 8  75 

—  (f)"A  Hand-book  of  Horse-Shoeing,"  with  introductory 
chapters  on  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  thfr 
horse's  foot.  By  Jno.  A.  W.  Dollar,  M.R.C.V.S., 
with  the  collaboration  of  Albert  Wheatley,  P.B.C.V.S. 
Cloth,  size  6x8  1-2,  433  pages,  4C6  illustrations  .  .4  7& 


DOLLAR  (continued) 

—  (t)  "Operative  Technique."     Volume  1  of  "  The  Practice  of 

Veterinary  Surgery."  Cloth,  size  6  3-4  x  10,  264  pages, 
272  illustrations 3  75 

—_*'  General  Surgery."  Volume  2  of  "  The  Practice  of  Veter. 
inary  Surgery."  In  preparation. 

—  (f)" Regional  Veterinary  Surgery."     Volume  3  of  "The 

Practice  of  Veterinary  Surgery."  By  Drs.  Jno.  A. 
W.  Dollar  and  H.  Moller.  Cloth,  size  6  1-2  x  10  853 
and  xvi  pages,  315  illustrations 6  25 

-  "Cadiot's  Clinical  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery." 

See  "  Cadiot." 

-  u  Cadiot's  Roaring  in  Horses."    See  "  Cadiot." 

DUN.    (*)  "Veterinary  Medicines,  their  Actions  and  Uses." 

By  Finlay  Dun,  V.S.,  late  lecturer  on  Materia 
Medica  and  Dietetics  at  the  Edinburgh  Veterinary 
College,  and  Examiner  in  Chemistry  to  the  Royal 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons.  Edited  by  James 
Macqueen,  F.R.C.V.S.,  and  Harold  A.  Woodruff, 
'  M.R.C.V.S.  Twelfth  English  edition.  Cloth,  size 
6x9 3  75 

FLEMING.  "  The  Contagious  Diseases  of  Animals."  Their 
influence  on  the  wealth  and  health  of  nations  and  how 
they  are  to  be  combated.  Paper,  size  5x7  1-2, 
30  pages 26 

—  "Parasites  and  Parasitic  Diseases  of  the  Domesticated 

Animals."    See  "  Neumann." 

—  "Operative  Veterinary  Surgery."     Vol.    I,    by  Dr.  Geo. 

Fleming,  M.R.C.V.S.  This  valuable  work,  one  of  the 
most  practical  treatises  yet  issued  on  the  subject  in 
the  English  language,  is  devoted  to  the  common  opera- 
tions of  Veterinary  Surgery;  and  the  concise  descrip- 
tions and  directions  of  the  text  are  illustrated  with 
numerous  wood  engravings.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4,  285 

and  xviii  pages,  343  illustrations .2  75 

(*)Vol.  II,  edited  and  passed  through  the  press  by 
W.  Owen  Williams,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4, 
430  and  xxxvii  pages,  344  illustrations 3  25 

—  "  Roaring     in     Horses."         By    Dr.    George      Fleming, 

F.R  C.V.S.  Its  history,  nature,  causes,  prevention 
and  treatment.  Cloth,  size  51-2x8  3-4,  160  pages,  21 
engravings,  1  colored  plate 1  50 

—  "  Veterinary  Obstetrics."    Including  the  Accidents  and  Dis- 

eases incident  to  Pregnancy,  Parturition,  and  the  Early 
Age  in  Domesticated  Animals.  By  Geo.  Fleming, 
F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  6x8  3-4,  758  pages,  illus.6  25 


GOTTHIEL.     ff)  "A    Manual    of    General     Histology." 

By  Win.  8.  Gottheil,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Pathology  in 
the  American  Veterinary  College,  New  York;  etc.,  etc. 
Histology  is  the  basis  of  the  physician's  art,  as 
Anatomy  is  the  foundation  of  the  surgeon's  science. 
The  subject  i*  presented  in  an  accessible  and  simple- 
form.  Second  edition  revised.  Cloth,  size  5  1-2  x  8, 
152  pages,  68  illustrations 1  00 

GUESS  WELL.    "Diseases  and  Disorders  of  the  Horse." 

A  Treatise  on  Equine  Medicine  and  Surgery,  being  a 
contribution  to  the  science  of  comparative  pathology. 
By  Albert,  Jaa.  B.  and  Geo.  Gresswell.  Cloth,  size 
53-4x8  3-4,  227  pages,  illustrated 1  75 

—  "  The  Bovine  Prescriber."    For  the  use  of  Veterinarians 

and  Veterinary  Students.  Second  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged,  by  James  B.  and  Albert  Gresswell, 
M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size,  5x7  1-2,  102  pages 75 

—  "The  Equine  Hospital  Prescriber."    For  the  use  of  Veter- 

inary Practitioners  and  Students.  Third  edition  re- 
vised and  enlarged,  by  Drs.  James  B.  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  5x7  1-2,  165 
pages 75 

—  Manual  of  "The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Equine  Medicine." 

By  James  B.  Gresswell,  F.R.C.V.S.,  and  Albert 
Gresswell,  M.R.C.V.S.  Second  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  5  1-4  x7  1-2,  539  pages 2  75 

—  (t)  "Veterinary  Pharmacopeia  and  Manual  of  Comparative- 

Therapy  . "  By  George  and  Charles  Gresswell,  with 
descriptions  and  physiological  actions  of  medicines, 
by  Albert  Gresswell.  Second  edition  revised  and 
enlarged.  Cloth,  6x8  3-4,  457  pages t 3  501 

HASSLOCH.  "  A  Compend  of  Veterinary  Materia  Medica 
and  Therapeutics."  By  A.  C.  Hassloch,  V.S., 
Lecturer  on  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  and 
Professor  of  Veterinary  Dentistry  at  the  New  York 
College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  and  School  of  Compa- 
rative Medicine,  N.  Y.  Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  225 
pages 1  50 

HEATLEY.  "  The  Stock  Owner's  Guide."  A  handy  Medi- 
cal Treatise  for  evnry  man  who  owns  an  ox  or  cow. 
By  George  S.  Heatley,  M.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
5  1-4  x  8,  172  pages 1  25 

HILL.  (t)"The  Diseases  of  the  Cat."  By  J.  Woodroffe 
Hill,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  123  pages, 

illustrated 1  25 

Written  from  the  experience  of  many  years'  prac- 
tice and  close  pathological  research. 

—  "The   Management   and   Diseases    of  the   Dog."    By  J. 

Woodroffe  Hill,  F.R.C.V.S.  Cloth,  size  5x7  l-2v 
extra  fully  illustrated. 


HINEBAUCH.    "Veterinary  Dental  Surgery."    By  T.  D, 

Hinebauch,  M.S.V.S.  For  the  use  of  Students,  Prac- 
titioners and  Stockmen.  Cloth,  size  5  1-4  x  8,  256 
pages,  illustrated. 

SO  ARE.  (*)''A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Therapeutics  and 
Pharmacology."  B/E.  Wallis  Hoare,  F.E.C.V.S. 
Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-4,  xxvi  plus  786  pages -4  75 

HOBDAY,  (f)"  The  Castration  of  Cryptorchid  Horses  and 
tbe  Ovariotomy  of  Troublesome  Mares."  By 

Frederick  T.  G.  Hobday,  F.R  C.V.S.  Cloth,  size 
5  3-4  x  8  3-4,  106  pages,  34  illustrations 1  75- 

HUNTING.  (\\  The  Art  of  Horse-shoeing.  A  manual 
for  Horseshoers.  By  William  Hunting,  F.R.C.V.S., 
ex-President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Sur- 
geons. One  of  the  most  up-to-date,  concise  books  of 
its  kind  in  the  English  language.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4. 
126  pages,  96  illustrations 1  00 

JENKINS.  (*)"  Anatomical  and  Physiological  Model  of 
the  Cow."  Half  life  size.  Composed  of  superposed 
plates,  colored  to  nature,  showing  internal  organs, 
muscles,  skeleton,  etc.,  mounted  on  strong  boards,, 
with  explanatory  text.  Size  of  Model  opened, 
10  ft.  x  3  ft.,  closed  3  ft.  x  1J  ft 10  00- 

—  "Anatomical  and  Physiological   Model    of  the   Horse." 

Half  life  size.     Size  of  Model  38  x  41  in 12  00 

—  Anatomical  and  Physiological  Models.    Colored  to  Nature, 

With  explanatory  Charts.  Opened,  22in.  x  26  1-2  in. ; 
closed,  11  in.  x  26  1-2  in. 

Horse,  384  parts 2  00 

Cow,  393  parts 2  CO 

Sheep,  364  parts 2  00 

Dog,  364  parts 2  00 

Pig,  in  preparation. 

All  five  models  ordered  at  one  time,  prepaid 8  75 

With  each  model  and  chart  a  descriptive  book  of 
the  animal  is  supplied  free.  These  books  when  sold 
separately  are  25c.  each. 

These  models  are  not  only  of  the  utmost  value  to 
veterinarians,  but  every  lecturer,  student,  owner  of  a 
dairy,  will  be  amazed  at  the  resultant  value  and  con- 
venience to  him  of  a  thing  of  the  sort  hanging  for 
ready  reference  on  the  wall  of  his  room  or  office.  For 
clearness  the  model  at  once  surpasses  books  and 
atlasef. 


JONES.      CV'The   Surgical   Anatomy    of  the   Horse." 

By  Jno.  T.  Share  Jones,  M.K.C.V.S.  Parts  I,  II  and 
III  ready.  To  be  completed  in  four  parts.  Each 
part — paper,  $4.25 ;  cloth,  $5.00. 

JORDAN.  (*)  "The  Gait  of  the  American  Trotter  and 
Pacer."  By  Rudolf  Jordan,  Jr.  Size  6  1-4  x  9  1-2, 
xii  plus  324  pages,  217  illustrations,  including  11  full 

page,  and  frontispiece  in  color 3  50 

Every  lover  of  the  harness  horse  should  read  this 
book.  The  moet  notable  study  of  the  trotting  and 
pacing  gaits  ever  published.  It  clears  up  the  question 
of  balance  by  a  simple  inquiry  into  cause  and  effect. 
It  gives  an  exact  analysis  of  the  motion,  action  and 
extension  of  the  two  gaits,  and  with  numerous  illus- 
trations points  the  way  to  the  proper  adjustment  of 
hoof  and  shoe  for  a  square  gait.  It  sets  forth  many 
important  facts  by  a  new  and  practical  method  of 
fixing  the  origin  of  a  faulty  gait.  Its  investigations 
for  the  rational  development  of  speed  by  means  of  a 
corrected  gait  make  it  a  valuable  aid  to  every  owner 
and  trainer. 
A  Classic.— Chicago  Horseman. 

KOBERT.  "Practical  Toxicology  for  Physicians  and 
Students  "  By  Professor  Dr.  Rudolph  Robert, 
Medical  Director  of  Dr.  Brehmer's  Sanitarium  for 
Pulmonary  Diseases  at  Goerbersderf  in  Silesia  (Prus- 
sia), late  Director  of  the  Pharmacological  Institute, 
Dorpat,  Kussia.  Translated  and  edited  by  L.  H. 
Friedburg,  Ph.D.  Authorized  Edition.  Practical 
knowledge  by  means  of  tables  which  occupy  little 
space,  but  show  at  a  glance  similarities  and  differ- 
ences between  poisons  of  the  same  group.  Also  rules 
for  the  Spelling  and  Pronunciation  of  Chemical  Terms, 
as  adopted  by  the  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science.  Cloth,  6  1-2  x  10,  201  pp.. 2  60 

KOCH.  "Etiology  of  Tuberculosis."  By  Dr.  E.  Koch. 
Translated  by  T.  Saure.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4,  97 
pages , 1  00 

LAW.  "Farmers'  Veterinary  Adviser."  A  Guide  to  the 
Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Disease  in  Domestic 
Animals.  By  Prof.  James  Law.  Cloth,  size 
51-4x7  1-2,  illustrated'. 3  00 

LIAUTARD.  (f)" Animal  Castration."  A  concise  and 
practical  Treatise  on  the  Castration  of  the  Domestic 
Animals.  The  only  work  on  the  subject  in  the 
English  language.  By  Alexander  Liautard,  M.D.,V.S. 
Having  a  fine  portrait  of  the  author.  Tenth  edition 
revised  and  enlarged.  Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  165 

pages,  45  illustrations 2  00 

.  .  .  The  most  complete  and  comprehensive  work  on  the 
subject  in  English  veterinary  literature.— American  Agri- 
culturist. 


LIAUTARD  (continued). 

—  "Cadiot's  Exercises  in  Equine  Surgery."     Translated  by 

Prof.  Bitting  and  eiiited  by  Dr.  Liautard. 
See  "  Cadiot." 

—  "A  Treatise  on  Surgical  Therapeutics  of  the  Domestic 
Animals."  By  Prof.  Dr.  P.  J.  Cadiot  and  J.  Almy, 
Translated  by  Prof.  Liautard.  See  "  Cadiot." 

—  "How  to  Tell   the   Age   of  the  Domestic  Animal."    By 

Dr.  A.  Liautard,  M.D.,  V.S.  Standard  work  upon 
this  subject,  concise,  helpful  and  containing  many 
iDustrations.  Cloth,  size  5  x  71-2,  35  pages,  42 
illustrations 60 

—  "  Lameness  of  Horses  and  Diseases  of  the    Locomotory 

Apparatus."  By  A.  Liautard,  M.D.,V.S.  This  work 
is  the  result  of  Dr.  Liautard's  many  years  of  experi- 
ence. Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  314  pages . .  2  50 

—  (*)"  Manual   of  Operative  Veterinary  Surgery  "     By   A. 

Liautard,  M.D.,  V.M.  Engaged  for  years  in  the  work 
of  teaching  this  special  department  of  veterinary 
medicine,  and  having  abundant  opportunities  of 
realizing  the  difficulties  which  the  student  who 
earnestly  strives  to  peifect  himself  in  his  calling  is 
obliged  to  encounter,  the  author  formed  the  deter- 
mination to  facilitate  his  acquisition  of  knowledge, 
and  began  the  accumulation  of  material  by  the  com- 
pilation of  data  and  arrangement  of  memorandum, 
with  the  recorded  notes  of  his  own  experience,  the 
fruit  of  a  long  and  extended  practice  and  a  careful 
study  of  the  various  authorities  who  have  illustrated 
and  organized  veterinary  literature.  Bevised  edition, 
with  complete  index.  Cloth,  size  6  1-4  x  9,  xxx  and  803 
pages,  563  illustrations 5  00 

—  "Pellerin's    Median    Neurotomy    in    the    Treatment   of 

Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock." 

Translated  by  Dr.  A.  Liautard.     See  "  Pdlerin." 

—  "Vade  Mecum  of  Equine  Anatomy."  By  A.  Liautard, 
M.D.V.S.  For  the  use  of  advanced  students  and 
veterinary  surgeons.  Third  edition.  Cloth,  size 
5x7  1-2,  30  pages  and  10  full  page  illustrations  of 
the  arteries 2  00 

—  Zundel's  "  The  Horse's  Foot  and  Its  Diseases." 

See  "  ZundeL" 


.LONG.    "  Book   of    the    Pig."    Its     selection,     Breeding, 
Feeding  andManagement.    Cloth 4 . 00 


PAL  LIN.    (f)  "  A  Treatise  on  Epizootic  Lymphangitis."  By 

Capt.  W.  A.  Pallin,  F.K.C.V.S.  In  this  work  the 
author  has  endeavored  to  combine  his  own  experience 
with  that  of  other  writers  and  so  attempts  to  give  a 
clear  and  complete  account  of  a  subject  about  which 
there  i*  little  at  present  in  English  veterinary  litera- 
ture. Cloth,  size  53-4x8  1-2,  90  pages,  with  17  fine 
full  page  illustrations 1  25 

PEGLER.  "  Goat  Keeping  for  Amateurs/'  Paper,  5x7£, 
77  pages,  illustrated 50 

PELLERIN.  "Median  Neurotomy  in  the  Treatment 
of  Chronic  Tendinitis  and  Periostosis  of  the  Fetlock. " 

By  C.  Pellerin,  late  repetitor  of  Clinic  and  Surgery  to 
the  Alfort  Veterinary  School.  Translated,  with  Addi- 
tional Facts  Relating  to  It,  by  Prof.  A.  Liautard,  M.D., 
V.M.  Having  rendered  good  results  when  performed 
by  himself,  the  author  believes  the  operation,  which 
consists  in  dividing  the  cubito-plantar  nerve  and  in 
excising  a  portion  of  the  peripherical  end,  the  means 
of  improving  the  conditions,  and  consequently  the 
values  of  many  apparently  doomed  animals.  Agricul- 
ture in  particular  will  be  benefited. 

The  work  is  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  covers 
the  study  of  Median  Neurotomy  itself ;  the  second, 
the  exact  relations  of  the  facts  as  observed  by  the 
author.  Boards,  6x9  1-2,  61  pages,  illustrated ..  1  00 

PETERS.  "  A  Tuberculous  Herd— Test  with  Tuber- 
culin."  By  Austin  Peters,  M.  E.  C.  V.  S.,  Chief 
Inspector  of  Cattle  for  the  New  York  State  Board  of 
Health  during  the  winter  of  1892-93.  Pamphlet 25 

ROBERGE.  "The  Foot  of  the  Horse,"  or  Lameness 
and  all  Diseases  of  the  Feet  traced  to  an  Unbalanced 
Foot  Bone,  prevented  or  cured  by  balancing  the  foot. 
By  David  Koberge.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-4,  308  pages, 
illustrated 500 

SESSIONS.  (*)"  Cattle  Tuberculosis,"  a  Practical  Guide  to 
the  Agriculturist  and  Inspector.  By  Harold  Sessions, 
F.E,C.V.S.,  etc.  Second  edition.  Size  5x7  1-4,  vi  + 
120  pages 1  00 

The  subject  can  be  understood  by  those  who  have 
to  deal  particularly  with  it,  yet  who,  perhaps,  have 
not  had  the  necessary  training  to  appreciate  technical 
phraseology. 

SEWELL.      "The   Examination  of  Horses   as  to  Sound- 

ness  and  Selection  as  to  Purchase."     By  Edward 

Sewell.  M.K.C.V.S.     Paper,  size  5 1-2  x  8  1-2,  86  pages, 

illustrated  with  8  plates  in  color 1  60 

It  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  business  man  to 

know  something  of  the  elements  of  law,  and  nobody 
ought  either  to  buy  or  own  a  horse  who  does  not  know 
something  about  the  animal.  That  something  this  book 
gives,  and  gives  in  a  thoroughly  excellent  way. ... 


SMITH.    (*)  "  A  Manual  of  Veterinary   Physiology."     By 

Vet.  Capt.  F.  Smith,  C.M,S.,  M.K.C.V.S.,  Examiner  in 
Physiology,  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons, 
author  of  "A  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene."  A, 
completely  revised  and  enlarged  edition  just  pub- 
lished. Cloth,  6x8  3-4,  720  pp,  102  illust'ns 4  25 

The  whole  book  has  been  carefully  revised  and 
brought  up  to  date.  All  the  important  advances  of  the 
last  few  years  have  been  embodied.  The  chapter  on 
the  nervous  system  has  been  specially  revised  by  Prof. 
Sherrington,  whose  remarkable  work  on  the  "spinal 
dog "  has  been  introduced.  A  special  point  is  made 
of  the  bearing  of  physiology  on  pathology,  and  the 
utilization  of  physiology  to  the  better  understanding  of 
every-day  practice.  The  book  is  written  by  a  veterin- 
ary surgeon  for  veterinary  practitioners  and  students, 
and  is  the  only  work  in  the  English  language  which 
can  claim  to  be  purely  veterinary. 

—  (*)"  Manual  of  Veterinary  Hygiene."  Third  edition  revised. 
Cloth,  size  51-4x7  1-2,  xx  +  1036  pages,  with  255 
illustrations 4  75 

Kecognizing  the  rapid  advance  and  extended  field 
of  the  subject  since  the  previous  issue,  the  author 
has  entirely  re-written  the  work  and  enlarged  its 
scope,  whi«h  is  brought  thoroughly  up  to  date.  Con- 
tains over  500  more  pages  than  the  second  edition. 

8TRANGEWAY.  (*)" Veterinary  Anatomy."  Edited  by 
I.  Vaughan,  F.L.S.,  M.E.C.V.S.  New  13th  American 
edition  revised.  Cloth,  size  61-4x9  1-2,  625  pages, 
224  illus 5  00 

SUSSDORF.    " Six  Large  Colored  Wall  Diagrams."    By 

Prof.  Sussdorf,  M.D.  (of  Gottingen).  Text  translated 
by  Prof.  W.  Owen  Williams,  of  the  New  Veterinary 
College,  Edinburgh.  Size,  44  inches  by  30  inches. 

1.— Horse.  4.— Ox. 

2.— Mare.  5. — Boar  and  Sow. 

3.— Cow.                       6.— Dog  and  Bitch. 
The  above  are  printed  in  eight  or  nine  colors. 
Showing  the   position  «f   the   viscera  in  the  large 
cavities  of  the  body. 
Price,  unmounted 1  75  each 

"      mounted  on  linen,  with  roller 3  50    " 

VAN  MATER.  "  A  Text  Book  of  Veterinary  Oph- 
thalmology."  By  George  G.  Van  Mater,  M.D., 
D.V.S.,  Professor  of  Ophthalmology  in  the  American 
Veterinary  College ;  Oculist  and  Aurist  to  St.  Martha's 
Sanitarium  arid  Dispensary;  Consulting  Eye  and  Ear 
Surgeon  to  the  Twenty-sixth  Ward  Dispensary ;  Eye 
and  Ear  Surgeon,  Brooklyn  Eastern  District  Dispen- 
sary, etc.  Illustrated  by  one  chromo  lithograph  plate 
and  71  engravings.  Cloth,  6x9  1-4,  151  pages... 3  00 


DIAGRAMS      in     Tabular      Form. 

Size,  28£  in.  x  22  inches.    Price  per  set  of  five 4  00 

Mounted  and  folded  in  case 7  ttO 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 10  00 

No.  1.  "The  External  Form  and  Elementary  Ana- 
tomy of  the  Horse."  Eight  colored  illustrations — 
1.  External  regions ;  2.  Skeleton ;  3.  Muscles  (Superior 
Layer) ;  4.  Muscles  (Deep  Layer) ;  5.  Respiratory  Ap- 
paratus; 6.  Digestive  Apparatus ;  7.  Circulatory  Ap- 
paratus ;  8.  Nerve  Apparatus ;  with  description 1  25 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  25 

No.  2.  "The  Age  of  Domestic  Animals."  Forty-two 
figures  illustrating  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  indicat- 
ing the  Age  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Dog,  with 

full  description 75 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  00 

No.  3.    «•  The  Unsoundness  and  Defects  of  the  Horse." 

Fifty  figures  illustrating— 1.  The  Defects  of  Confor- 
mation; 2.  Defects  of  Position;  3.  Infirmities  or  Signs 
of  Disease ;  4.  Unsoundnesses ;  5.  Defects  of  the  Foot ; 

with  full  description 75 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  00 

No.  4.    "The  Shoeing  of  the  Horse,  Mule  and  Ox." 

Fifty  figures  descriptive  of  the  Anatomy  and  Physio- 
logy of  the  Foot  and  of  Horse-shoeing 76 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  00 

No.  5.  "The  Elementary  Anatomy,  Points,  and  But- 
cher's Joints  of  the  Ox."  Ten  colored  illustrations 
—1.  Skeleton;  2.  Nervous  System:  3.  Digestive 
System  (Eight  Side) ;  4.  Respiratory  System  ;  6.  Points 
of  a  Fat  Ox ;  6.  Muscular  System ;  7.  Vascular  System ; 
8.  Digestive  System  (Left  Side) ;  9.  Butcher's  Sections 
of  a  Calf ;  10.  Butcher's  Sections  of  an  Ox ;  with  full 

description 1  25 

Mounted  on  roller  and  varnished 2  25 

'WALLET.    "A  Practical  Guide  to  Meat  Inspection."    By 

Thomas  Walley,  M.R.C.V.S.,  late  principal  of  the 
Edinburgh  Royal  (Dick)  Veterinary  College;  Pro- 
fessor of  Veterinary  Medicine  and  Surgery,  etc. 
Fourth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  enlarged 
by  Stewart  Stockman,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Professor  of 
Pathology,  Lecturer  on  Hygiene  arid  Meat  Inspection 
at  Dick  Veterinary  College,  Edinburgh.  Cloth,  size 
51-2x8  1-4,  with  45  colored  illus.,  295  pages 3  00 

WILCOX.  (*)"  Handbook  of  Meat  Inspection."  By  Robert 
Ostertag,  M.D.  See  "  Ostertag." 

WILLIAMS.  (*)  "Principles  and  Practice  of  Teterinary 
Medicine."  By  W.  Williams,  M.R.C.V.S.,  revised  by 
his  son,  W.  0.  Williams,  F.R.C  V.S.,  F.R.S.E.,  etc., 
and  S.  H.  Baldrey,  Major  I.C.V.D.,  F.R.C.V.S., 
D.V.H.  (Liv.)  Ninth  edition.  Cloth,  8vo,  1004  pp., 
25  colored  plates  and  88  other  illustrations 7  50 


WILLIAMS  (continued) 

—  *fc  Principles   and    Practice    of    Veterinary     Surgery." 

Author's  edition,  entirely  revised  and  illustrated 
with  numerous  plain  and  colored  plates.  By  W. 
Williams,  M.R.C.V.8.  Cloth,  size  61-2x9  1-4,  756 
pages 7  50 

WINSLOW.  (*)"The  Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Dis- 
eases of  the  Domestic  Animals,"  including  Etiology 
and  Symptoms.  By  Kenelm  Winslow.  B.A.S.,M.D.V., 
M.D.  (Harv.) ;  formerly  Instructor  in  Zoology,  Bussey 
Institute,  and  Assistant  Professor  of  Therapeutics  in 
the  Veterinary  School  of  Harvard  University  ;  Fellow 
of  the  Massachusetts  Medical  Society;  Surgeon  to  the 
Newton  Hospital,  etc.  Cloth,  size  61-4x9  1-2,  802 
pages,  frontispiece  in  color 3  50 

—  (f)  u  Veterinary  Mater ia  Medica  and  Therapeutics."    By 

Kenelm  Winslow. 

Sixth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged 

Cloth,  size  61-4x9  1-4,  xii  -f-  859  pages 6  00 

The  most  complete,  progressive  anil  scientific  book  on 
the  subject  in  the  English  language.  The  recognized 
authority  on  Veterinary  Materia  Medica  and  the  stan- 
dard text-book  on  the  subject  in  veterinary  colleges. 

—  (*)"The  Production  find  Handling- of  Clean  Milk,  including 

Practical  Milk  Inspection."  by  Kenelm  Winslow; 
and  Essentials  of  Milk  Bacteriology,  by  H.  W.  Hill, 
M.D.  Cloth,  61^  x  9%,  xiv  plus  367  pp,  lol  illustra- 
tions, including  1  colored  and  16  full  page  plates  3  25 
A  complete,  plain,  practical  and  authoritative 
guide  to  the  production,  inspection,  analysis,  hand- 
ling and  distribution  of  milk  for  veterinary, 
agricultural  and  dairy  students,  farmers,  health 
officers,  milk  inspectors,  practical  dairymen,  sani- 
tarians, country  gentlemen,  physicians  and  others 
interested  in  matters  pertaining  to  dairying  and 
hygiene. 

WYMAN.    (*)"  Bovine  Obstetrics."     By  M.  G.  De  Bruin. 
Translated  by    W.  E.  A.  Wyman.  M.D.V.,V.S. 
See  also  "  De  Bruin." 

—  (*)"  Catechism  of  the  Principles  of  Veterinary  Surgery. 

Bv  W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  M.D.V..V.S.  Cloth,  size  6x9, 
321  pages 3  50 

Concerning  this  new  work  attention  is  called  to  the 
following  points: 

1.— Itldisciisses  the  subject  upon  the  basis  of  veterinary  investigations. 

2.— It  does  away  with  works  on  human  pathology,  histology,  etc. 

3. — Itlexplains  each  question  thoroughly  both  from  a  scientific  as  well 

as  a  practical  point  of  view. 

4.— It  is  writen  by  one  knowing  the  needs  of  the  student. 
6.— It  deals  exhaustively  with  a  chapter  on  tumors,  heretofore  utterly 

neglected  in  veterinary  pathology. 
6. — The  only  work  in  English  specializing  the  subject. 
7.— The  only  work  thoroughly  taking  into  consideration  American  aa 

well  as  European  investigations. 
8.— Offering  practical  hints  which  have  not  appeared  in  print,  th« 

result  of  large  city  and  country  practice. 


WYMAN  (coniinued) 

—  (t)"The    Clinical  Diagnosis  of  Lameness  in  the  Horse." 

By  W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  D.V.S.,  formerly  Professor  of 
Veterinary  Science,  Clemson  A.  &  M.*  College,  and 
Veterinarian  to  the  South  Carolina  Experiment 
Station.  Cloth,  size  6x9  1-2,  182  pp.,  32  illus 2  50 

—  (f)"  Tibio-peroneal   Neurectomy  for  the  Relief  of  Spavin 

Lameness."    By  W.  E.  A.  Wyman,  M.D.V.,  V.S. 
Boards,  size  6  x  9,  30  pages,  illustrated 50 

Anyone  wanting  to  perform  this  operation  should  procure 
this  little  treatise;  he  will  find  it  of  considerable  help.— The 
Veterinary  Journal. 

ZUILL.  "Typhoid  Fever;  or  Contagious  Influenza 
in  the  Horse."  By  Prof.  W.  L.  Zuill,  M.D.,D.V.S. 
Pamphlet,  size  6x9  1-4,  29  pages 25 

ZUNDEL.      "The    Horse's   Foot   and   Its   Diseases."    By 

A.  Zundei,  Principal  Veterinarian  of  Alsaoe  Lorraine. 
Translated   by   Dr.   A.    Liautard,   V.S.       Cloth,   size- 
5x7  3-4,  248  pages,  illustrated 2  00 


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